Lecture 2: Water as a Universal Solvent (PHM 10202)

PHM 10202 BIOCHEMISTRY LECTURE 2 WATER AS UNIVERSAL SOLVENT By: ChM. Dr. Norsyafikah Asyilla Nordin Learning Outcomes 2 Describe the molecular structure of water Discuss the properties of wate...

PHM 10202 BIOCHEMISTRY LECTURE 2 WATER AS UNIVERSAL SOLVENT By: ChM. Dr. Norsyafikah Asyilla Nordin Learning Outcomes 2 Describe the molecular structure of water Discuss the properties of water Explain the importance of water WATER: THE MEDIUM OF LIFE ▪Water is a polar molecule. ▪Water molecules have polar covalent bonds, characterized by an uneven distribution of electrons. ▪A molecule like water that has regions of positive and negative charge is called a polar molecule ▪Water molecule is made of “covalent” bonds, while water molecules bind each other with “hydrogen” bonds.  Water molecules possess polar, covalent bonds Due to large electronegative difference: oxygen atom (highly electronegative), hydrogen atom (less electronegative) Shared atoms: O become partially electronegative, H become partially electropositive Each water molecule has hydrogen bonds to 4 other water molecules (tetrahedral bonding patterns) ▪ Molecules, or even different regions of the same molecule, fall into two general classes, depending on how they interact with water: hydrophilic ("water loving") hydrophobic ("water fearing") ▪ Water Forms Hydrogen Bonds with Polar Solutes ▪ Hydrogen bonds readily form between an electronegative atom (usually O and N) and a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to another electronegative atom. ▪ Given the similar electronegativity of hydrogen and carbon, H atoms covalently bonded to carbon atoms (i.e., C-H, almost non-polar) do not participate in hydrogen bonding. ▪ This is why n-butanol (CH 3 (CH2 )2CH2OH) has a relatively high boiling point of 117 °C, whereas butane (CH3 (CH2 )2CH3) has a boiling point of only 0.5 °C. ▪ Butanol has a polar hydroxyl group and thus can form intermolecular hydrogen bonds ▪ Uncharged but polar biomolecules (e.g., sugars) dissolve readily in water because of the stabilising effect of hydrogen bonds between the hydroxyl groups or carbonyl oxygen of the sugar and the polar water molecules. ▪ Alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, and compounds containing N-H bonds all form hydrogen bonds with water molecules and tend to be soluble in water. PROPERTIES OF WATER 1. A universal solvent 2. The highest heat capacity, conduction of heat, and heat of vaporization 3. The highest surface tension of all liquids 4. The only substance occurring naturally in all three phases: solid, liquid, and gas 5. Water is the medium for bioactivity 1. WATER IS A UNIVERSAL SOLVENT Water is an excellent solvent It dissolves more substances than any other liquid. This is due to polarity of each water molecule. This helps water dissociate ionic compounds into their positive and negative ions. 2. WATER HAS THE HIGHEST HEAT CAPACITY, CONDUCTION OF HEAT, AND HEAT OF VAPORIZATION Temperature is a measure of the motion (kinetic energy) of molecules. As the motion increases, energy is higher and thus temperature is higher. Water absorbs a great deal of energy before its temperature rises. The hydrogen bonds in water allow it to absorb and release heat energy more slowly than many other substances. Despite its small molecular weight, water has an incredibly big boiling point. This is because water requires more energy to break its hydrogen bonds before it can then begin to boil. The same concept applies to freezing point. It is this function of water that why organisms moderate a relatively stable body temperature when the temperature in the environment rises and falls. A COMPARISON..  