Learning Exam Revision Summary Pages PDF

Learning: Exam Revision Summary Pages Subtopic 1: Classical Conditioning Definition: Classical Conditioning is a learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired (an association). A response, which at first is elicited by a natural stimulus, is eventually elicited by what had pre...

Learning: Exam Revision Summary Pages Subtopic 1: Classical Conditioning Definition: Classical Conditioning is a learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired (an association). A response, which at first is elicited by a natural stimulus, is eventually elicited by what had previously been a neutral stimulus. Key Aspects of Classical Conditioning Two Stimuli: In this process, we have two things we are paying attention to: 1. Natural Stimulus (Unconditioned Stimulus): First, there is something that naturally makes you react. This could be something like your favourite food that makes you feel hungry. We call this stimulus the unconditioned stimulus, as it exists and causes a response before learning (conditioning) has taken place. 2. Neutral Stimulus: Then, there’s something that does not really do anything to you. It’s just a thing that is there, and you do not have any particular reaction to it. We call this the neutral stimulus. Repeating the Pairing: We repeatedly present the neutral stimulus with the unconditioned stimulus, which naturally triggers a response. Creating an Association: Over time, your brain learns that the neutral stimulus predicts the unconditioned stimulus, forming a strong association between them. Changing Your Reaction: Eventually, the neutral stimulus alone triggers the same response as the unconditioned stimulus, making it a conditioned stimulus that elicits a conditioned response. Unconditioned Unconditioned Neutral Stimulus Conditioned Stimulus Conditioned Stimulus (UCS) Response (UCR) (NS) (CS) Response (CR) A stimulus that elicits An unlearned reaction A stimulus that, before A previously neutral A learned reaction to a an unconditioned to an unconditioned conditioning, does not stimulus that, through conditioned stimulus response (UCR) stimulus (UCS) that naturally bring about repeated pairings with (CS) that occurs without previous occurs without the response of interest. an (UCS), now causes a because of previous conditioning. previous conditioning. conditioned response repeated pairings with (CR). an unconditioned stimulus (UCS). Relationship Summary - The unconditioned stimulus (UCS) naturally leads to an unconditioned response (UCR). - Through repeated associations, the UCS becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS), leading to a conditioned response (CR). - The relationship is a learning process where the CS and UCS are linked, resulting in the CR occurring in response to the CS alone. The NS and CS are the same stimuli. But the NS is the stimuli before learning (classical conditioning) as it does not elicit a response and the CS is the same stimuli after learning (classical conditioning), as it now elicits a CR. The UCR and CR are the same response. But the UCR is the response elicited by the UCS and the CR is the response elicited by the CS after learning (classical conditioning). Pavlov’s Salivation Experiment on Dogs Ivan Pavlov was a Russian physiologist best known for his pioneering work in the field of classical conditioning. In his famous dog experiments, Pavlov used a bell as a neutral stimulus, pairing it with the presentation of food (an unconditioned stimulus). Over time, the dogs began to salivate (a conditioned response) in anticipation of food when they heard the bell (a conditioned stimulus), even when no food was present. 1. Preparation of the dogs → Pavlov began by selecting a group of dogs and placing them in a controlled environment. These dogs were typically hungry to ensure they would be motivated to eat. 2. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) → Pavlov introduced an unconditional stimulus, which is a stimulus that naturally triggers a response without any prior learning. In this case, he used meat powder or a similar food item as the UCS. 3. Unconditioned Response (UCR) → The presentation of the meat powder naturally caused the dogs to salivate. This salivation is the unconditioned response because it occurs reflexively, without any training. 4. Neutral Stimulus (NS) → To establish a conditioned response, Pavlov introduced a neutral stimulus (NS), the sound of a bell, before presenting the meat powder. The dogs initially showed no salivary response to the bell.  5. Association of UCS and NS → Pavlov repeated this process multiple times, pairing the sound of the bell (NS) with the meat powder (UCS). After several pairings, the dogs began to associate the bell or metronome with the food. 6. Conditioned Response (CR) → Eventually, the dogs started to salivate in response to the bell alone, even when no food was presented. This salivation in response to the previously neutral stimulus (the bell or metronome) is the conditioned response (CR). This means the bell has now become a conditioned stimulus (CS). 7. Testing → To confirm the conditioning, Pavlov tested the dogs by ringing the bell without providing any food. If the dogs salivated in response to the bell, it demonstrated that they had learned to associate the sound of the bell with anticipation of food. In summary, Pavlov’s experiment demonstrated how dogs could be conditioned to associate a neutral stimulus (the bell) with a naturally occurring reflex (salivation) through repeated pairings with an unconditioned stimulus (meat powder). Neutral Stimulus: Bell Unconditioned Stimulus: Food Unconditioned Response: Salivation Conditioned Response: Salivation Conditioned Stimulus: Bell Pavlov identified a NS of a bell ringing (elicits no response) and a UCS of food (elicits UCR of salivation). With his dogs, he paired the NS (bell) by immediately following it with the UCS (food), which would elicit the UCR (salivation). After repeated pairings, the