Learning and Problem Solving PDF

 The relationship between learning and memory is incredibly close and intertwined. As stated by the American Psychological Association, learning means securing various skills and information, while memory relates to how the mind stores and recalls information. It is almost impossible for a...

 The relationship between learning and memory is incredibly close and intertwined. As stated by the American Psychological Association, learning means securing various skills and information, while memory relates to how the mind stores and recalls information. It is almost impossible for an individual to truly learn something without also having the memory to retain what they have learned. In many ways, learning and memory maintain a very interdependent relationship. 2 Learning Learning is “a process that leads to change, which occurs as a result of experience and increases the potential for improved performance and future learning” (Ambrose et al, 2010). The change in the learner may happen at the level of knowledge, attitude or behavior. As a result of learning, learners come to see concepts, ideas, and/or the world 3 differently. Types of learning and Factors influencing Learning 4 The concept of classical conditioning has had a major influence on the field of psychology, yet the man who discovered it was not a psychologist at all. A Russian physiologist named Ivan Pavlov first discovered the principles of classical conditioning during his experiments on the digestive systems of dogs. Pavlov noticed that the dogs in his experiments had begun to salivate whenever they saw the white coats of his lab assistants prior to being fed. According to the principles of classical conditioning, learning takes place when an association is formed between a previously neutral stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus. In Pavlov’s experiments, for example, he paired the natural stimulus of food with the sound of a bell. The dogs would naturally salivate in response to food, but after multiple associations, the dogs would salivate to the sound of the bell alone. 5  Operant conditioning was first described by the behavioral psychologist B.F. Skinner. It is sometimes also referred to as Skinnerian conditioning and instrumental conditioning. Skinner believed that classical conditioning simply could not account for all types of learning and was instead more interested in learning how the consequences of actions influence behaviors. Like classical conditioning, operant conditioning relies on forming associations. In operant conditioning, however, associations are made between a behavior and the consequences of that behavior. When a behavior leads to a desirable consequence, it becomes more likely that the behavior will be repeated again in the future. If the actions lead to a negative outcome, however, then the behavior then becomes less likely to occur. 6  Albert Bandura believed that associations and direct reinforcements simply could not account for all learning. "Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do," he famously wrote in his 1977 book Social Learning Theory. Instead, he proposed that much of learning takes place through observation. Children observe the actions of those around them, particularly caregivers and siblings, and then imitate these behaviors. In his well-known Bobo doll experiment, Bandura revealed just how easily children could be led to imitate even negative actions. Children who watched a video of an adult beating up a large inflatable doll were then much more likely to copy those same actions when given a chance. Bandura noted that learning something does not necessarily result in a change in behavior. Children frequently learning new things through observation, but might not engage in such behaviors themselves until there is actually a need or motivation to utilize the information. 7  Cognitive learning theory looks at the way people think. Mental processes are an important part in understanding how we learn. The cognitive theory understands that learners can be influenced by both internal and external elements. Plato and Descartes are two of the first philosophers that focused on cognition and how we as human beings think. Many other researchers looked deeper into the idea of how we think, spurring more research. Jean Piaget is a highly important figure in the field of cognitive psychology, and his work focuses on environments and internal structures and how they impact learning. According to Piaget, a schema is the basic unit of knowledge, and schemata build up over a lifetime. 8  Accommodation – how we modify what we already know to take new information into account; Assimilation – how the new knowledge is arranged in our heads alongside what we already know; 9  Cognitive theory has developed over time, breaking off into sub-theories that focus on unique elements of learning and understanding. At the most basic level, the cognitive theory suggests that internal thoughts and external forces are both an important part of the cognitive process. 10  Bloom’s taxonomy Bloom’s taxonomy, named after educational psychologist Benjamin Bloom, describes six different levels of cognitive learning in the form of a hierarchy. At its most basic level, the taxonomy describes the essential abilities needed to recall information that has been taught. While at the highest level it describes a learner’s ability to take what has been taught, analyze it and use it to create and evaluate. 