Lcs (Reviewer) PDF

**LESSON 1** **Language** - A word that comes from the latin word ***"lingua"*** and in the French word ***"langue".*** - An important element of communication -- Mananay and Sumaling (2011) - Possible wherever a stimulus can affect the other. - Not restricted to purely verbal expre...

**LESSON 1** **Language** - A word that comes from the latin word ***"lingua"*** and in the French word ***"langue".*** - An important element of communication -- Mananay and Sumaling (2011) - Possible wherever a stimulus can affect the other. - Not restricted to purely verbal expressions but includes any standardized and conventionalized system of symbols. - Come into being when two or more persons have learned to attach the same values or experiences to the same sound combinations. - ***"Language is primarily a human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions, and desires through a system of voluntarily produced symbols." -- Sapir*** - ***"Language goes beyond just describing real situations, for it primarily aims to form the components of culture." -- Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis*** - ***"Language may be defined as the expression of thought utilizing speech." -- Henry Sweet*** - ***"Language, in its widest sense, means the total of such signs of our thoughts and feelings as are capable of external perception and as could be produced and repeated at will." -- A. H. Gardiner*** - ***A system of communication by sound i.e. through the organs of speech and hearing among human beings of a certain group or community using vocal symbols processing arbitrary conventional meanings." -- Mario A. Pei and Frank Gaynor*** **Macro Skills** - Listening, Speaking, Reading, and Writing **(LSRW)** - Essential for communication. **Language Skills** - Listening - Speaking - Reading - Writing **Communication Skills** - Verbal - Non-verbal - Visual - Listening - Written **Listening** - Prerequisite to understanding. - Skill of grasping and decoding information. - ***Getting meaning from what is heard (Underwood,2019)*** **10 Steps to Effective Listening (D. Schilling)** 1. Look at the speaker in the face and eyes. 2. Focus and give attention but relax. 3. Be open-minded 4. Listen and picture what the speaker is saying. 5. Don't speak while the other person is talking. 6. When the speaker pauses, you may ask for clarifying questions. 7. Ask relevant questions. 8. Put yourself in the speaker's place. 9. Give feedback. 10. Focus as well to nonverbal cues. **Speaking** - Ability that makes human superior to other species. - Complex cognitive and linguistic skill that involves word and sound. **Involves:** - Meaning - Sociality, Relationship, Affect - Cultural Issues - Performance - Sound Elements **Function of Speaking** - Interaction - Transaction - Performance **Reading** - Multifaceted process involving word recognition, comprehension, fluency, and motivation. - The process that negotiates the meaning between the text and its reader. **Requires:** - Word recognition - Comprehension - Fluency **Categories of Reading (Brown, 1989)** A. **Oral Reading** B. **Silent Reading** - Intensive - Linguistic - Context - Extensive - Skimming -- looking for main or general idea. - Scanning -- quickly looking for specific information. - Global **Writing** - Entails control of language variables since it is an extremely complex cognitive activity. - Navigates chances of a person's success. - Educational and employability requirement. **Steps for Writing:** 1. Decide the Topic 2. Research and Collect information 3. Outline and Plan 4. Start writing with a simple draft 5. Review, edit, and format **View** - Give meaning to the images or visuals with printed and spoken words. - Provide an avenue to understand things and gain knowledge through the information presented with the use of technology. **Types of Viewing** A. **Visual Viewing** -- B. **Critical Viewing** -- viewers are engaged thoughtfully with the content rather than absorbing it. **Communicative Competence** - K-12 English Curriculum - The knowledge of an individual on the linguistic level such as phonology, morphology, syntax, and pragmatics. - **1996** when first coined by **Dell Hymes** as a response to Noam Chomsky's performance and competence concept. **Canale and Swain 1980** A. **Linguistic Competence --** ability to create grammatically correct utterances. B. **Sociolinguistic Competence --** ability to create sociolinguistically appropriate utterances. C. **Discourse Competence --** ability to produce coherent and cohesive utterances. D. **Strategic Competence ­--** ability to solve communication problems as they rise. **Three Principles of Communicative Competence** 1. Communication Principle 2. Task Principle 3. Meaningful Principle **LESSON 2: FIRST LANGUAGE VS SECOND LANGUAGE** **First Language (L1)** - Language used and learned by a person from birth until the critical period. - Language used in the house**.