Lecture 1_merged.pdf

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En0Ugh HaCkRhIn0-TeaM wE FrEE t0 FlY HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM /dēˈkript/ by HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM  Y0uR SeCuiTy iS N0t En0Ugh HaCkRhIn0-TeaM wE FrEE t0 FlY HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM /dēˈkript/ by HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM  Y0uR SeCuiTy iS N0t En0Ugh HaCkRhIn0-TeaM wE FrEE t0 FlY HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM /dēˈkript/ by HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM  Y0uR SeCuiTy iS N0t En0Ugh HaCkRhIn0-TeaM wE FrEE t0 FlY HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM /dēˈkript/ by HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM  Y0uR SeCuiTy iS N0t En0Ugh HaCkRhIn0-TeaM wE FrEE t0 FlY HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM /dēˈkript/ by HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM  Y0uR SeCuiTy iS N0t En0Ugh HaCkRhIn0-TeaM wE FrEE t0 FlY HaCkRhIn0-TeaM Dell 2020-01-17 12:23:28 -------------------------------------------- an authorized simulated cyber attack on a comp. sys., performed to evaluate the security of the sys. 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HaCkRhIn0-TeaM /dēˈkript/ by HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM  Y0uR SeCuiTy iS N0t En0Ugh HaCkRhIn0-TeaM wE FrEE t0 FlY HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM /dēˈkript/ by HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM  Y0uR SeCuiTy iS N0t En0Ugh HaCkRhIn0-TeaM wE FrEE t0 FlY HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM /dēˈkript/ by HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM  Y0uR SeCuiTy iS N0t En0Ugh HaCkRhIn0-TeaM wE FrEE t0 FlY HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM /dēˈkript/ by HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM  Y0uR SeCuiTy iS N0t En0Ugh HaCkRhIn0-TeaM wE FrEE t0 FlY HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM /dēˈkript/ by HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM  Y0uR SeCuiTy iS N0t En0Ugh HaCkRhIn0-TeaM wE FrEE t0 FlY HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM /dēˈkript/ by HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM  Y0uR SeCuiTy iS N0t En0Ugh HaCkRhIn0-TeaM wE FrEE t0 FlY HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM /dēˈkript/ by HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM  Y0uR SeCuiTy iS N0t En0Ugh HaCkRhIn0-TeaM wE FrEE t0 FlY HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM /dēˈkript/ by HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM  Y0uR SeCuiTy iS N0t En0Ugh HaCkRhIn0-TeaM wE FrEE t0 FlY HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM /dēˈkript/ by HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM  Y0uR SeCuiTy iS N0t En0Ugh HaCkRhIn0-TeaM wE FrEE t0 FlY HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM /dēˈkript/ by HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM  Y0uR SeCuiTy iS N0t En0Ugh HaCkRhIn0-TeaM wE FrEE t0 FlY HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM /dēˈkript/ by HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM  Y0uR SeCuiTy iS N0t En0Ugh HaCkRhIn0-TeaM wE FrEE t0 FlY HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM /dēˈkript/ by HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM  Y0uR SeCuiTy iS N0t En0Ugh HaCkRhIn0-TeaM wE FrEE t0 FlY HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM /dēˈkript/ by HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM  Y0uR SeCuiTy iS N0t En0Ugh HaCkRhIn0-TeaM wE FrEE t0 FlY HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM /dēˈkript/ by HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM  Y0uR SeCuiTy iS N0t En0Ugh HaCkRhIn0-TeaM wE FrEE t0 FlY HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM /dēˈkript/ by HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM  Y0uR SeCuiTy iS N0t En0Ugh HaCkRhIn0-TeaM wE FrEE t0 FlY HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM /dēˈkript/ by HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM  Y0uR SeCuiTy iS N0t En0Ugh HaCkRhIn0-TeaM wE FrEE t0 FlY HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM /dēˈkript/ by HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM  Y0uR SeCuiTy iS N0t En0Ugh HaCkRhIn0-TeaM wE FrEE t0 FlY HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM /dēˈkript/ by HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM  Y0uR SeCuiTy iS N0t En0Ugh HaCkRhIn0-TeaM wE FrEE t0 FlY HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM /dēˈkript/ by HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM  Y0uR SeCuiTy iS N0t En0Ugh HaCkRhIn0-TeaM wE FrEE t0 FlY HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM /dēˈkript/ by HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM  Y0uR SeCuiTy iS N0t En0Ugh HaCkRhIn0-TeaM wE FrEE t0 FlY HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM /dēˈkript/ by HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM  Y0uR SeCuiTy iS N0t En0Ugh HaCkRhIn0-TeaM wE FrEE t0 FlY HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM /dēˈkript/ by HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM  Y0uR SeCuiTy iS N0t En0Ugh HaCkRhIn0-TeaM wE FrEE t0 FlY HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM /dēˈkript/ by HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM  Y0uR SeCuiTy iS N0t En0Ugh HaCkRhIn0-TeaM wE FrEE t0 FlY HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM /dēˈkript/ by HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM  Y0uR SeCuiTy iS N0t En0Ugh HaCkRhIn0-TeaM wE FrEE t0 FlY HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM /dēˈkript/ by HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM  Y0uR SeCuiTy iS N0t En0Ugh HaCkRhIn0-TeaM wE FrEE t0 FlY HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM /dēˈkript/ by HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM  Y0uR SeCuiTy iS N0t En0Ugh HaCkRhIn0-TeaM wE FrEE t0 FlY HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM /dēˈkript/ by HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM  Y0uR SeCuiTy iS N0t En0Ugh HaCkRhIn0-TeaM wE FrEE t0 FlY HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM /dēˈkript/ by HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM  Y0uR SeCuiTy iS N0t En0Ugh HaCkRhIn0-TeaM wE FrEE t0 FlY HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM /dēˈkript/ by HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM  Y0uR SeCuiTy iS N0t En0Ugh HaCkRhIn0-TeaM wE FrEE t0 FlY HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM /dēˈkript/ by HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM  Y0uR SeCuiTy iS N0t En0Ugh HaCkRhIn0-TeaM wE FrEE t0 FlY HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM /dēˈkript/ by HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM  Y0uR SeCuiTy iS N0t En0Ugh HaCkRhIn0-TeaM wE FrEE t0 FlY HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM /dēˈkript/ by HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM  Y0uR SeCuiTy iS N0t En0Ugh HaCkRhIn0-TeaM wE FrEE t0 FlY HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM /dēˈkript/ by HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM  Y0uR SeCuiTy iS N0t En0Ugh HaCkRhIn0-TeaM wE FrEE t0 FlY HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM /dēˈkript/ by HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM  Y0uR SeCuiTy iS N0t En0Ugh HaCkRhIn0-TeaM wE FrEE t0 FlY HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM /dēˈkript/ by HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM  Y0uR SeCuiTy iS N0t En0Ugh HaCkRhIn0-TeaM wE FrEE t0 FlY HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM /dēˈkript/ by HaCkRhIn0-TeaM HaCkRhIn0-TeaM Firewalls  Outline Introduction Firewall Environments Type of Firewalls Future of Firewalls Conclusion  Introduction Firewalls control the flow of network traffic Firewalls have applicability in networks where there is no internet connectivity Firewalls operate on number of layers Can also act as VPN gateways Active content filtering technologies  Firewall Environments There are different types of environments where a firewall can be implemented. Simple environment can be a packet filter firewall Complex environments can be several firewalls and proxies  DMZ Environment Can be created out of a network connecting two firewalls Boundary router filter packets protecting server First firewall provide access control and protection from server if they are hacked DMZ ENV  VPN VPN is used to provide secure network links across networks VPN is constructed on top of existing network media and protocols On protocol level IPsec is the first choice Other protocols are PPTP, L2TP VPN  Intranets An intranet is a network that employs the same types of services, applications, and protocols present in an Internet implementation, without involving external connectivity Intranets are typically implemented behind firewall environments. Intranets  Extranets Extranet is usually a business-to-business intranet Controlled access to remote users via some form of authentication and encryption such as provided by a VPN Extranets employ TCP/IP protocols, along with the same standard applications and services  Type is Firewalls Firewalls fall into four broad categories Packet filters Circuit level Application level Stateful multilayer  Packet Filter Work at the network level of the OSI model Each packet is compared to a set of criteria before it is forwarded Packet filtering firewalls is low cost and low impact on network performance Packet Filtering  Circuit level Circuit level gateways work at the session layer of the OSI model, or the TCP layer of TCP/IP Monitor TCP handshaking between packets to determine whether a requested session is legitimate. Circuit Level  Application Level Application level gateways, also called proxies, are similar to circuit-level gateways except that they are application specific Gateway that is configured to be a web proxy will not allow any ftp, gopher, telnet or other traffic through Application Level  Stateful Multilayer Stateful multilayer inspection firewalls combine the aspects of the other three types of firewalls They filter packets at the network