3. WATER HAS THE HIGHEST SURFACE TENSION OF ALL LIQUIDS Water molecules are very cohesive (attracting each other) because of the molecule's polarity. This is why you can fill a glass of water just barely above the rim without it spilling or a drop of water can flow over a glass window without breaking. The cohesive forces are also related to the water’s property of adhesion, or the attraction between water molecules and other molecules. Cohesive and adhesive forces are important for sustaining life. For example, because of these forces, water can flow up from the roots to the tops of plants to feed the plant. COHESION ▪Because water is a polar molecule, it is attracted to itself. ▪Cohesion – is the attractive force between water molecules. H O H  COHESION Water molecules like to stick to each other. Rubbing alcohol doesn’t like to stick to itself as much as water. COHESION ▪ Cohesion gives rise to surface tension, the capacity of a substance to withstand rupture when placed under tension or stress. ▪ Besides mercury, water has the highest surface tension for all liquids. Thus, even ships made of iron or steel can float in water. ADHESION ▪Because water is a polar molecule, it is attracted to other substances. ▪Adhesion – occurs when molecules of water are attracted to other substances. WINDSHIELD Adhesion is going on between the windshield and the water droplet. WATER DROPLET ADHESION meniscus COHESION Water molecules like to stick to each other. ADHESION Water molecules like to stick to other things.  4. WATER IS THE ONLY SUBSTANCE OCCURRING NATURALLY IN ALL THREE PHASES: SOLID , LIQUID , AND GAS Water is the only substance which in solid phase (i.e., ice) is less dense than in liquid phase. Water has a maximum density at around 4°C. Thus, ice floats over liquid water (this allows fish to survive even the top is frozen in rivers, lakes and oceans).  DENSITY OF WATER ▪ Most dense at 4oC ▪ Contracts until 4oC ▪ Expands from 4oC to 0oC The density of water: 1. Prevents water from freezing from the bottom up. 2. Ice forms on the surface first—the freezing of the water releases heat to the water below creating insulation. 3. Makes transition between season less abrupt. ▪ When water reaches 0 oC, water becomes locked into a crystalline lattice with each molecule bonded to the maximum of four partners. ▪ As ice starts to melt, some of the hydrogen bonds break and some water molecules can slip closer together than they can while in the ice state. ▪ Ice is about 10% less dense than water at 4 oC. Fig. 3.5 Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings SPECIFIC HEAT ▪ Specific Heat = the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of a substance by 1 oC ▪ Water has a really HIGH specific heat ▪ That means it takes a lot of energy for water to increase its temperature. ▪ This is because of the STRONG ATTRACTION between water molecules. It’s POLAR 5. WATER IS THE MEDIUM FOR BIOACTIVITY ▪ Organisms are mostly water (humans 70%) ▪ Influences the shape of and function of biomolecules ▪ The medium of most biochemical reactions ▪ Important for transport of nutrients and waste ▪ Itself may be a participant in chemical reactions WATER CHEMISTRY ▪ Allliving organisms are dependent on water. ▪ The structure of water is the basis for its unique properties. ▪ The most important property of water is the ability to form hydrogen bonds. ▪ Within a water molecule, the bonds between oxygen and hydrogen are highly polar. ▪ Partial electrical charges develop: - oxygen is partially negative - hydrogen is partially positive 24 WATER CHEMISTRY ▪ Hydrogen bonds are weak attractions between the partially negative oxygen of one water molecule and the partially positive hydrogen of a different water molecule. ▪ Hydrogen bonds can form between water molecules or between water and another charged molecule. 25  THE ACID-BASE CHEMISTRY OF WATER ▪ The chemistry of aqueous solutions is dominated by the equilibrium between neutral water molecules and the ions they form. TRIVIA 1: H3O+ hydronium ion (hydroxonium in TRIVIA 2: OH- is called a hydroxyl ion and it makes traditional British English) is the common name things basic. However, in water, there is a balance for the aqueous cation H3O+, the type between hydroniums and hydroxyls so they cancel of oxonium ion produced by protonation of each others' charges. Pure water is neither acidic or water. basic; it is neutral. THE ACID-BASE CHEMISTRY OF WATER Water concentration (moles of water in 1 liter of water): [H2O] = (density of water, g /L) × ( molar mass of water, mol/g) = (1000 g /L) × (1 mol/18 g) = 55.5 mol/L = 55.5 M Comparing this concentration with the concentrations of