NS (bell) begins to elicit the same response as the UCS (food), even without the UCS (food) being present. The NS (bell) has now become a CS (bell) as it now elicits the CR (salivation). Pavlov initially did this accidentally whilst conducting a biological study on salivation in dogs, however, he later repeated it and applied the scientific method to test of biological responses could be conditioned. Acquisition and Performance Before learning: Before classical conditioning takes place, a NS needs to be identified, and an UCS needs to be tested to confirm it elicits a UCR. Acquisition: Classical conditioning begins with the initial pairing of the NS followed by the UCS (which elicits the UCR). Then after repeated pairings of the NS and UCS, learning occurs with a cognitive association beginning to form between the NS and UCS. After sufficient pairings, a CR starts to occur in response to the CS alone. Performance: Once the NS starts to elicit a CR it has become a CS, and testing needs to take place to confirm that the organism can perform the CR without the presence of the UCS. In the performance phase, the organism is presented with the CS, and if the CR is elicited (without the UCS) then learning has occurred. Key Difference: The acquisition phase is where the cognitive associate occurs between the NS and UCR. The performance phase is when the NS can elicit a response without the presence of the UCS, indicating that it is now a CS and can cause a CR. Acquisition Phase: Process during conditioning of pairing the unconditioned stimulus (US) with the conditioned stimulus. The ‘acquiring’ of a CR. Performance Phase: When the conditioned response (CR) is elicited without the unconditioned stimulus needing to be present. The ‘performing’ of a CR. Importance of contiguity and contingency in classical conditioning/ factors affecting classical conditioning Contiguity refers to the temporal closeness between the presentation of the NS and UCS. To maximise the association formed between the two stimuli, the NS must be presented immediately before the UCS, this helps in the formation of a CR. 1. Presentation of stimuli: Classical conditioning begins with the presentation of two stimuli – the neutral stimulus (NS) and the unconditional stimulus (UCS). Contiguity refers to the temporal closeness or proximity of these stimuli in relation to each other. 2. Immediate association: The NS and UCS should be presented in close temporal proximity, meaning they should occur close together in time. This is important because it helps establish a strong association between the two stimuli. 3. Associative link: when the NS consistently precedes the UCS with little time delay, the brain forms a strong associative link between the two. This close association allows the NS to acquire the ability to elicit a conditioned response (CR) similar to the unconditioned response (UCR) associated with the UCS). In Pavlov’s dog experiment, the sound of a bell (CS) was presented just before the delivery of food (UCS). The close temporal contiguity between the bell and food led to the dog associating the bell with the anticipation of food, resulting in salivation (CR) when the bell was presented alone. Contingency refers to how strongly the NS/CS acts as a predictor of the UCS and how consistently the UCS follows the NS. To maximise the association formed, the NS should have a high predictive value for the UCS and consistently be presented before the UCS. This works because animals are more biologically predisposed to form associations for adaption purposes.  1. Predictive value: contingency in classical conditioning refers to the degree to which the presence of the NS/CS predicts the occurrence of the UCS. In other words, it’s about how reliably the NS/CS is associated with the UCS. 2. Consistent pairing: For effective classical conditioning, the NS should consistently precede the UCS. From this, the CS will reliably signal that the UCS is coming. When this predictability is high, contingency is strong. 3. Learning and adaption: Animals and humans are biologically predisposed to learn associations that have high contingency because it allows for efficient adaptation. When they can predict the outcome based on a cue (CS), they can prepare for it. In a real-life scenario, imagine someone repeatedly hears thunder (NS) just before a lightning strike (UCS). If the thunder consistently predicts the lightning, they may become conditioned to feel fear (CR) at the sound of thunder because they have learnt that it predicts a potentially dangerous event. Stimulus discrimination and generalisation Stimulus generalisation: occurs when the conditioned response (CR) is elicited on the presentation of other similar stimuli, other than the original conditioned stimulus (CS). Example: Dexter salivating to a horn/tone similar to the CS bell - elicits the same CR despite separate CS. Stimulus discrimination: occurs when a person or animal only responds to the original conditioned stimulus, and not to any other stimuli that is similar to the CS. This is the opposite of stimulus generalisation. Example: Dexter only salivates to the sound of the hand bell, not a horn/tone that sounds similar. Extinction A reduction or loss in the strength or rate of a conditioned response when the UCS is withheld. Example: Dexter’s CR could eventually cease if not continuously paired with the UCS (food). The gradual weakening or suppression of a previously conditioned response. Spontaneous Recovery Reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished conditioned response. Spontaneous recovery shows that extinction is not the same as unlearning. Example: Dexter is presented with pairing of food + bell after extinction > spontaneous recovery of CR (salivation) The process of extinction in classical conditioning involves presenting the conditioned stimulus (CS) repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). This leads to a gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of the conditioned