Lecture 3 2023 Aggression - Macquarie University PDF

8/08/2023 Macquarie copyright statement PSYU/X3399 Psychological Science: Putting Theory Into Practice This material is provided to you as a Macquarie University student for your individual research and study purposes only. You cannot share this material publicly online without permission. Macquar...

8/08/2023 Macquarie copyright statement PSYU/X3399 Psychological Science: Putting Theory Into Practice This material is provided to you as a Macquarie University student for your individual research and study purposes only. You cannot share this material publicly online without permission. Macquarie University is the copyright owner of (or has licence to use) the intellectual property in this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. LECTURE 3: HUMAN AGGRESSION Wayne Warburton 1 2 Aggression • Aggression is a part of everyday life (though rarely a pleasant one). • It is found in homes, the sporting field, seats of power and corporate boardrooms …. The list is long. • And whether or not someone gets physically hurt, aggressive behaviour comes with its own language that gets the message across: I want to hurt you. 3 Junior Rugby League in Australia: Aug. 2013 Story here 4 Integration of knowledge (C) Wayne Warburton 2023. This material is provided to you as a Macquarie University student for your individual research and study purposes only. You cannot share this material publicly online without permission. Macquarie University is the copyright owner of (or has licence to use) the 5 intellectual property in this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. • Aggression is something we have all seen in various forms and various settings. • It underlies numerous social issues such as family violence, war and societal violence. • There is also a huge research base across numerous psychology sub-disciplines, so it is a great issue to examine integratively. • Today we will examine 14 psychology subdisciplines and look at what they can tell us about aggressive behaviour 6 1 8/08/2023 What is aggression? What is violence? • " any behaviour directed toward another individual that is carried out with the proximate (immediate) intent to cause harm.“ (Anderson & Bushman, 2002) • To rule out consensual harm (e.g., dentistry, sado-masochistic sex) another proviso is usually added: • “The target must be motivated to avoid the behaviour.“ • Violence is aggression that has extreme harm as its goal (e.g. severe injury or death). • All violence is aggression (but not all aggression is violence) • See Tarabay and Warburton in The Conversation https://theconversation.com/anger-aggression-andviolence-it-matters-that-we-know-the-difference-82918 and on the ISRA website http://www.israsociety.com/blog/anger-aggressionand-violence-it-matters-that-we-know-the-difference 7 8 Sub-disciplines Will address in alphabetic order • • • • Animal behaviour Clinical psychology Cognition Developmental psychology • Emotion • Evolutionary psychology • Health psychology Animal Behaviour • Learning and behaviour • Neuro/biopsychology • Organisational psychology • Perception • Personality psychology • Psychology of relationships • Social psychology 9 • Gender differences (Archer, 1988) • Male animals more aggressive, more likely to attack, more likely to fight • Lorenz, 1966; Elbesfeldt, 1979 • The Hydraulic Hypothesis • The energy model 10 Konrad Lorenz (C) Wayne Warburton 2023. This material is provided to you as a Macquarie University student for your individual research and study purposes only. You cannot share this material publicly online without permission. Macquarie University is the copyright owner of (or has licence to use) the 11 intellectual property in this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. 12 2 8/08/2023 Lorenz • Aggression instinctual • Not caused by the environment – rather it is ‘released’ or ‘unlocked’ in certain circumstances • Instinctual aggression then ‘pushes out’ • Needs to be ‘released’ regularly or aggression becomes pent up • e.g., male doves prevented from courting and mating have an excess of ‘pent up’ energy 13 14 Lorenz Clinical psychology aggression = hey features in the following disorders • Basis for catharsis hypothesis (now disproven for aggression) • Lack of empirical support both in humans and animals • Many exceptions in animal research • DSM-V 15 • Anti-social, Narcissistic, Borderline, Paranoid personality disorders • Conduct Disorder in children • Addiction, esp: alcohol, amphetamines, ice • Paranoia, delusions, psychosis • Sadism, masochism 16 Clinical psychology Cognitive psychology • DSM-V • Neural networks and information processing • Leonard Berkowitz, Rowell Huesmann, Ken Dodge • Intermittent explosive disorder • Adjustment disorder with conduct (C) Wayne Warburton disturbance 2023. This material is • Problems related to abuse or neglect provided to you as a Macquarie University • Conflict management, anger management, student for counselling your individual research and for aggression study purposes only. You cannot share • Therapeutic interventions for DV, this anger, aggression, violence material publicly online without permission. • Integration of therapeutic approaches where Macquarie University is the (e.g., copyright issues are complex DV) owner of (or has licence to use) the 17 intellectual property in this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. 