11 12 The constructivist theory is based around the idea that learners are active participants in their learning journey; knowledge is constructed based on experiences. As events occur, each person reflects on their experience and incorporates the new ideas with their prior knowledge. Learners develop schemas to organize acquired knowledge. This model was entrenched in learning theories by Dewey, Piaget, Vygotsky, Gagne, and Bruner. 13  The theory of constructivism has many elements. These principles outline the theory as a whole and how they affect the learning of the students. The main points are listed below: Knowledge is constructed. Every student begins the learning journey with some preexisting knowledge and then continues to build their understanding on top of that. They will select which pieces of the experience to add, making everyone’s knowledge unique. Learning is a social activity. Interacting with others is vital to constructing knowledge. Group work, discussions, conversations, and interactions are all important to creating understanding. When we reflect on our past experiences, we can see how our relationship with others is directly connected to the information learned. 14  Learning is an active process. Students must actively engage in discussions and activities in order to construct knowledge. It is not possible for students to take on a passive role and retain information. In order to build meaningful ideas, there must be a sensory response. Learning is contextual. Isolation is not the best way to retain information. We learn by forging connections between what we believe and the information we have already. Learning also occurs in the situation within the context of our lives, or alongside the rest of our understanding. We reflect on our lives and classify the new information as it fits into our current perspective. People learn to learn, as they learn. As each student moves through the learning journey, they get better at selecting and organizing information. They are able to better classify ideas and create more meaningful systems of thought. They also begin to recognize that they are learning multiple ideas simultaneously, for example, if they are writing an essay on historical events, they are also learning elements of written grammar. If they are learning about important dates, they are 15 also learning how to chronologically organize important information.  Learning exists in the mind. Hands-on activities and physical experience are not enough to retain knowledge. Active engagement and reflection are critical to the learning journey. In order to develop a thorough understanding, students must experience activities mentally as well. Knowledge is personal. Because every person’s perspective is unique, so will be the knowledge gained. Every individual comes into the learning activity with their own experiences and will take away different things as well. The theory of constructivist learning is based entirely around each individual’s own perspective and experiences. Motivation is key to learning. Similar to active participation, motivation is key to making connections and creating understanding. Students cannot learn if they are unwilling to reflect on preexisting knowledge and activate their thought process. It is crucial that educators work to motivate their students to engage in the learning journey. 16  Humanism is very closely related to constructivism. Humanism directly focuses on the idea of self-actualization. Everyone functions under a hierarchy of needs. Self- actualization is at the top of the hierarchy of needs—it’s the brief moments where a person feels all of their needs are met and that they’re the best possible version of themselves. Everyone is striving for this, and learning environments can either move toward meeting needs or away from meeting needs. Teachers can create classroom environments that help students get closer to their self- actualization. Educators can help fulfill students’ emotional and physical needs, giving them a safe and comfortable place to learn, plenty of food, and the support they need to succeed. This kind of environment is the most conducive to helping students learn. 17 Connectivism is one of the newest educational learning theories. It focuses on the idea that people learn and grow when they form connections. This can be connections with each other or connections with their roles and obligations in their lives. Hobbies, goals, and people can all be connections that influence learning. 18  Transformative learning theory is a great approach for adult education and young adult learning. Also referred to as transformation learning, transformative learning theory focuses on the idea that learners can adjust their thinking based on new information. This learning theory was founded by Jack Mezirow, who discovered it after doing studies on adult women who went back to school. His initial research found that adults don’t apply their old understanding to new situations and that having a new perspective helped them gain a new understanding of things as they change. Mezirow also believed that students had important teaching and learning opportunities connected to their past experiences and that critical reflection and review could lead to a transformation of their understanding. This approach works well for adult students, as children don’t have the same kind of transformation with their learning experiences—and with life experience. Adult students could draw on childhood experiences and transform those beliefs and understandings using critical reflection, leading them to an 19 understanding of what they should believe and understand as adults.  