response (CR) previously associated with the CS. However, if the UCS is paired again with the CS, it is possible for spontaneous recovery to occur. This means that the CS once again begins to elicit the CR, however, it is usually weaker than the original performance phase. Classical Conditioning: Little Albert Watson and Rayner extended Pavlov's findings to humans in their controversial 1920 experiment with Little Albert. They aimed to show that fear can be a learned response in humans through classical conditioning. Albert was 9-11 months old when Watson and Rayner set out to provide experimental evidence that phobias can be conditioned. Albert’s mother was a nurse in a children’s hospital when Watson and Rayner offered to pay her $1 for permission to use her son Albert in a psychological experiment. When he was about nine months old, his reactions to various stimuli were tested: a white rat, a rabbit, a dog, a monkey, masks with and without hair, cotton wool, burning newspapers and a hammer striking a four-foot steel bar just behind his head, only the last of these frightened him When Albert was just eleven months old, the rat and the loud noise were presented together: as Albert reached out to stroke the animal, Watson crept behind the baby and brought the hammer crashing down on the steel bar. After seven pairings of the rat and noise across several weeks, Albert reacted with crying and avoidance when the rat was presented without the loud noise. The conditioned fear was then generalised to other similar stimuli even without pairing. A month later, Albert still showed fear when presented with a white rat. His parents withdrew Albert from the study before they had the opportunity to try and extinguish Albert’s phobia. Neutral Stimulus: White Rat Unconditioned Stimulus: Loud Noise Unconditioned Response: Crying Conditioned Stimulus: White Rat Conditioned Response: Crying Biological Preparedness Not all associations in classical conditioning are equal. Number of pairings: the more times the NS is paired with the UCS, the stronger the association tends to be. Frequent pairings lead to a more robust CR. Timing: The timing of the pairing is crucial. For optimal conditioning, the NS should precede the UCS and overlap with it. If there’s a significant delay between the NS and UCS, the association may be weaker. Intensity of the UCS: A more intense or salient UCS tends to lead to stronger conditioning. For example, a loud noise may lead to a more potent association than a soft one. Biological predisposition/ preparedness: Some associations are more readily formed because they align with an organism’s natural tendencies. This concept is known as biological preparedness. For example, it’s easier to condition a fear response to snakes (a potential threat) than to neutral stimuli. Definition: preparedness (to learn) occurs when conditioned responses are learned more rapidly and easily than others. Biological preparedness in classical conditioning refers to the idea that humans and animals are biologically predisposed to learn certain associations more easily than others due to evolutionary factors. This concept suggests that some conditioned stimuli (CS) and unconditioned stimuli (UCS) are more readily linked because they have greater relevance to survival. Evolutionary Background → Biological preparedness is rooted in the evolutionary history of a species. Throughout evolution, organisms have developed specific predispositions to respond to certain stimuli in ways that enhance their chances of survival and reproduction. Relevance to Survival → Certain stimuli are more relevant to survival and have a greater impact on an organism’s fitness. For example, food, predators, and sexual partners are highly relevant to an organism’s chances of survival and reproduction. Rapid Learning → Biological preparedness suggests that conditioned associations are formed more quickly and with greater resistance to extinction when the CS and UCS have biological relevance. This means that the learned response (CR) is stronger and more persistent when the stimuli involved are biologically prepared. Discuss the role of biological preparedness in the development of taste aversions and phobias. Before conditioning: any bite (UCS) elicits fear and pain (UCR). Snake (NS) elicits no reaction During conditioning: snake (NS) and bite (UCS) elicits fear and pain (UCR) After conditioning: snake (CS) elicits fear and pain (CR). Definition: Systematic desensitisation is a behaviour therapeutic tool widely used to modify learned behaviours associated with phobias. Systematic desensitisation involves an initial assessment of the phobia to understand the nature and severity of the learnt fear response. This is followed by the development of a hierarchy of fears, which involves the individual constructing a list of stimuli similar to the phobia from least anxiety inducing to most anxiety inducing. For a fear of spiders, this could look like: 1. Thinking about a spider 2. Looking at a spider 3. Holding a small spider 4. Holding a large spider 5. Spider crawling across arm The individual is taught a relaxation technique, such as progressive muscle relaxation, that will enable them to lower their physiological response on cue. Lastly, they undergo progressive exposure and desensitisation, which involves the implementation of the relaxation technique when exposed to progressively more anxiety-inducing stimuli from the hierarchy of fear – with the individual only progressing to the next level once they can fully relax himself at the current level. The overarching goal of this is to slowly replace the CR of fear that is causing a phobia with a CR of relaxation. Advantages of Systematic Desensitisation Disadvantages of Systematic Desensitisation - Gradual process of extinguishing strong conditioned response - Can be a very slow process - Can be more ethical due to gradual approach - Can be expensive due to the time it can take some clients - Risk of not being effective - Only treats