18 3 8/08/2023 Rowell Huesmann ISRA 2010 Len Berkowitz, ISRA conference. Sadly, Len passed away in January 2016 19 20 Pathways in the brain When we experience something, a part of the brain is set aside to recognise it again. Children and media conference 2010 Craig Anderson 2nd from right; Rowell Huesmann 3rd, Ed Donnerstein middle 21 If other things happen at the same time, links are established . 22 Pathways in the brain If those things happen together again, the link stronger 2023. Waynebecomes Warburton (C) This material is provided to you as a Macquarie University student for your individual research and study purposes only. You cannot share this material publicly online without permission. Macquarie University is the copyright owner of (or has licence to use) the 23 intellectual property in this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. . Pathways in the brain If those things happen together a lot, the pathway becomes much stronger AND activating one thing activates the other . 24 4 8/08/2023 Neural networks Neural networks For example, the more aggression and violence we experience, the greater the number of nodes and the strength of the connections 25 26 pa#ern becomes strong and dominates behaviour Neural networks Driving If the same sequence of events plays out often enough, either in real life, or vicariously through: - seeing it in real life - seeing it in the media - playing it on a video game - etc. Then it becomes like a script that plays out the same way whenever it is triggered 27 Feel Hurt Pleasure Frustration Blood Rose Smell Fear Anger Hide Red Gun Flower Shame Shout Swear Shoot Retaliate 28 Cognitive Neo-Association Theory Assumes that memories, emotions, thoughts and plans for action are linked together in Warburton 2023. This material is the brain.in just this way (C) Wayne provided to you as a Macquarie University See Berkowitz, 1990; 1993 and student for your individual research study purposes only. You cannot share this material publicly online without permission. Macquarie University is the copyright owner of (or has licence to use) the 29 intellectual property in this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. Cognitive Neo-Association Theory • When one part of this network is activated (e.g., the part of the brain that registers frustration), the linked parts (such as the parts that register anger, contain the concepts of various swear words, or store memories of other frustrations), also become activated. • The parts that are most strongly activated are the parts that will have the greatest influence on that person’s eventual actions. 30 5 8/08/2023 Cognitive Neo-Association Theory Cognitive Neo-Association Theory • Unpleasant or threatening situations (e.g., frustration, provocation, perceived threats, loud noises etc.), arouse negative feelings • These in turn stimulate various thoughts, memories and physiological responses associated with both fight tendencies and flight tendencies • Fight tendencies  anger • Flight tendencies  fear • Depending on the nature of the situation and the prior experiences and personality of the person, one tendency will come to dominate the other. 31 • If anger/fight tendencies dominate, the types of thoughts, feelings and plans for action that are most strongly activated will usually increase the likelihood of an aggressive response. 32 Script Theory • Researchers like Rowell Huesmann (1986, 1998) take this approach a step further and talk about aggressive episodes running like a movie script. • When a situation is very familiar we tend to play things out in a similar way most times until the response becomes automatic whenever that situation arises (domestic violence can occur in this way) 33 Developmental Psychology • Development of aggression over the lifespan • Leonard Eron, Rowell Huesmann, Eric Dubow, Paul Boxer, Ken Dodge, Richard Tremblay. Farrington, Olweus, Kaj Bjorkvist 34 Kaj Bjorkvist (C) Wayne Warburton 2023. This material is provided to you as a Macquarie University student for your individual research and study purposes only. You cannot share this material publicly online without permission. MacquarieEricUniversity is the copyright Dubow (Editor of Developmental Psychology, at ISRA 2012 owner of (or has licence to use) the 35 intellectual property in this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. 