layer, determine whether session packets are legitimate and evaluate contents of packets at the application layer Stateful Multilayer General Performance  Future of Firewalls Firewalls will continue to advance as the attacks on IT infrastructure become more and more sophisticated More and more client and server applications are coming with native support for proxied environments Firewalls that scan for viruses as they enter the network and several firms are currently exploring this idea, but it is not yet in wide use  Conclusion It is clear that some form of security for private networks connected to the Internet is essential A firewall is an important and necessary part of that security, but cannot be expected to perform all the required security functions. Networking Devices: Introduction about various networking devices are: Five categories of connecting devices  Repeater: Forwards every frame it receives, it is a generator, not an amplifier (i.e it removes noise & regenerates signal). Repeater A repeater connecting two segments of a LAN Function of a repeater  Hub: An Ethernet hub, active hub, network hub, repeater hub, multiport repeater or hub is a device for connecting multiple Ethernet devices together and making them act as a single network segment.  HUB It has multiple input/output (I/O) ports, in which a signal introduced at the input of any port appears at the output of every port except the original incoming. A hierarchy of hubs  Passive Hub: A passive hub serves simply as a conduit (medium, channel) for the data, enabling it to go from one device (or segment) to another.  Active Hub: Active hubs are a little smarter than the passive hubs. An active hub acts as a multiport repeater. Passive hub will not regenerate the signal but active hub will regenerate the signal. The term "concentrators" which are basically active hubs, concentrating and strengthening a signal as it enters and exits the hub. Hub  Smart or Intelligent Hub: Smart hubs are similar to the previous active ones we saw, but they also contain some type of management software to help determine possible network problems and isolate them. The management software loaded uses protocols like SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) to communicate with various network devices and obtain real-time statistics like throughput, bandwidth, uptime, etc.  Smart or Intelligent Hub: These features comes at a high price, however, making smart hubs a slightly less popular choice for most offices that simply want to connect a few workstations together.  Bridge: A bridge goes one step up on a hub in that it looks at the destination of the packet before sending. Divide larger networks into smaller sections. Check MAC address in its table, forward or block the data.  Bridge: If the destination address is not on the other side of the bridge it will not transmit the data. Bridges are typically used to separate parts of a network that do not need to communicate regularly, but still need to be connected. Note A bridge has a table used in filtering decisions. A bridge connecting two LANs Bridge  Advantages of Bridges : They prevent unnecessary traffic from crossing onto other network segments. Bridge can reduce the amount of network traffic on segments. It also make it possible to isolate a busy network from not-so-busy network.  Advantages of Bridges : Bridge have ability to look at the physical destination address of the frame and send the frame at the specific port. Bridge can filter the traffic, it increases throughput on a network.  Throughput or network throughput is the rate of successful message delivery over a communication channel.  Disadvantages of Bridges : Bridges are slower than Hubs & Repeaters, because they examine each frame's source and destination addresses.  Switch: Switches are used where you have higher demands on the network - they're much more intelligent, and "managed" switches can let you control a lot more about what's happening on the LAN. Switches are faster than hubs. A switch is a multiport bridge.  Switch It looks at the datalink source address to build a table of what devices are on what port, and uses that table to forward frames only to the ports where their destination address can be found.  Switch Switches save bandwidth (hubs don't) but introduce latency (at least part of each frame must be buffered to collect the source and destination addresses). If it gets a data packet, it will try and find the device it goes to, and then send it to that device only, but the device MUST reside on the same subnet.  Switch A switch wont send data packets to computers on different subnets or networks. Typically switch works on Data link Layer or it is a device of data link layer. Switch uses MAC addresses to forward data.  Router: Router is a networking device which is used to connect different networks and sub networks with each other. A router is a device that forwards data packets between computer networks.  