** - Learned from the people they were with from birth until critical period. - Effortlessly and naturally learned with 100% proficiency within 6 years from birth. - No alternative to the first language. - Person cannot decide his/her L1. - Comes as an inheritance, legacy, or birthright. - Begins with a telegraphic speech. - Does not require any conscious effort because the acquisition process is subconscious. **Second Language (L2)** - Accommodated after the first language - Takes effort and conscious will by familiarizing with the form, vocabulary, pronunciation, function, and rules of the language. - Personal choices - Learned consciously from guidance and instructions. - New aspects of a person's life. **L1 vs L2** - How they are learned: **first language --** naturally, **second language --** later in life through formal instruction and immersion. **Do the first language and mother tongue mean the same?** - **Mother Tongue -** language spoken by one's parents or community and is learned from birth. - **First Language -** language in which someone becomes proficient. Most comfortable language to use. **Native Language (Native Tongue) --** language where a person is proficient in, typically because it is the first language they learned from birth during early childhood. - Often the language individuals think, dream, and express themselves most comfortably. - It is tied to the cultural identity of the speaker, and it plays a critical role in shaping one's worldview and cognitive process. **Foreign Language --** a language that is not commonly spoken in the learner's immediate environment. - Usually learned in the classroom or academic setting, unlike a second language, which can be learned through immersion in a society where the language is spoken. **LESSON 3: MACRO AND MICRO LINGUISTIC STUDIES** **Micro Linguistics** - Has a much narrower linguistic perspective. - Concentration is on structures of language. - **Phonetics --** how the sounds should be articulated, transmitted, and received. - **Phonology --** study the function of speech sounds, and its organization. - **Morphology --** study of constructions and formation of words. - **Syntax --** study of the relationship between linguistic forms. - **Semantics --** meaning of sentences. - **Pragmatics --** study of the relationship between linguistic forms and the users of those forms. **Macro Linguistics** - Has a broader view of linguistics - Concentrated on the acquisition of language, the relationship of language and culture, physiological and psychological processes involved in language behavior. - **Psycholinguistics --** study of language and mind. - **Sociolinguistics --** study of the relationship between language and society. - **Neurolinguistics --** study of language processing and language representation in the brain. - **Discourse analysis --** study of how the stretches of the language used in communication assume meaning, purpose, and unity for their users. - **Computation linguistics --** the application of linguistic theories and computational techniques to problems of natural language processing. - **Applied linguistics -** field of study at how linguistics can help understand real-life problems in areas such as psychology, sociology, and education. **LESSON 4: PRESCRIPTIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE** A. **Descriptive Grammar** - Concerned with describing the use of language by native or non-native speakers without reference to proposed norms of correctness or advocacy of rules based on such norms. - Language usage can vary according to varied speakers. Thus, it does not consider what is correct. - Rules are made according to the daily usage of the language by the speakers. B. **Prescriptive Grammar** - Concerned with establishing norms of correct and incorrect usage and formulating based on the norms to be followed by users of the language. - long existed grammar rules are created by the native speakers are the correct and the variations are the incorrect. - They are specified and standard set or grammar rules. **LESSON 5: DIACHRONIC VS SYCHRONIC** A. **Synchronic Linguistics (Descriptive Linguistics)** - Study of language at any given point of time. - Attempts to study the function of language without the reference to earlier or later stage. - Analyzes and describes how language is actually used by a group of people in a speech community. B. **Diachronic Linguistics (Prescriptive Linguistics)** - The study of language through the different periods in history. - Focus on the historical development of language or language evolution through different periods of time. **LESSON 5: ORAL VS WRITTEN LANGUAGE** A. **Oral Language -** typically more spontaneous, less structured, and more reliant on immediate context, and non-verbal cues. B. **Written Language --** is more permanent, structured, and less reliant on immediate context or non-verbal cues. **LESSON 6: PLURALITY OF ENGLISHES** - The recognition that English is not a ***monolithic or singular language*** but rather a diverse, global phenomenon consisting of many varieties. - These varieties are shaped by geography, culture, history, and, social factors, resulting in distinct Englishes used across different regions and communities. - **Singaporean English (Singlish)** - Singapore's unique form of English blends elements from