Lecture 9: The Cytoskeleton and Cellular Movement 2023 PDF

Summary

This lecture discusses the cytoskeleton, including microfilaments and their role in cell movement, and various related concepts. The document also presents learning outcomes and illustrations related to the topic.

Full Transcript

Cell Form and Function 2023 Lecture 9: The Cytoskeleton and Cellular Movement. Ch13/14. Learning Outcomes List the major cytoskeletal macromolecules and compare their structures and assembly. Differentiate the role/s of the cytoskeletal protein...

Cell Form and Function 2023 Lecture 9: The Cytoskeleton and Cellular Movement. Ch13/14. Learning Outcomes List the major cytoskeletal macromolecules and compare their structures and assembly. Differentiate the role/s of the cytoskeletal proteins Explain how the cytoskeleton contributes to cell movement Interpret human disorders in terms of cytoskeletal defects. © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. Microfilaments § Microfilaments are involved in cell shape and movement § Interact with myosin - muscle contraction § Involved in cell migration, amoeboid movement, and cytoplasmic streaming § Development and maintenance of cell shape - cell cortex § Form the structural core of microvilli © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. Cytoplasmic streaming – generating currents? © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. Actin Is the Protein Building Block of Microfilaments § Actin found in all eukaryotic cells - folds into a globular-shaped molecule that can bind ATP or ADP (G-actin; globular actin) © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. G-actin monomers self-assemble into microfilaments § G-actin monomers can assemble reversibly into filaments with a lag phase and elongation phase, similar to tubulin assembly § F-actin filaments are composed of two linear strands of polymerized G-actin wound into a helix G-actin Self-assembly F-actin © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. § All the actin monomers in the filament have the same orientation (= polarity) ‘Pointed end’ ‘Barbed end’ © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. Specific Drugs Affect Polymerization of Microfilaments § Cytochalasins are fungal metabolites that prevent the addition of new monomers to existing MFs § Latrunculin A is a toxin that sequesters actin monomers and prevents their addition to MFs § Phalloidin stabilizes MFs and prevents their depolymerization © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. Cells Can Dynamically Assemble Actin into a Variety of Structures Bundles and Networks § The cell cortex, just beneath the plasma membrane, has actin crosslinked into a gel of microfilaments § Cells that adhere tightly to the underlying substratum have organized bundles called stress fibers © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. Lamellipodia and Filopodia § Cells that crawl have lamellipodia and filopodia at their leading edge, allowing them to move along a surface § Lamellipodia have a branched network of actin § In filopodia microfilaments form highly oriented, polarized cables with the actin plus ends toward the tip of the protrusion © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. Actin-Binding Proteins regulate the organization of actin § Cells use actin-binding proteins to precisely control where actin assembles and the structure of the resulting network § Control occurs at the nucleation, elongation, and severing of MFs and at the association of MFs into networks © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. Proteins That Bundle Actin Filaments § Actin may be bundled into tightly organized arrays, in filipodia (also focal contacts or focal adhesions) § α-Actinin is a protein that is prominent in such structures § Fascin/Fimbrin in filopodia keeps the actin tightly bundled © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. Protrusions from cell surface - Microvilli § Actin bundles in microvilli are good examples of ordered actin structures § Microvilli are prominent features of intestinal mucosal cells © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. e.g. fimbrin, a-actinin e.g. calmodulin and myosinI © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. Forming Actin Networks Which end faces the membrane? © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. Proteins That Link Actin to Membranes § MFs are connected to the plasma membrane and exert force on it § This (indirect) connection to the membrane requires one or more linking proteins – e.g.spectrin and ankyrin © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. Actin – Membrane interaction Endocytosis © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. Actin – Membrane interaction Actin filaments indirectly connect to extracellular surfaces via transmembrane proteins. © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. Actin – membrane interactions allow cell response to mechanical forces. © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. Intermediate Filaments § Intermediate filaments (IFs) are not found in cytosol of plant cells but are abundant in many animal cells § IFs are the most stable and least soluble components of the cytoskeleton § They likely support the entire cytoskeleton © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. Intermediate Filament Proteins Are Tissue Specific § IFs differ greatly in amino acid composition from tissue to tissue § They are grouped into six classes – I – VI An abundant IF is keratin (class I, II) an important component of structures that grow from skin in animals § Animal cells can be distinguished based on the types of IF proteins they contain—a technique known as intermediate filament typing © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. § Class I: acidic keratins § Class II: basic or neutral keratins Proteins of classes I and II make up the keratins found in epithelial surfaces covering the body and lining its cavities § Class III: includes vimentin (connective tissue), desmin (muscle cells), and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) (glial cells) § Class IV: the neurofilament proteins found in neurofilaments of nerve cells © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. Do not need to know classes § Class V: includes the nuclear lamins A, B, and C that form a network along the inner surface of the nuclear membrane § Class VI: nestin, the substance that makes up the neurofilaments in nerve cells of embryos © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. Neurofilament (light chain) found in CSF/blood is a marker of axonal degeneration Sport Cardiovascular Ageing risk factors CNS/PNS damage Neurosurgery © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. Intermediate Filaments assemble from fibrous subunits § The fundamental subunits of IF proteins are dimers § IF proteins are fibrous rather than globular § Each has a long central rodlike domain § Flanking the central helical domain are N- and C- terminal domains that differ greatly among IF proteins © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. Intermediate Filaments Confer Mechanical Strength on Tissues § Intermediate filaments are thought to play a tension-bearing role § IFs are less susceptible to chemical attack than are MTs and