H3O+and OH- (i.e., each 1 × 10- 7 M) shows how few water molecules actually dissociate: Kw= [H3O+] [OH-] = (1 × 10-7 M) × (1 × 10-7 M) = 1 × 10-14 M2 at 25 °C THE ACID-BASE CHEMISTRY OF WATER The value of Kw is used to define whether a solution is acidic, neutral, or basic. Any solution can have H3O+ and OH- at equal concentrations, not just water. A solution that has [H3O+] = [OH-] is defined as neutral. In contrast, some solutions can have unequal proportions of H3O+ and OH- molecules. Solutions are defined as acidic when [H3O+] > [OH-] and basic when [H3O+] < [OH-]. THE ACID-BASE CHEMISTRY OF WATER In other words: Acidic: [H3O+] > 1 × 10-7 M; [OH-] < 1 × 10-7 M Neutral: [H3O+] = 1 × 10-7 M = [OH-] Basic: [H3O+] < 1 × 10-7 M; [OH-] > 1 × 10-7 M pH term is utilized to express these very small numbers in scientific notation in real (manageable) numbers. The scale is logarithmic. So the "p" in pH denotes that it's the power of 10 or the power of hydrogen : pH = -log[H3O+] or [H 3O+] = 10-pH THE ACID-BASE CHEMISTRY OF WATER Thus, an acidic solution with 1 × 10-4 M H3O+ will have a pH of 4. A basic solution with 1 × 10-10 M H3O+ will have a pH of 10. Notice that the exponents in the examples above are the pH values. However, to calculate the pH value for n × 10-4 where n is any number other than 1, you should have a calculator (e.g., 2.6 x 10-4 M H3O+ will have a pH of 3.59). WHERE THERE IS WATER, THERE IS LIFE ▪ Water is widely regarded as the ‘matrix of life’ which is not just a passive scaffold but also has many active roles in molecular biology. ▪ Despite the apparent simplicity of the water molecule, water is probably the most mysterious substance in our world. Water and biomolecules The oxygen atom of water carries a partial negative charge and thus water could act as a nucleophile (i.e., donates an electron pair to an electrophile) in hydrolysis reactions. Water is central to the assembly and three-dimensional shape of proteins and nucleic acids. As well as providing a medium in which enzyme structure and activity is maintained, water is a reactant in many reactions. ▪ Nearly 35% of all identified enzymes (namely the hydrolases and some of the lyases involve water as a substrate or product. ▪ Water molecules ‘locked up’ in the active site can modulate interactions with substrates and contribute to catalysis. ▪ The DNA helix expanding and contracting depends on its hydration status. Water hydrates DNA by forming links with the polar atoms at the edges of base pairs. ▪ Most X-ray crystal structures of proteins show water molecules in fixed positions around the exterior of the protein molecules, forming hydrogen-bonding networks that include hydrophilic groups in the protein main and side chains MORE AMAZING FACTS ABOUT WATER ▪ Cancer cells contain more free water than normal cells, and the degree of malignancy increases with the degree of cell hydration. ▪ Thus, intracellular hydration might be a primary factor in carcinogenesis. ▪ This could be because increased hydration facilitates the acceleration of intracellular processes, including respiration, which enhances the competitive edge of a cancer cell for using nutrients. ▪ The invention of the “water splitting” by photosynthetic organisms (i.e., plants) about 2.5 billion years ago can be considered as the ‘Big Bang of Biology and Evolution’. ▪ It provided biology with an unlimited supply of hydrogen equivalents destined to reduce carbon dioxide to organic molecules. ▪ The byproduct of the reaction is molecular dioxygen (i.e., O2 ), which is the oxygen we (and certainly almost all organisms on earth) breath. ▪ This byproduct has given us an oxygenic atmosphere and allowed aerobic biology to prosper. ▪ If we had an industry based on splitting water just like the plants do, we would solve all “energy and global warming problems” our world faces today. ▪ Although 2/3 of earth is covered with water, freshwater accounts for only 2.5% of the total. ▪ “Water, water, everywhere, And all the boards did shrink; Water, water, everywhere, Nor any drop to drink” – Samuel Taylor Coleridg REFERENCES ▪ 1. Lehninger's Principles of Biochemistry” by Nelson L. and Cox.M ▪ 2. Biochemistry by Satyanarayana 36