36 6 8/08/2023 Developmental Psychology • Many large longitudinal studies, analyses of trajectories • Peaks in toddler years (2-3 yrs) • Declines with age and conflict/relationship strategies • Physical aggression replaced with forms that have fewer consequences such as verbal and relational aggression 37 Developmental Psychology • Some people are more habitually aggressive than others • Constancy of trait aggression across lifespan • May decline with age, but usually higher compared to peers • Influence of parents, media, environment • Gene-environment interactions (epigene'cs) • Hostile attributional bias 38 Emotion • Anger and aggression • Ray Novaco, Eddie Harmon-Jones (UNSW), Brad Bushman, Sandra Paivio, Leslie Greenberg • Shame and aggression • Helen Block Lewis; June Tangney, Wayne Warburton • Humiliation and aggression • Jealousy and aggression (see evolution) • Frustration-Aggression hypothesis 39 Ray Novaco ISRA 2006 40 Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis • Dollard et al (1938): (C) Wayne Warburton 2023. This material is provided to you as a Macquarie University student for your individual research and study purposes only. You cannot share this material publicly online without permission. Macquarie University is the copyright Brad Bushman, ISRA 2012 owner of (or has licence to use) the 41 intellectual property in this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. • Built on Freud’s ideas about frustration in the pursuit of pleasure • When blocked from attaining a goal frustration ensues. • All frustration leads to aggression • All instances of aggression can be traced back to frustration • Clearly not always true (but often is) • Reworked by Berkowitz 1989 42 7 8/08/2023 Evolutionary psychology Dollard • Aggression ‘hard wired’, instinctual • Strong links with animal work • Lorenz, Higley’s primate work • Reproductive success, survival of the fittest • Coopting resources of others • Defending against attack • Inflicting costs on same sex rivals • Status and power hierarchies • Deterring rivals • Deterring infidelity (Buss & Shackleford, 1997) 43 44 Health psychology Learning theories • Particularly concerned with links between physical health and psychological phenomena • Hugely influential • Explain both the acquisition and the maintenance of aggressive behaviour • Aggression is often learned: rewarded or no response = • Classical conditioning do it more • Instrumental learning punishment = do it less • Aggressive individuals are at increased risk of poor health, early mortality, mental health problems, and decreased life satisfaction. (e.g., Denson et al 2008). •Reward aggression, punish nonaggression (subtle or obvious) •Can be vicarious (seen at home or on TV) • Injury, recovery, trauma related to being a victim of aggression/violence 45 • Social learning 46 Albert Bandura (C) Wayne Warburton 2023. This material is provided to you as a Macquarie University student for your individual research and study purposes only. You cannot share this material publicly online without permission. One of the greatest is everthe researchers in psychology, Albert Bandura Macquarie University copyright sadly passed away in July 2021 owner of (or has licence to use) the 47 intellectual property in this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. Social Learning Theory • Albert Bandura’s (1973, 1983) social learning theory suggests that people acquire aggressive tendencies through direct experience (aggressive behaviour has brought them rewards in the past) or through observing and copying the behaviour of aggressive role models. • Bobo doll experiments 48 8 8/08/2023 Social learning Social Learning Theory • Children in Bandura’s studies were exposed to social models who demonstrated either novel violent or non-violent behaviours toward the Bobo dolls. • More likely to copy aggressive models: • Who are respected or liked or high status • Who are familiar or similar • Children who viewed violent models subsequently displayed the novel forms of aggression toward the Bobo doll whereas control children rarely, if ever, did so. • Who are rewarded for their behaviours • If we have self-efficacy for aggression • Imitation seems to be hard-wired from birth and to continue through the life span • These results revealed the occurrence of observational learning in the absence of reinforcement to the observers 49 50 Learning theories Neurological/biological approaches • Underpin other approaches • Neural networks include learned concepts and are developed through experience • Information processing is about learned patterns of responding • Scripts for behaviour are learned • What we learn shapes development • Genes affect us depending on environment 51 • Genetics • Epi-genetics: Gene-environment interactions • Stephen Maxson: 16, perhaps 17 genes are linked with aggressive behaviour • Never direct – usually in conjunction with a particular type of environment or predisposition (e.g., impulsivity) that enhances the likelihood of aggression • Polymorphism in the promoter of the MAOA gene (interacting with child maltreatment) • Variation in serotonin transporter gene 52 Neurotransmitters linked with aggression • Serotonin deficits linked to aggression • Serotonin linked with impulse control; (C) Wayne Warburton 2023. This material is low serotonin poorer impulse control provided to you as alevels Macquarie • Hi GABA in rodentsUniversity linked