The theory states that our worldview is changed the more we learn, which helps us grasp new concepts and ideas. By getting new information that helps evaluate past ideas, 20  Experiential learning theory focuses on learning by doing. Using this theory, students are encouraged to learn through experiences that can help them retain information and recall facts. Experiential learning theory, or ELT, was identified by David Kolb in 1984. Though his influence came from other theorists such as John Dewey, Kurt Lewin, and Jean Piaget, Kolb was able to identify four stages of ELT. The first two stages, concrete learning and reflective observation, focus on grasping an experience. The latter two, abstract conceptualization and active experimentation are about transforming an experience. To Kolb, effective learning is seen as the learner goes through the cycle of experiential learning theory. Students can enter the cycle in 21 any way and at any point.  Experiential learning theory focuses on learning by doing. Using this theory, students are encouraged to learn through experiences that can help them retain information and recall facts. Experiential learning theory, or ELT, was identified by David Kolb in 1984. Though his influence came from other theorists such as John Dewey, Kurt Lewin, and Jean Piaget, Kolb was able to identify four stages of ELT. The first two stages, concrete learning and reflective observation, focus on grasping an experience. The latter two, abstract conceptualization and active experimentation are about transforming an experience. To Kolb, effective learning is seen as the learner goes through the cycle of experiential learning theory. Students can enter the cycle in 22 any way and at any point. 23 Principles of Learning 24 Participation Learning should permit and encourage active participation of the learner. Participation improves motivation and apparently engages more senses that reinforce the learning process. As a result of participation, people learn more quickly and retain that learning longer. 25 Repetition An important principle of learning is to provide the learner with the opportunity for practice and repetition. To gain the full benefit of training learned behaviors must be overlearned to ensure smooth performance and minimum of forgetting at a later date. Proficiency in learning and retaining new skills is improved when individuals visualize themselves performing the new 26 behavior. Transference Because learning occurs in a special environment, an important question to ask is whether learning will transfer to the actual situation. Transfer of training occurs when trainees can apply the knowledge and skills learned in training course to their jobs. If the learning in one setting does not transfer to the actual job situation, the training has failed. 27 Transference Three transfer training situations are possible: (1) Positive transfer of training when the training activities enhance performance in the new situation; (2) negative transfer of training when the training activities inhibit performance in a new situation; and (3) no observable effect of training. 28 Feedback Feedback gives learners information on their progress. Performance feedback is a necessary prerequisite for learning. Feedback improves performance not only by helping learners correct their mistakes but also by providing reinforcement for learning. Knowledge of results is a positive reinforcement itself. 29  Edward Thorndike is famous in psychology for his work on learning theory that led to the development of operant conditioning within behaviorism. His learning theory represents the original S-R (Stimulus-Response) framework of behavioral psychology. According to him, “learning is the result of associations forming between stimuli and responses.” 30 Readiness The basic needs of the learner must be satisfied before he or she is ready or capable of learning. This means the learner must want to learn the task being presented and must possess the requisite knowledge and skill. 31 Effect All learning involves the formation of connections and connections are strengthened or weakened according to the law of effect. Responses to a situation that are followed by satisfaction are strengthened; responses followed by discomfort are weakened, either strengthening or weakening the connection of learning. Thus, learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling, and weakened when associated 32 with an unpleasant feeling. Exercise Connections are strengthened with practice and weakened when practice is discontinued, which reflects the adage “use it or lose it.” The learner needs to practice what has been learned in order to understand and remember the learning. 