LATEST_FORM_1_BIOLOGY_NOTES.pdf

i saboke mic ah@g...

i saboke mic ah@g mai l. com BI OLOGY FORM1NOTES I NTRODUCTI ONTOBI OLOGY Wha ti sBiolog y? Bi ologyisthebranc hofsc iencethatdea lswit hthes tudyofl ivi ngt hing s.I nGr eek, Bios meanslif ewhi l eLogosmeansknowledge. Bra nc he sofbiol ogy Therearetwoma i nbranches: 1.Bot a ny:St udyofplants 2.Zoology:S tudyofanimals Theot he r si nc l ude : 1.Ecolog y:Studyofl i vingthingsintheirsur roundi ngs. 2.Gene ti c s:Thestudyofi nherit anceandva riati on. 3.Entomol ogy:Studyofi nse cts 4.Parasitology:Studyofpa rasit es 5.Taxonomy: St udyofc l assi fica tionoforga nisms 6.Microbi ology:Studyofmi croscopi cor g a nisms 7.Anatomy: Studyofs truct ureofc el ls 8.Cytolog y:Studyofc el ls 9.Bioche mi st ry:Studyofc hemicalchangesi nsidel ivi ngor gani sms Ques tion Nameatl eastsi xot hers mal lerbr anc hesofbi ology( 6mar ks). I mportanc eofBi ology 1.Solvinge nvironme ntalpr oblemse.g.Foods hor t age,poorhealt hs ervic es, pollution, mi suseofe nvi ronme ntalre sourcese tc. 2.Choi ceofc areerse. g.Me dici ne , Ag riculture,publichealt h,Veter inary,Animal husba ndr y,Hor t iculture, Dentist rye tc. 3.Acqui rings c ientifi cs kil lse.g. obs e r ving ,i dentifyi ng , recordi ng,cl a ss ifi cati on, me asur ing ,analyzing, e va luati nge tc. 4.Interna tiona lco-oper ati one. g.De velopme ntofHI V\AIDSvacci ne ,f ightagai nst seve reAc uter espir ator yS yndrome( SARS ),fi ghtt osaveozonelayerfrom deple ti on, ma nag e me ntofr esourcest hroug hinternati onaldepl etion. Ot hers  Helpons t udyofot hers ubjec ts  Learnwha tli vingthi ngsarema deupofandthei rbodie swork  Acquir eknowl e dg eaboutpla nta ndani ma l dise asesandthei rtre atment.  Knowt hee f fec tsofourbodiesondrugandsubsta nceabuseandcanki ll. Nove ls, Upda tedKAS NEB, ICT, Col leg e,Hi ghS chool &Pr ima rys oft copyNot es 0714497530 1  i saboke mic ah@g mai l. com  LearnaboutHIV\AI DSdi sease sandothervi ral diseas ese.g.it s tre atment—ba l ance ddie ts, properhyg iene, sprea ding,s exualbe havi or, cult ura l pr acti ceset c. Ques tion Li stf iveprof ess ionaloc cupat ionst hatr equi ret hes tudyofbi ology. (5mar ks) Char acte r isticsofl ivingt hing s; 1.Nut rition: Pr oc es sbywhi chl i vingt hi ng sa cqui rea ndut ilizenut ri e nts:plants phot os ynt he size ;a nima lsfe e dona lrea dyma nuf acturedf oods. 2.Res pi rati on: e ne rgy- produc ingpr oc es soc cur ringi na ll t hec e l lsofl ivingt hi ng s. 3.Gas eousEx cha ng e: whe rel ivingt hing st akei na ir(ox yge n)a ndg iveout air ( ca rboni vox ide )a crossr espirator ys ur face s. 4.Exc re ti on: Proc e ssbywhi c hwa steorha rmf ul ma teri a l sr es ultingf romc hemical reac tionswi thi nc ell sofl ivingt hing sa ree limi na ted.Exc e s sofs uchma terial s pois onl ivingt hing s. 5.Growt ha ndDe ve lopme nt: Gr owt h–i st hei rre ve rsi bleinc r e asei ns izea nd Ma ss.