the symptoms of the disorder, not the underlying cause. Subtopic 2: Operant Conditioning Definition: Operant conditioning is a learning process in which the strength of the behaviour is modified by the consequences following the behaviour. It focuses on how voluntary behaviours are shaped by consequences that follow the behaviour. Classical conditioning: involuntary behaviours (reflexes) Operant conditioning: voluntary behaviours Process of Operant Conditioning  1. A voluntary behaviour is performed 2. A consequence follows the behaviour 3. The nature of the consequence either strengthens the behaviour and increases its frequency or weakens the behaviour and decreases its frequency. Differences between classical conditioning and operant conditioning Classical Conditioning → The subject’s behaviour is primarily determined by what precedes it (stimulus). This behaviour is called “respondent behaviour”. Ie. Behaviour that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus Operant Conditioning → The subject’s behaviour is primarily determined by what follows it. This behaviour is called “operant behaviour”. Ie. Behaviour that operates on the environment producing consequences B.F. Skinner: Key figure in operant conditioning. 1930s: Skinner's experiments with rats and pigeons. Trained animals with rewards (food) for voluntary behaviours. Example behaviours: turning in circles with a light flash, pressing a lever when a bell rang. Theories: Pleasant consequences reinforce behaviour repetition. Unpleasant consequences deter repetition. Reinforcers → Consequences that increase the strength of a behaviour are called reinforcers (as they ‘reinforce’ a behaviour). They make a behaviour more likely to occur. Punishers → Consequences that weaken the strength of a behaviour are called punishers (as they ‘weaken’ a behaviour). They make a behaviour less likely to occur How punishment differs from reinforcement - Punishment involves an unpleasant consequence - Reinforcement involves a pleasant consequence - Unpleasant consequences decrease the strength of - Pleasant consequences increase the strength of the the behaviour they follow behaviour they follow - Punishment decreases the strength of the behaviour - Reinforcement increases the strength of the behaviour Pleasant Consequences: - The addition of a wanted stimulus (giving a dog a treat) - The removal of an unwanted stimulus (a parent no longer nagging a child) Unpleasant Consequences: - The removal of a wanted stimulus (taking away a phone) - The addition of an unwanted stimulus (getting extra chores) Differences between positive and negative reinforcement - Positive reinforcement involves the addition of a stimulus, whereas negative reinforcement involves the removal of a stimulus - However, they are both perceived as a ‘reward’ and strengthen behaviour Differences between adverse punishment and response cost - Adverse punishment involves the addition of a stimulus, whereas response cost involves the removal of a stimulus - However, they are both perceived as a ‘punishment’ and weaken behaviour Why, in attempts to change behaviour, reinforcement is favoured over punishment? - Punishment doesn’t guide towards desired behaviour. Reinforcement tells you what to do whereas punishment only tells you what not to do. - Since reinforcement focuses on increasing a desired behaviour and punishment focuses on reducing an unwanted behaviour but does not teach a replacement, it is typically recommended to use positive reinforcement when trying to make a behaviour change. - Reinforcement when used well: teaches correct behaviour, makes a child, animal, or adult feel loved or appreciated, helps develop self-esteem, increases motivation to do the correct behaviour again in the future. The importance of contingency and contiguity in operant conditioning Contiguity → The time between the behaviour displayed and the punishment. Theory states that this should be no more than 0.5 second. But the shorter time between the behaviour displayed and the punishment the stronger the association will be. Contingency → Contingency (the predictability/consistency of an occurrence). Contingency refers to the relationship between a response and a reinforcer, or punisher. Another word for contingent is dependent. To be effective, consequences should be consistent, appropriate. The punishment needs to be appropriate for the incident and age appropriate Fixed and variable ratio – schedules of reinforcement Fixed Ratio → reinforcement is delivered after a predictable number of responses → factory worker being paid for every – number of items made Variable Ratio → reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses  → gambling: poker machines, you get a cash reward after an unpredictable number of turns Fixed and variable interval – schedules of reinforcement Fixed interval → reinforcement is delivered at predictable time intervals → being paid every fortnight, supervisor walks past your desk every hour Variable interval → reinforcement is delivered at unpredictable time intervals → fishing – you don’t know when the fish will bite, longer you leave the line in, the more likely you will get a bite How do the schedules of reinforcement affect learning, extinction, and performance 1. Fixed-ratio schedules and variable-ratio schedules produce high rates of responding. These schedules are used when we want the behaviour to occur often. 2. Fixed-interval schedules produce a clustering of responses around reward time. This schedule is used when we want the behaviour to occur at specified times but not constantly. 