33 Primacy the state of being first, often creates a strong, almost unshakable impression and underlies the reason an instructor must teach correctly the first time and the student must learn correctly the first time. Also, if the task is learned in isolation, it is not initially applied to the overall performance, or if it must be relearned, the process can be confusing and time consuming. The first experience should be positive, 34 functional, and lay the foundation for all that is to follow. Intensity Immediate, exciting, or dramatic learning connected to a real situation teaches a learner more than a routine or boring experience. Real world applications (scenarios) that integrate procedures and tasks the learner is capable of learning make a vivid impression and he or she is least likely to forget the experience. 35 Recency The principle of recency states that things most recently learned are best remembered. Conversely, the further a learner is removed in time from a new fact or understanding, the more difficult it is to remember. 36 Memory Memory is the ability to understand and then internalize information into the memory stores based on the processes of learning, encoding, retention and then retrieval and reactivation of memory when stimulated. Research has implied that a new neuron is formed in the brain for every fact or memory. An individual’s memory contains information that they have previously learned; there is a varied breadth of theories available which attempt to explain memory, although one is yet to be favored. 37 Sensory Register Individuals gather information about their environment through the senses. Each sensory modality has its own sensory register (or sensory memory). It holds information for a very short duration, then it passes the information for further processing to long term memory. 38 Sensory Memory It is referred to as the working memory. Sensory memory occurs within the sensory system while it is being transmitted to the brain. What we are able to memorize depends to a large extent on what happens to the information once it reaches the sensory memory. We are continually bombarded by sensory stimulations of various kinds. 39 Sensory Memory As we cannot respond to all of them, it is important that we must selectively focus on those things which are significant. This kind of selectivity is possible on the basis of attention. The process of attention limits the input of information which we receive from the environment. 40 Long-term Memory Selective attention information enters short-term memory (STM). STM holds information for a few seconds and transmits it to the long-term memory (LTM) which has a very large capacity to retain information. LTM refers to the storage of information over an extended period of time. This type of memory tends to be stable and can last a long time. Theoretically, the capacity of the LTM could be unlimited and its duration might be a few minutes or a 41 lifetime. Long-term Memory The LTM is not a single storage but divided into two types, explicit (knowing what) and implicit (knowing how). Information that you remember unconsciously and effortlessly is known as implicit memory while information that you have to consciously work to remember is known as explicit memory. Both implicit and explicit memory play important roles in shaping the ability to recall information. 42 Forgetting or disremembering A clear loss or modification of information already encoded and stored in an individual's long-term memory, it is an intuitive or gradual process in which old memories cannot recall from memory storage. In simple words, forgetting is an inability to remember. 43 Forgetting or disremembering Sometimes, forgetting happens because of painful injuries in the brain that may lead to amnesia. Amnesia is a situation in which there is a loss of memories, facts, dates, or difficulty to remember recent or past events. 44 Forgetting or disremembering Psychological amnesia. Childhood amnesia is may be due to an inability to recover the memories of childhood which are unpleasant. These memories can create a sense of guilt, so they are suppressed. Dream amnesia happen when an individual is unable to remember the contents of all dreams because many of them are in hidden form so there is no sign of memory. 45 Forgetting or disremembering Biological amnesia Due to the unusual functioning of the brain. Such abnormalities can be caused by a shock on the head, some problems such as temporary disturbances in the blood supply to the brain, alcohol, and certain drugs like marijuana, brain disorders, and some other damage to the brain. 46 Forgetting or disremembering Biological amnesia comes in three major types. One is retrograde amnesia where the individual can not remember the things that happened before the onset of the amnesia. Second is anterograde amnesia which is the inability to create new memories after the onset of amnesia. Lastly, infantile amnesia is where 2 or 3 47 years old does not have many memories. Learning and Problem Solving 48  A systematic approach to defining the problem and creating a vast number of possible solutions without judging these solution Yokam & Simpson define it as “A problem occurs in a situation in which a felt difficulty to act is realized” “Problem solving is a cognitive processing directed at achieving a goal where no solution method is obvious to the problem solver” 49 According to Gates “ A problem exists for an individual when he has a definite goal he can not reach by the behaviour pattern which he already has available” According to skinner, problem-solving is a process of overcoming difficulties that appears to interfere with the attainment of a goal. It is a procedure of making adjustments in spite of interferences. 