with little human data and student for aggression; your individual research • Dopamine with ADHD, impulsivity study purposes only.levels You cannot share this • Impulsivity then linked with aggression material publicly online without permission. Macquarie University is the copyright owner of (or has licence to use) the 53 intellectual property in this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. Hormones linked with aggression • High testosterone linked to aggression • Especially when also low cortisol, serotonin • See Montoya et al 2012 • Low cortisol, low oxytocin • But some paradoxical effects with oxytocin • Low oestrogen, progesterone • Some evidence, findings mixed 54 9 8/08/2023 Biological approaches Different brain structures • Accelerator: Activation of Limbic System (‘old’ part of brain; primitive instincts and survival) • especially in Amygdala (emotion centre) • Brake: Poor function or damage to the frontal lobes (impulse control, emotion management, self-control, consideration of consequences) • Structural and functional deficits in • Orbitofrontal cortex (mostly RH) • Anterior Cingulate Cortex (Mostly RH) • Dorsolateral Prefrontal cortex (LH) 55 Biological approaches Attentuation of the stress system; underarousal (Susman, 2006; Adrian Raine) Increased aggression is associated with: • Lower resting heart rate (even at age 3!) • Under-arousal of both the central nervous system and autonomic nervous system • Lower electrodermal, cardiovascular, and cortical (i.e., EEG) arousal • Low basal cortisol (stress hormone) levels 56 Organisational Psychology Arousal and excitation transfer • • • • • Looks at interplay between people’s thoughts and their levels of physiological arousal. • In 1962, Schachter and Singer injected people with adrenalin (  arousal) then exposed them to actors either being silly or showing anger. Bullying in the workplace Workplace aggression Indirect aggression Dominance and status • Anger or euphoria response depending on their cognitive appraisal of the cause • Zillman: excitation transfer aggression transfers onto others 57 58 Personality approaches Perception • Role of what we see, hear, feel • Cues for fight or flight mechanisms, peripheral vision Wayne• Warburton 2023. This material Noise, heat and aggression (C) is provided to you as a Macquarie University student for your individual research and study purposes only. You cannot share this material publicly online without permission. Macquarie University is the copyright owner of (or has licence to use) the 59 intellectual property in this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. • Aggressive drive: Sigmund Freud • every person has innate aggressive and sexual drives that provide much of the energy that pushes them forward in life*. • Thanatos; death wish • BUT: The more advanced the animal, the more able it is to inhibit aggressive urges. * see Freud, S. (1930). Civilisation and its discontents. 60 10 8/08/2023 Personality Personality • • • • • • Big 5 Trait aggression, Trait Anger, Trait Irritability Impulsivity Trait anger Emotional susceptibility Callous and unemotional traits • Psychopathy • Machiavellianism • Narcissism, both overt and covert • Shame proneness • Rumination (low dissipation) 61 • Low agreeableness (Straightforwardness, compliance, altruism) • Low conscientiousness (deliberation) • High neuroticism (angry hostility) • Low extraversion (warmth) • Big 6 (HEXACO) Lee & Ashton (2004) • Low Honesty/humility 62 Relationship Psychology Personality • What can be part of our stable personality? • Anderson, Sedikides and others suggest that learned material becomes part of our personality (i.e., not just traits) • Schemas (knowledge structures), scripts, expectancies, beliefs, attitudes • Linked together within neural network, linked to related feelings and memories and action tendencies. 63 • • • • • • • Indirect aggression and relational aggression DV Child abuse Power and dominance Jealousy Overlap with evolutionary psychology Relational schemas 64 Social Psychology Social Interaction Theory • Aggression elicited by the situation rather than the personality • Cognitive dissonance theory (C) Wayne• Warburton 2023. This material is Social cognition provided to you as a Macquarie University • Schemas, scripts, knowledge structures student for your individual research and • Learned social behaviours • Triggers study purposes only. and Youcues cannot share this • Media effectswithout permission. material publicly online • Automaticity, priming Macquarie University is the copyright owner of (or has licence to use) the 65 intellectual property in this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. • Tedeschi & Felson, 1994 • Portrays aggression as a way of achieving desired goals. Very instrumental approach. • These goals may include: • obtaining something of value, • getting revenge, or • putting forward a desired image (such as being tough or competent). 