3. Variable-interval schedules produce low but fairly constant rates of responding. This schedule is used when we want the behaviour to occur on an ongoing basis, but not too frequently. Schedule Learning Performance Extinction Continuous Learning is fast, this schedule is best Performance may become Extinction rate is FAST. More used when learning something new. dependent on the reward being likely to become extinct once the Animals and people respond equally present. High rates of response, reward stops. well as each response is rewarded. Fixed Interval Once the interval is learned, Moderate response rate but there Resistance to extinction increases performance will drop off until the is no incentive to perform the as the interval lengthens in time, next time interval approaches. E.g., behaviour between rewards. however likely to become extinct students don’t study, until the night Behaviour increases as the next quite quickly with no reinforcer. before the next test. time interval approaches. Variable Useful for teachers to keep students Moderate yet steady response More resistant to extinction than Interval studying on a regular basis, as they rate. Don’t know when a the fixed interval schedule, as long may not know when they are going to reinforcer will come, but it’s as the intervals are similar. be tested next. worth it to keep checking. Fixed Ratio Useful when learning something new, High response rate with pauses Extinction is reached quickly but you don’t want to reinforce every after reinforcement. when all reinforcement is taken correct behaviour. away. Variable Ratio Useful once a behaviour has already High and steady response rate. Very addictive, and resistant to been learned, a variable ratio schedule extinction. is the best way to maintain behaviour. Definition: Shaping is a very common and successful way of learning increasingly complex behaviours using positive reinforcement. Behaviour shaping involves gradually changing or ‘shaping’ a person’s behaviour toward a desired goal. It involves reinforcing successive approximations of the target behaviour until the desired behaviour is achieved. Behaviour Shaping Steps 1. Establish a baseline → clearly identify the initial behaviour you want to modify and the final behaviour you want 2. Breaking desired behaviour into steps → analyse the target behaviour and identify smaller, manageable steps or components that lead to the ultimate behaviour 3. Deliver reinforcement while raising expectations → Introduce reinforcement each time the smaller behaviour is achieved, and progressively raise expectations towards the next step towards the target behaviour. The idea is that reinforcing all of these small actions is more effective than doing the whole process at once; thus, you are shaping the dog’s behaviour. Behaviour shaping involves gradually changing or ‘shaping’ a person’s behaviour toward a desired goal. This involves the establishment of a baseline with the identification of the initial behaviour you want to modify and the final behaviour you want performed. Then you break desired behaviour into steps, this involves analysing the target behaviour and identifying smaller, manageable steps or components that lead to the ultimate behaviour. And then you deliver reinforcement whilst raising expectations, this involves introducing reinforcement each time the smaller behaviour is achieved, and progressively raise expectations towards the next step towards the target behaviour. However, some behaviours are more easily shaped than others, this is often due to biological predisposition (based on the organism), which gives rise to biological preparedness for specific behaviour or learning. Definition: The placebo effect is a phenomenon in which a person experiences real improvements in their conditions, such as reduced pain or improved symptoms, even when they are given a treatment that has no active therapeutic ingredients (e.g. a sugar pill or saline injection). The placebo effect using the principles of operant conditioning 1. Expectations that the treatment will work → When individuals have a strong expectation that a treatment will work (due to prior conditioning or suggestive cues), their bodies may respond as if the treatment is actually effective. This expectation can lead to a real physiological response, such as the release of endorphins or a reduction in stress hormones, which can alleviate symptoms. 2. Reinforcement of behaviour → This then leads to reinforcement of the behaviour of taking the placebo. This typically starts with negative reinforcement, where the behaviour of taking the placebo treatment is strengthened due to it removing the unpleasant stimulus of pain etc. 3. Operant conditioning loop → This can then lead to a reinforcement loop, where the positive consequence of taking the placebo strengthens their expectations and beliefs in the placebo. This increased expectation can lead to a stronger placebo response in the future, which perpetuates the cycle of symptom improvement. This is an example of negative reinforcement → This negative reinforcement in turn acts as the placebo effect, if someone were to give you a pill that looked like a headache tablet, you would start to feel better as you had previously felt better when taking a headache tablet. In operant conditioning, not all associations are equal: Preparedness - In operant conditioning, biological preparedness can be observed when training animals. Animals can most easily learn and retain behaviours that draw on their biological predispositions, or behaviours that come naturally to them. - Some behaviours are ‘shaped’ more easily than others. - Reinforcement is shaped more easily than punishment because of the reinforcer being an incentive. - Food is a good example for animals and humans → ensures survival/pleasant taste, therefore more likely to continue reinforced behaviour. 3 main factors behind biological preparedness. 