microfilaments © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. The Cytoskeleton Is a Mechanically Integrated Structure § Microtubules resist bending when a cell is compressed § Microfilaments serve as contractile elements that generate tension § Intermediate filaments are elastic and can withstand tensile forces © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. Integration of Cytoskeletal Elements § Linker proteins connect intermediate filaments, microfilaments, and microtubules § Create an integrated cytoskeletal network © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. The Cytoskeleton is important for movement § Cell motility involves § Movement of a cell through the environment § Movement of the environment past or through a cell § Movement of components in the cell § Contractility, used to describe shortening of muscle cells, is a specialized form of motility © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. Two Eukaryotic Motility Systems 1. Microtubule-based motility § Examples: fast axonal transport in neurons; the sliding of MTs in cilia and flagella 2. Microfilament-based motility § Example: muscle contraction © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. 1. Microtubule-Based Motility: Cilia and Flagella § Microtubules are crucial for movements of cilia and flagella, the motile appendages of eukaryotic cells § Cilia are about 2–10 μm long and occur in large numbers on the surface of ciliated cells § They occur in both unicellular and multicellular eukaryotes § Cilia display an oarlike pattern of beating, generating a force parallel to the cell surface © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. Cilia and Flagella § Flagella move cells through a fluid environment § They are the same diameter as cilia, but usually much longer (up to 200 μm) § They are limited to one or a few per cell and move with a propagated bending motion, which generates a force parallel to the flagellum © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. Cilia and Flagella consist of an axoneme connected to a basal body § Cilia and flagella share a common structure, the axoneme § Axonemes have a characteristic “9 + 2” MT pattern, with 9 outer doublets and 2 MTs in the center, the central pair © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. Structure of Cilia and Flagella § Each outer doublet of the axoneme consists of one complete MT (the A tubule) and one incomplete MT (the B tubule) § The tubules of the central pair are both complete § Each A tubule has a set of sidearms that project from each of the outer doublets, these contain dynein © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. Doublet Sliding Within the Axoneme Causes Cilia and Flagella to Bend § Adjacent outer doublets slide relative to one another. Similar dynein arms (radial spokes) move against central pair – translates sliding motion to bending of cilia/flagella. © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. Primary Cilia § Primary cilium is a long, thin organelle found on nearly all cells - common on apical surface of epithelial cells. § Primary cilia are important in development; role in embryonic patterning and organogenesis - defects in them can result in disorders such as deafness and left-right asymmetry reversals = ciliopathies § Important in sensing and responding to external stimuli – cell’s antenna. © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. § Primary cilia have a “9 + 0” axoneme structure; that is, they lack the central pair – they do not move. © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. Genes Genes associated associated with with function ciliogenesis Genes associated with specific ciliated cell – the photoreceptor of the retina. eg. RPE65 © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. § Loss of dynein → primary cilia dyskinesia § E.g Kartagener syndrome – infertility, respiratory problems, high chance of situs inversus totalis © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. 2. Microfilament-Based Movement Inside Cells: Myosins § ATP-dependent motors, the large superfamily called myosins, interact with and exert force on actin microfilaments § Myosins function in a wide range of cellular events, including § Muscle contraction, Cell movement, Phagocytosis, Vesicle transport © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. Type II Myosins § The basic function of myosin II is to pull arrays of actin filaments together, resulting in contraction of a cell or group of cells § Resembles kinesin - both have globular domains that walk along a protein filament, and both use ATP hydrolysis to change their shape © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. Kinesins Versus Myosin § Kinesins operate alone or in small numbers to transport vesicles over large differences § A single myosin II molecule slides an actin filament about 12–15 nm § Myosin II molecules move short distances but operate in large arrays, in some cases billions of motors working together to mediate muscle contraction © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. A. Microfilament-Based Motility: Muscle Cells in Action § Muscle contraction is the most familiar example of mechanical work mediated by intracellular filaments § A muscle consists of parallel muscle fibers - each fiber is a long, thin, highly specialized, multinucleate cell § Each muscle fiber contains numerous myofibrils, each of which is divided along its length into repeating units called sarcomeres © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. + ends of actin § Myosin II moves toward the plus ends, so the thick filaments move toward the Z lines during contraction (filaments remain same length) © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. The Sliding-Filament Model Explains Muscle Contraction § The sliding filament model - muscle contraction is due to thin filaments sliding past thick filaments, with no change in length of either § Cross-bridges are formed between the F-actin of thin filaments and myosin heads of thick filaments. Dissociate rapidly - requires lots of ATP. § The result is shortening of sarcomeres and muscle fiber contraction © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. B. Microfilament-Based Motility in Nonmuscle Cells § Actin and myosin have been discovered in nearly all eukaryotic cells § Many cells are capable of crawling over a substrate using lamellipodia and/or filopodia § Cell crawling involves distinct events: extension of a protrusion, attachment to substrate, and generation of tension, which pulls the cell forward © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. Shortening of actin filaments © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. Chemotaxis Is a Directional Movement in Response to a Graded Chemical Stimulus § Directional migration occurs through the formation of protrusions predominantly on one side of a cell § Diffusible molecules can act as cues for directional migration; when a cell moves in response to a chemical gradient, it is called chemotaxis § Increasing the local concentration of a chemoattractant results in dramatic changes in the actin cytoskeleton (eg. cell movement to inflammation site) © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

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