Router A data packet is typically forwarded from one router to another through the networks that constitute the internetwork until it gets to its destination node. Create larger networks by joining two or more networks segments. Routers connecting independent LANs and WANs A router works on the network layer. It determines the best route data should travel. Routers are used where you need to get data from one "network" to another. Most commonly used where you've got to get data between sites. Example: Connecting your office network to the Internet. A Router is a device that forwards data packets along networks. A router is connected to at least two networks, commonly two LANs or WANs or a LAN and its ISP’s network. Router works in Network Layer or it is a device of network layer. Router can use the IP address to forward the packets (data). Router  Gateway A gateway is a network point that acts as an entrance to another network. On the Internet, a node or stopping point can be either a gateway node or a host (end-point) node. Both the computers of Internet users and the computers that serve pages to users are host nodes.  The computers that control traffic within your company's network or at your local Internet service provider (ISP) are gateway nodes. In a communications network, a network node equipped for interfacing with another network that uses different protocols.  Examples of Gateway: In the network for an enterprise, a computer server acting as a gateway node is often also acting as a proxy server and a firewall server.  Examples of Gateway: A gateway is often associated with both a router, which knows where to direct a given packet of data that arrives at the gateway, and a switch, which furnishes the actual path in and out of the gateway for a given packet.  ADDITIONAL READING IS STRONGLY RECOMMENDED Introduction to Operating System (OS) By Vinod Sencha Core Faculty(IS), RTI Jaipur  Popular types of OS Desktop Class  Windows  OS X  Unix/Linux  Chrome OS Server Class  Windows Server  Mac OS X Server  Unix/Linux Mobile Class  Android  iOS  Windows Phone 2  Desktop Class Operating Systems:- Platform: the hardware required to run a particular operating system – Intel platform (IBM-compatible) Windows DOS UNIX Linux – Macintosh platform Mac OS 3 – iPad and iPhone platform  Ms-DOS Single User Single Tasking OS. It had no built-in support for networking, and users had to manually install drivers any time they added a new hardware component to their PC. DOS supports only 16-bit programs. Command line user interface. So, why is DOS still in use? Two reasons are its size and simplicity. It does not require much memory or storage space for the system, and it docs not require a powerful computer. 4  Microsoft Windows The graphical Microsoft operating system designed for Intel-platform desktop and notebook computers. Best known, greatest selection of applications available. Current editions include Windows 7, 8, 8.1 and 10. 5  Mac OS User-friendly, runs on Mac hardware. Many applications available. Current editions include: Sierra, High Sierra, Mojave, Catalina & Big Sur—Version XI(Released in Nov 2020) 6  Linux Linux: An open-source, cross-platform operating system that runs on desktops, notebooks, tablets, and smartphones. – The name Linux is a combination Linus (the first name of the first developer) and UNIX (another operating system. Users are free to modify the code, improve it, and redistribute it, Developers are not allowed to charge money for the Linux kernel itself (the main part of the operating system), but they can charge money for distributions (distros for short). 7  Google Chrome OS Chrome OS. Is a popular thin client operating system. Thin client A computer with minimal hardware, designed for a specific task. For example, a thin web client is designed for using the Internet. 8  Server Operating Systems Windows Server – Familiar GUI interface for those experienced with Windows UNIX – Very mature server capabilities, time-tested, large user community, stable Linux – Free, customizable, many free services and utilities available 9  Windows Server 10  UNIX 11  Tablet and Phone Operating Systems System-on-chip (SoC): An operating system that comes preinstalled on a chip on a portable device such as a smartphone. Popular SoC operating systems:  iOS: for iPad, iPhone  Android: for a variety of tablets and phones Downloadable applications (apps) from an App store, for example:  Apple App Store  Google Play Store 12  iOS on the iPhone and iPad The Apple-created operating system for Apple tablets and phones. The current stable version, iOS 14, was released to the public on September 16, 2020. 13  Android Android, a popular OS for smartphones and tablets, is based on Linux Kernel. – Developed by Google Current versions include: – Android 8 Oreo – Android 9 Pie – Android 10 – Android 11 (released on Sep, 2020) 14  Advantage of Linux Operating System 1. Open Source As it is open-source, its source code is easily available. Anyone having programming knowledge can customize the operating system. One can contribute, modify, distribute, and enhance the code for any purpose. 