Chinese, Malay, and Tamil. - Includes vocabulary like "lah" or "leh" for emphasis. - Reflects the cultural makeup of Singapore. - **African Englishes** - Reflects local linguistic and cultural context. - **British and American English** - Two of the most prominent varieties of English, differing in vocabulary, spelling, and pronunciation. - **Indian English** - Reflects the influence of indigenous languages **LESSON 7: FEATURES OF HUMAN LANGUAGE BY HOCKET** 1. **Vocal-Auditory Channel** - Human language of occurs as a vocal type of communication, which is perceived by hearing. - The basic mode of communication by the vast majority makes use of sounds, secondary to which is writing. - An exception or the people who use sign language in communication which makes use of the manual-visual channel. 2. **Broadcast transmission and directional reception** - When a person is standing in the middle of the room, he can be heard by everyone assuming that he is speaking loudly enough. - Human language signal when sent can be perceived in limited directions though sent in all directions. 3. **Rapid Fading (transitoriness)** - Speech waveforms fade rapidly which is why the human language signal does not persist over time. 4. **Interchangeability** - Speaker can receive and send the same language signal. 5. **Total Feedback** - We can hear ourselves while we speak. 6. **Specialization** - Humans have organs and has its own specific function of speech. 7. **Arbitrariness** - There is no necessary connection between the form and the thing assigned to it. 8. **Discreetness** - The basic speech units can be categorized. 9. **Displacement** - Speaking of the things that cannot be perceived of our five senses. 10. **Productivity** - We cannot create never-before-heard utterances. 11. **Traditional Transmission** - Learning language requires effort because human language is not inborn. 12. **The duality of patterning** - The discrete parts of a language can be combined in a systematic way to create new forms. - Ability to recombine small units in different orders. **Halliday's Language Functions** 1. **Instrumental: I want --** getting things done, satisfying material needs. 2. **Regulatory:** **Do as I tell you --** influencing the behavior, feeling, and attitudes of others, includes the language of rules and instructions. 3. **Interactional:** **Me and You -** getting along with others, to include or exclude, and a way of learning about things. 4. **Personal:** **here I come --** expressing individuality and personal feelings, making public own's individuality. 5. **Heuristic:** **Tell me why -** seeking and learning, using language to explore his/her environment. 6. **Imaginative:** **Let's Pretend --** creating stories, game and new words, not necessarily about anything at all. 7. **Representational:** **I've got something to tell you --** communicating information, conveying a message. **Non-Human Communication** - Different forms of communication can be found in the world of animals. - Posture is a very common communicative tool among animals. - Postural communication is known in both human and non-human primates. **Transmission in Animal Language** - **Communication** -- is when one animal transmits information to another causing some kind of change in the animal that gets the information. - Animals communicate using **signals**, involving **pheromones;** or tactile, touch-based, clues. **Animals Communication Type** 1. **Chemical Communication** - Used chemical signal to trigger a response in another individual of the same species. - **Pheromone --** sacred chemical signal used by animals. 2. **Auditory Communication** - Communication based on sound- is widely used in the animal kingdom. 3. **Visual Communication** - Involves signals that can be seen. **(gestures, facial expressions, body postures, and coloration)** - **Gesture and Posture** are widely used visual signals. 4. **Tactile Communication (Meyer, 2016)** - Involve signals delivered by touch, and limited in range. - Fairly common in insects. - Play in important role in social relationship which reinforces cooperation and social bonds among group members. - Play a role in the survival of very young organisms. **Most Common Functions of Communication** - Obtaining mates - Establishing dominance or defending territory - Coordinating group behaviors - Caring for young **Animal Consciousness (Cheng, 2014)** **Experiments on Language Animals** 1. **The Lana Project** - a female chimpanzee was trained to manipulate keyboard on 1970. - She learned through the lexigram keyboard designed by Duane Rambaugh in Decatur, Georgia which has three panels with 400 symbols to select from. 2. **The Washoe Project** - Spearheaded by the researchers from the University of Nevada in Reno, they teach Washoe an ESL or American sign Language of the same thought to the humans. 3. **The Koko Project** - a gorilla with near human capability was experimented on 1972 to learn sign language as well as vocal sound. **2 weeks --** she was able to communicate by making signs for food and water. - She was a fast learner and a span of four years he learned a total of 200 signs.