66 11 8/08/2023 The General Aggression Model The General Aggression Model • Craig Anderson and Brad Bushman have put together a model that incorporates these last five theories into a General Aggression Model (GAM). Other approaches can also fit. • In this theory, an episode of aggression firstly depends on the nature of the situation (the aspects of the situation that can trigger aggression) and what the person brings to it (the beliefs, personality factors, memories etc. that increase their readiness to aggress in that situation). 67 • Whether or not someone responds to a situation with aggression depends firstly on the nature of the thoughts, feelings and physiological responses that are aroused, and then on how much that person thinks through their response 68 Craig Anderson Person Variables Situation Variables Increase or decrease the readiness to aggress Provide the stimulus for aggressive responses Cognitions Accessible Affects Arousal Scripts, beliefs, attitudes, biases Negative feelings: anger, hostility, fear, shame Physiological (pulse,BP) stress,anxiety Immediate Appraisal Reappraisal Instrumental response Yes Resources Enough time and cognitive capacity for controlled response? Thoughtful Action Cont rolled evaluation Automatic, spontaneous Yes Is the automatic response bot h important and undesirable ? No No Impulsive Action Aggressive Response Reactive response Figure 1: A schematic of the General Aggression Model. This version was synthesised from the models and descriptions presented by Anderson & Bushman, 2002, and Anderson & Dill, 2000. 69 70 GAM Inputs – Situational factors GAM Inputs – Person Inputs • Evolutionary factors and drives • Biological factors; genetic predispositions • Personality (including schemas etc.) (C) Wayne• Warburton 2023. This Attitudes, materialScripts is Cognitive factors: Beliefs, provided to you as atendencies; Macquarie University • Emotional temperament student for• Gender your individual research and • Perceptions study purposes only. You cannot share this • Affect our readiness to respond to a material publicly online without permission. situation with aggressiveness Macquarie University is the copyright owner of (or has licence to use) the 71 intellectual property in this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. • • • • • Aggressive Cues Provocation Frustration Pain Drugs • Triggers 72 12 8/08/2023 GAM Routes – Cognitions GAM Routes – Affects • Activation of hostile thoughts, schemas, scripts, beliefs, attributions. • For example, the activation of a hostile attributional bias • Mood and emotion Activation of feelings of anger, hostility, shame, humiliation etc. • • • • • Expressive motor responses (evolved) Are automatic physiological reactions that occur in conjunction with specific emotions, usually involving changes to facial expressions. Learning theory; Social learning theory Script theory Cognitive neo-association theory Social cognition 73 74 Outcomes – Immediate Appraisal GAM routes – Arousal • Complicated - Some types of arousal reduce heart rate, sweating, BP etc. whilst others increase it. • Under-researched. • Energises and strengthens the tendency to act. • Excitation transfer. 75 • Influenced strongly by present internal state • Automatic, effortless, spontaneous, unaware. May lead to automatic response (drives, evolution, CNT, emotion, biological, clinical) • If resources are sufficient (the person has enough time to make a considered response and the cognitive capacity is available) AND • If the immediate appraisal outcome (automatic response) is both important and unsatisfying, then the person will engage in a more effortful set of reappraisals. 76 GAM Outcomes – Re-appraisal A final word • All of these approaches overlap • Social psychology, the dominant aggression research discipline, uses methods and ideas from almost all other sub-disciplines • Integrated models try to incorporate as many approaches as possible • Complete model simply not possible • Search for an alternative view of the situation. • Can involve many cycles of considering past experiences, possible causes for the event, relevant (C) Wayne memories, Warburton 2023.deeper This into material is of and delving the features the current situation. provided to you as a Macquarie University • Many alternatives might be considered and student fordiscarded your individual research and • Eventually the You cycling process share ceases and study purposes only. cannot thisa course of thoughtful action takes place. material publicly online without permission. Macquarie University is the copyright owner of (or has licence to use) the 77 intellectual property in this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. 78 13 8/08/2023 The End Photograph: Graham Weule 79 (C) Wayne Warburton 2023. This material is provided to you as a Macquarie University student for your individual research and study purposes only. You cannot share this material publicly online without permission. Macquarie University is the copyright owner of (or has licence to use) the intellectual property in this material. Legal and/or disciplinary actions may be taken if this material is shared without the University’s written permission. 14