1. Evolutionary perspective 2. Selective learning 3. Resistance to extinction Examples of biological preparedness Fear conditioning → animals are often biologically prepared to learn associations related to threats and dangers. Food acquisition → animals are biologically prepared to learn associations related to finding and obtaining food. Relevance in animal training In the context of animal training, understanding biological preparedness is essential. Trainers often work with an animal’s natural inclinations and instincts to achieve desired behaviours. For example, when training a hunting dog, trainers might capitalise on the dog’s natural instincts to locate and retrieve prey. Therefore, to maximise the speed of learning, strength of association and resistance to extinction it is essential that the behaviour being taught/modified/ shaped relates to the biological predispositions of the animal and that the reinforcer used draws upon stimulus that are naturally rewarding in a manner specific to the animal. The principles of operant conditioning are used in psychological interventions Token Economy Systems - Token economy systems are often used in therapeutic settings such as psychiatric hospitals or schools. Patients or students earn tokens for engaging in desired behaviours, and these tokens can later be exchanged for rewards. In this system, tokens act as positive reinforcement, strengthening the desired behaviours. The prospect of earning tokens serves as motivation, and the tokens themselves are a form of reinforcement. Applied Behaviour Analysis - Widely used therapeutic approach for individuals with autism and developmental disabilities. It involves breaking down complex behaviours into smaller, manageable components and using reinforcement to teach and reinforce these behaviours. ABA relies on positive reinforcement to encourage desired behaviours. For example, a child with autism might receive praise of a small reward when successfully completing a task, such as making eye contact or following an instruction. Behaviour Modification - Behaviour modification is a set of therapies / techniques based on operant conditioning theory. - Behaviour modification is the process of changing (modifying) behaviours over the long-term using various motivational techniques, and reinforcement strategies (either positive or negative reinforcement). - The aim is to replace inappropriate or problem behaviours with more positive, desirable ones. - Behavioural modification is not a therapy it is an intervention, so it does not need to be administered by a psychologist. Two Key Principles of Behaviour Modification Programs 1. Behaviour shaping → reinforcement of desired behaviours that are progressively increasing in complexity towards the desired ‘goal’ behaviour (behaviour shaping) whilst also decreasing the frequency of undesired behaviours. 2. Strategic use of reinforcement schedules → this reinforcement is delivered through the strategic use of specific reinforcement schedules to maximise the initial learning and also increase resistance to extinction in the long-term Process of Behaviour Modification Step 1. Monitor the amount of time currently doing the activity to create a baseline for how problematic the behaviour currently is. Step 2. Negotiate a realistic goal to work towards with the person. Step 3. Discuss and agree upon a reinforcement schedule with a set of rules for when the person can be rewarded. Step 4. Start the behaviour modification program and reward small improvements in the desired behaviour. Step 5. Gradually remove the reward to determine whether the behaviour has improved. An alternative or additional strategy is to change the environment or condition that is currently reinforcing the undesirable behaviour – e.g. distractors, games, friends. Subtopic 3: Observational Learning Definition: Observational learning is a type of learning that happens indirectly through a process of watching others and then imitating their behaviour, also known as modelling. How is observational learning different from operant conditioning? Observational learning is different from operant conditioning as it focuses on behaviour from an external source, that is learnt through modelling others (often for the purpose of social approval), with the frequency of the behaviour impacted by vicarious outcomes observed when others perform the behaviour. There are 4 key factors of observational learning: 1. Paying attention to the behaviour being observed 2. Retaining information about how the behaviour is performed and the consequences of performing it 3. The capacity to reproduce the behaviour 4. Have the motivation to watch and mimic the behaviours of others. Influential characteristics of the role model The characteristics of the role model can significantly influence the process of learning through observation. These can either enhance or hinder the effectiveness of observational learning. - Gender of Model → Observers tend to reproduce same-sex model - Social Status of Model → The higher the social status, the more their behaviour will be reproduced - Relationship between model and observer → The closer the relationship, the more the observer wants to impress the model, and receive positive reinforcement - Consequences after models’ behaviour → If consequence is positive, behaviour will be reproduced by observer more willingly. Various characteristics of the role model (individual observed) can influence learning through observation. One example is the perceived expertise and competence of the role model. Role models who are seen as ‘experts’ in the domain that relates to the behaviour observed often result in the learner paying more attention to the individual and investing more cognitive effort in retaining the info. This could result in an increased speed in learning through observation, or a greater frequency of mimicry. Mirror cells in the brain Mirror neurons, often referred to as mirror cells, are a type of neuron found in the brain that plays a significant role in observational learning and understanding the actions and intentions of others. Research suggests that observation learning and the imitative behaviour which occurs subsequently are due to the existence of mirror neurons. There is now an understanding that human emotions and physiological states are contagious. Understanding the effect of mirror neurons can contribute to our understanding of the impact of observational learning. Key evidence: 1. Human neuroimaging studies 2. Disorders involving mirror neurons 3. Single-neuron studies (monkey research) Observational Learning – Key Study The pioneers in observational learning were Bandura and Walters, who were interested in aggression in children and how this is developed. They were not convinced that conditioning had taken place. Albert Bandura → was a renowned psychologist. Him colleagues conducted a series of studies in the 1960s to investigate the role of observational learning and aggression in children. These studies, often referred to as the Bobo Doll Studies provided valuable insight into how children learn and model aggressive behaviours by observing others. Bobo Doll Studies:  1. Selection of participants → Bandura and his team selected 72 preschool aged children as their participants. These children were divided into different experimental groups. 