2. Security The Linux security feature is the main reason that it is the most favourable option for developers. It is not completely safe, but it is less vulnerable than others. Each application needs to authorize by the admin user. Linux systems do not require any antivirus program. 3. Free Certainly, the biggest advantage of the Linux system is that it is free to use. We can easily download it, and there is no need to buy the license for it. It is distributed under GPL (General Public License). Comparatively, we have to pay a huge amount for the license of the other OS 15  Advantage of Linux Operating System 4. Lightweight The requirements for running Linux are much less than other operating system In Linux, the memory footprint and disk space are also lower. Generally, most of the Linux distributions required as little as 128MB of RAM around the same amount for disk space. 5. Stability Linux is more stable than other operating systems. Linux does not require to reboot the system to maintain performance levels. It rarely hangs up or slow down. It has big up-times. 16  Advantage of Linux Operating System 6. Performance Linux system provides high performance over different networks. It is capable of handling a large number of users simultaneously. 7. Flexibility Linux operating system is very flexible. It can be used for desktop applications, embedded systems, and server applications too. It also provides various restriction options for specific computers. We can install only necessary components for a system. 8. Software Updates In Linux, the software updates are in user control. We can select the required updates. There a large number of system updates are available. These updates are much faster than other operating systems. So, the system updates can be installed easily without facing any issue. 17  Advantage of Linux Operating System 9. Distributions/ Distros There are many Linux distributions available in the market. It provides various options and flavors of Linux to the users. We can choose any distros according to our needs. Some popular distros are Ubuntu, Fedora, Debian, Linux Mint, Arch Linux, For the beginners, Ubuntu and Linux Mint would be useful. Debian and Fedora would be good choices for proficient programmers. 10. Live CD/USB Almost all Linux distributions have a Live CD/USB option. It allows us to try or run the Linux operating system without installing it. 11. Graphical User Interface Linux is a command-line based OS but it provides an interactive user interface like 18  Advantage of Linux Operating System 12. Suitable for programmers It supports almost all of the most used programming languages such as C/C++, Java, Python, Ruby, and more. Further, it offers a vast range of useful applications for development. The programmers prefer the Linux terminal over the Windows command line. The package manager on Linux system helps programmers to understand how things are done. Bash scripting is also a functional feature for the programmers. It also provides support for SSH, which helps in managing the servers quickly. 13. Community Support Linux provides large community support. We can find support from various sources. There are many forums available on the web to assist users. Further, developers from the various open source communities are ready to help us. 19  Advantage of Linux Operating System 14. Privacy Linux always takes care of user privacy as it never takes much private data from the user. Comparatively, other operating systems ask for the user's private data. 15. Networking Linux facilitates with powerful support for networking. The client-server systems can be easily set to a Linux system. It provides various command-line tools such as ssh, ip, mail, telnet, and more for connectivity with the other systems and servers. Tasks such as network backup are much faster than others. 16. Compatibility Linux is compatible with a large number of file formats as it supports almost all file formats. 17. Installation Linux installation process takes less time than other operating systems such as Windows. Further, its installation process is much easy as it requires less user input. It does not require much more system configuration even it can be easily installed on old machines having less configuration. 20  Advantage of Linux Operating System 18. Multiple Desktop Support Linux system provides multiple desktop environment support for its enhanced use. The desktop environment option can be selected during installation. We can select any desktop environment such as GNOME (GNU Network Object Model Environment) or KDE (K Desktop Environment) as both have their specific environment. 19. Multitasking It is a multitasking operating system as it can run multiple tasks simultaneously without affecting the system speed. 20. Heavily Documented for beginners There are many command-line options that provide documentation on commands, libraries, standards such as manual pages and info pages. Also, there are plenty of documents available on the internet in different formats, such as Linux tutorials, Linux documentation project, Serverfault, and more. To help the beginners, several communities are available such as Ask Ubuntu, Reddit, and StackOverflow. 21