50 The Scientific Method 51 1. Identify the problem. The first step in the scientific method is to identify and analyze a problem. Data regarding the problem can be collected using a variety of methods. One way we're all accustomed to is the classic: who, what, where, when, how, and to what extent? The scientific method works best when you have a problem that can be measured or quantified in some way. 52 2. Form a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a statement that provides an educated prediction or proposed solution. A good format for a hypothesis would be, “If we do XX, then YY will happen.” This is a possible solution to the problem formed after gathering information about the problem. The term "research" is properly applied here. 53 3. Test the hypothesis by conducting an experiment. An experiment is performed to determine if the hypothesis solves the problem or not. Experiments are done to gather data. It is very important that good observations and records are made during an experiment. The experiment must be fair and objective. Otherwise, it will skew the result. It should include a significant number of participants or it will not be statistically representative of the whole. 54 Allow for ample time to collect the information. 4. Collect the Data. This is where you record your observations, measurements, or information from experiment. 55 5. Analyze the data. Once the experiment is complete, the results can be analyzed. The results should either confirm the hypothesis as true or false. If by chance, the results aren't confirmed, this doesn't mean the experiment was a failure. In fact, it might give you additional insight to form a new hypothesis. Thomas Edison quote, “I have not failed. I've just found 10,000 ways that won't work.” 56 5. Draw Conclusions. After examining the data from the experiment, conclusions can be drawn. In its simplest form, the conclusion will be "yes" the hypothesis was correct, or "no" the hypothesis was not correct. The next step could be communicating the results 57 58  Inductive research approach When there is little to no existing literature on a topic, it is common to perform inductive research, because there is no theory to test. The inductive approach consists of three stages: Limitations of an inductive approach A conclusion drawn on the basis of an inductive method can never be fully proven. However, it can be 59 invalidated. Observation 1. A low-cost airline flight is delayed 2. Dogs A and B have fleas 3. Elephants depend on water to exist Seeking patterns 1. Another 20 flights from low-cost airlines are delayed 2. All observed dogs have fleas 3. All observed animals depend on water to exist Developing a theory or general (preliminary) conclusion 1. Low cost airlines always have delays 2. All dogs have fleas 60 3. All biological life depends on water to exist  Limitations of an inductive approach A conclusion drawn on the basis of an inductive method can never be fully proven. However, it can be invalidated. 61  Limitations of an inductive approach A conclusion drawn on the basis of an inductive method can never be fully proven. However, it can be invalidated. Example You observe 1000 flights from low-cost airlines. All of them experience a delay, which is in line with your theory. However, you can never prove that flight 1001 will also be delayed. Still, the larger your dataset, the more reliable your conclusions. 62  Deductive research approach When conducting deductive research, you always start with a theory. This is usually the result of inductive research. Reasoning deductively means testing these theories. Remember that if there is no theory yet, you cannot conduct deductive research. The deductive research approach consists of four stages: 63 Start with an existing theory and create a problem statement 1. Low cost airlines always have delays 2. All dogs have fleas 3. All biological life depends on water to exist Formulate a falsifiable hypothesis, based on existing theory 1. If passengers fly with a low cost airline, then they will always experience delays 2. All pet dogs in my apartment building have fleas 3. All land mammals depend on water to exist Collect data to test the hypothesis 1. Collect flight data of low-cost airlines 2. Test all dogs in the building for fleas 3. Study all land mammal species to see if they depend on water Analyze and test the data 1. 5 out of 100 flights of low-cost airlines are not delayed 2. 10 out of 20 dogs didn’t have fleas 3. All land mammal species depend on water Decide whether you can reject the null hypothesis 1. 5 out of 100 flights of low-cost airlines are not delayed = reject hypothesis 64 2. 10 out of 20 dogs didn’t have fleas = reject hypothesis 3. All land mammal species depend on water = support hypothesis  Limitations of a deductive approach The conclusions of deductive reasoning can only be true if all the premises set in the inductive study are true and the terms are clear. Example All dogs have fleas (premise) Benno is a dog (premise) Benno has fleas (conclusion) Based on the premises we have, the conclusion must be true. However, if the first premise turns out to be false, the conclusion that Benno has fleas cannot be relied upon. 65