2. Aggressive and non-aggressive models → In the experimental setup, children were exposed to adult models who either displayed aggressive or non-aggressive behaviour towards a large inflatable Bobo doll. The aggressive models engaged in behaviours such as punching, kicking, and verbal aggression toward to the Bobo doll. The non-aggressive models did not display any aggression towards the doll. 3. Observation → The children were allowed to observe the behaviour of the adult models interacting with the Bobo doll through a one-way mirror or on video recordings. This allowed Bandura and his team to control the exposure and ensure that the children had a clear view of the model’s actions. 4. Testing for aggression → After observing the models, the children were placed into a room with various toys, including the same Bobo doll. Bandura and his team observed the children’s behaviour in this room, noting any aggressive actions they exhibited towards the Bobo doll. Key findings of Bobo doll experiment - Children who had observed aggressive models were more likely to imitate the aggressive behaviours they had witnessed. This included physically hitting, kicking, and verbally abusing the Bobo doll. - Children exposed to non-aggressive models exhibited significantly fewer aggressive behaviours. - Children who had not been exposed to any model displayed fewer aggressive behaviours overall. These findings suggested that children learned aggressive behaviours through observational learning, implying that they could acquire new behaviours by watching others. - Children who observe aggressive model will exhibit more aggression (88% imitated the aggression). - Girls are more likely to imitate verbal aggression, however, boys were more likely to imitate physical aggression. - When boys viewed a female aggressive model, they commented “Ladies shouldn’t do that”. - Therefore, children are more likely to imitate same-sex models. Summary In the Bandura Bobo doll experiment, preschool-age children were selected as participants and divided into different experimental groups. These groups were exposed to adult models who either displayed aggressive or non-aggressive behaviour toward a large inflatable Bobo doll. A third control group did not observe any model. After observing the models, the children were placed in a room with various toys, including the Bobo doll. Bandura’s team observed the children’s behaviour in this room, specifically noting any aggressive actions they exhibited toward the Bobo doll. The researchers found that children exposed to the aggressive adult models were more likely to imitate the aggressive behaviours they had witnessed. Whereas the non-aggression model group exhibited far less aggressive behaviours, and the control group displayed the least aggressive behaviours out of all three. Behavioural Counts Behavioural counts were used to gather data on the behaviours observed by the researchers with inter-rater reliability being shown to be very high (r=0.89). The use of behavioural counts allows objective quantitative data to be collected reducing observer error. Modern technologies and software enhance data collection precision, reducing observer error. Advantages of Behavioural Counts 1. Objective → behavioural counts offer a highly objective and precise way to measure behaviour. It eliminates the need for interpretation, reducing potential bias and subjectivity in data collection. 2. Quantitative → The method provides quantitative data, allowing for statistical analysis. Researchers can apply various statistical techniques to identify patterns, trends, and relationships in behaviour. This numerical data is also advantageous as it can be easily communicated to stakeholders, including colleagues, policymakers, and clients, facilitating clear and transparent reporting of research findings. 3. Reliability → The quantifiable nature of behavioural frequency counts enhances the replicability of studies. Other researchers can replicate the study by using the same behaviour definitions and counting methods. This improves the reliability of the data, as multiple researchers should be able to measure the same data in a consistent manner by employing the same counting criteria. 4. Real-life context → behavioural counts can be easily utilised in natural settings to provide insights into how behaviours manifest in everyday life, enhancing ecological validity of the research. Describe the factors that influence observational learning Modelling: Attention, Retention, Reproduction, Motivation. Attention: In order for learning to occur, observer must pay attention to the model’s behaviour Retention: Observer codes observed behaviour information into long term memory. Reproduction: Observer must be able to reproduce model’s behaviour. Motivation: Observer expects positive reinforcement for modelled behaviour. Reinforcement can be external (object reward) or internal (sense of accomplishment) Explicit and Implicit Learning from Observational Learning Implicit: implicit learning happens when we are not aware of the learning process. For example, being able to sing along with an advert although we have made no conscious effort to remember. Explicit: Explicit learning refers to a scenario where a person conscious of what they are learning and often has intended to learn this. For example, deliberately memorising information. Acquisition and Performance Acquisition describes the exact moment a response is learnt learned through observation. Skill acquisition will depend on the person’s ability Performance is the process by which the observer acts out the newly learned response. Performance will be based on - Feedback. The more specific the faster acquisition occurs and hence the greater will be performance output. - Motivation. This speeds up the acquisition - Practice. Improves performance. Acquisition of a behaviour, however, does not automatically lead to its performance. The three major types of behavioural learning 1. Classical Conditioning: a neutral stimulus is associated with a natural response 2. Operant Conditioning: a response is increased or decreased due to reinforcement or punishment 3. Observational Learning: learning occurs through observation and imitation of others Subtopic 4: Individual Differences Learner characteristics can be personal, academic, social/emotional, and/or cognitive in nature. Personal Characteristics - Often relate to demographic information such as age, gender, personality, maturity, socio economic status, cultural background, and specific needs of a learner such as particular skills and disabilities for and/or impairments to learning Academic Characteristics - More education and/or learning related such as learning styles, learning goals (of an individual or a group), prior knowledge, educational type, and educational level. Social/ Emotional Characteristics - Relate to the group or to the individual. Examples of social/emotional characteristics are group structure, place of the individual within a group, motivation, self-image (also feelings of self-efficacy and agency), mood. Cognitive Characteristics - Relate to such things as attention span, memory, mental procedures, and intellectual skills which determine how the learner perceives, remembers, thinks, solves problems, organises and represents information in her/his brain. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT). Cognitive-behavioural therapy has its theoretical foundations in classical conditioning, operant conditioning, social learning (observational learning). In CBT the therapist and client collaborate to change the client's environment, help the client learn new skills, and modify the client’s thinking pattern. CBT helps the person to challenge and overcome automatic beliefs to modify their behaviour. Therapists must tailor the treatment to each client’s needs. There is no one strategy that suits all clients equally. - CBT views problematic behaviour as fundamentally learned. Undesired behaviour can be unlearned. CBT can help treat Anxiety, depression, low self-esteem and uncontrollable anger. - A behaviour therapists can help treat social phobia by helping them learn better social skills and to think positively. - An advantage of cognitive behaviour therapy is that it helps people learn skills that may prevent them from becoming depressed in the future. - Cognitive behaviour therapy may not be suitable for severely depressed people because they may be too depressed to learn the new thinking skills. Learned Helplessness Main researcher: Martin Seligman in 1970’s. He conducted research on dogs where they were continuously exposed to electric shocks that were unavoidable. Eventually, the dogs were given the opportunity to escape the shocks by jumping over a barrier, however most dogs did not and simply lay down and took the shocks. Seligman argued that the dogs had learned to be helpless. Similar observations in humans who have depression, due to reduced motivation. Seligman's experiment: Bell ringing followed by light shock to dogs. - After a number of times, the dog reacted to the shock even before it happened - Dogs placed in divided crate with electrified floor on one side. - Fence allowed dogs to escape to non-electrified side. - When shocked, dogs didn't jump to safe side but lay down. - Learned helplessness: Dogs gave up, believing they couldn't avoid shocks. Results from repeated prevention of avoiding aversive stimulus, leading to passivity and depression. - Feeling of lack of control over the environment. - Passive state where improvement actions aren't taken despite being identifiable. - Human or animal learns helplessness, remains passive even when opportunity to escape returns. - Side effect of punishment: "learned helplessness." - Term for state of helplessness/resignation, leading to depression due to impossible escape from pain. Locus of Control Internal Locus of control → I control my world. I have the power to change things if I want to. External Locus of Control → My world is controlled by those around me. I have no power to change my world. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy – Phobias - Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) also used extensively in the treatment of phobias - CBT creates a safe environment in which to ‘expose’ individuals to the stimuli they normally try and avoid. Strategy is called ‘exposure therapy.’ - Most recognised and effective psychological therapy - Teaches client to understand, manage and change their distorted thoughts and actions - Helps client become aware of thought distortions if they occur again - Improved skills of awareness, introspection and evaluation – coping strategies - Reduces likelihood of relapse - Often quicker success than systematic desensitisation, however much more intensive and confronting Advantages: - Evidence for longer, more extended success - Can use strategies again if symptoms resurface - Applicable to all age groups, genders, and demographics Disadvantages: - Sometimes difficult to change thought process for severe phobias - Can be very confronting form of therapy with high short-term stress and panic - Can be very expensive