—Es sent ia lforbodyf unc t ion.De velopme nt–I rreve rsiblec ha ngei n compl ex i t yoft hes tructureofl i vingt hi ngs. 6.Repr oduc tion: Pr oc essbywhi chlivingt hing sg iver i set one wi ndividua lsofthe sameki nd. 7.Irr ita bility: I st hea bili tyofl ivingt hing st ope rce i vec hang esint heirsur roundings andr e spondt ot he ma ppropr iately.E. g.rea ctiont oc hang esint empe ra t ur e , humi dity, li g ht ,pr essur eandt othepr esenc eofc e r tainc he mi ca ls. 8.Move me nt: Cha ng einpos itionbye ithe rapa rtort hewhol el ivingt hing. Loc omot ion–Pr og ressivec ha ngei npos itionbyt hewhol el i vi ngt hing. I na nimals , move me nti nc lude ; swi mmi ng ,wa lking ,runni ng ,fl ying.I npl ant s,closingof leave s,foldi ngofl eave s,clos ingoff lowe rs, growi ngofs hoot st owa rdsl i ghte t c. Ques tion 1.Listf ourusesofenergyobtai nedfromthepr oces sofr espi rat ion. (4mar ks). 2.Lists ixcharac teri sti csofli vingt hings( 6marks). Col lec tionofs pec ime ns Appa rat usused 1.Swe epnet:forcatchingf lyi nginsects. 2.Fishnet:Fortrappi ngs ma l lfi sha ndothers mallwa t eranima l s. 3.Pooter: Fors uckings ma llanimalsfromrocks urfacesandtreebarks. 4.Baittra p: Forattractinga ndtrappingsmalla ni ma lse. g.rat s. 5.Pitfa lltrap:Forc a t chingc ra wlinga ni ma l s. 6.Pairofforceps:pickingups mallcrawli nga nima l se. g.st ing inginsec ts. 7.Specimenbot tl es:ke epingcoll ectedspecime n.Largerspeci me nsre quire Nove ls, Upda tedKAS NEB, ICT, Col leg e,Hi ghS chool &Pr ima rys oft copyNot es 0714497530 2  i saboke mic ah@g mai l. com l argebott les. 8.Thema g nifyi nglens :Ins trumentuse dt oenl argeobjec ts. Lense saref ound i nmi c roscopeandthehandlens(magni fi er). Itsf rameismarkede.g. x8or x10—indicat inghowmuc hl argerwi llbetheimagecomparedt oobje ct. Preca ut i onsdur ingCol l e ctiona ndObs e rvati onofs pecime ns  Col lec tonl ythenumbe rofs pec ime nyoune ed.  Donotha rmt hes pe cime nsduringt hec aptureorc ol l e c tionex e rci se.  Ha ndl eda ng er ousori njuriousspe cime nswi thcaree.g.sti ngingpl antsor insect si.e.us ef orc epsorha ndglove s.  Thet e ac herwi llimmobi liz ehi g hl ymobi l ea nima l s.(diethylether, for ma l in, chlor ofor m)  Donotde stroyt hena tura lhabi tatoft hes pecime ns. Compar isonbe twe enpl ant sa nda nima ls Plants Anima ls 1.Gr ee ni nc olour (ha ve 1.La ckc hlorophyl lthusfeed chlor ophyl l) onr eadyma def ood. 2.The irc ellsha vec ellulos e 2.Ce llslackc e llulosec ell cel l wa l ls. wa ll s. 3.Re s ponds l owl yt oc hang es 3. Re spondqui ckly. inthee nvi ronme nt. 4.La cks pe ciali z ede xc retory 4. Ha vec ompl exex cretory orga ns. or gans. 5.Donotmovea bout. 5. Movea bouti nse archof fooda ndwa ter. 6.Gr owt hoc cursi ns hoota nd 6. Growt hoc cursina llbody roott ips. (apic al gr owt h) pa r ts9intercalaryg rowt h). CLAS S IFICATI ONI INTRODUCTI ON Livingthingsareal soknowna sl ivingorga nisms. Or g a ni sms( for msofli fe)havedi s t ingui shingcha rac ter ist icsa ndt her efor ear egr oupe d. TheMa gnif yingle ns -I sus edfore nl argi ngsmall objec t s. Pr oce dur eofi tsus e Nove ls, Upda tedKAS NEB, ICT, Col leg e,Hi ghS chool &Pr ima rys oft copyNot es 0714497530 3  i saboke mic ah@g mai l. com  Pl acet heobje ctonthebench.  Movet hehandlensfr omt heobje cttotheeye.  Anenl arg edimageissee n. Dra wingmagni fi cat ion=Lengthofthedra wing /dra wingLeng th Lengt hoftheobject / Act ualLe ngt h (Di agra m) Ex te r na lf e at ur esofpl ant sanda ni ma l s Ex te r na lf e at ur esofpl ant s i) Rhi zoidsa sinmos splant. ii) Fr ondsi nf erns. iii ) Root s,ste ms ,l e ave,f lowe r s,see ds, frui ts, andc one sinhi ghe rpl ant s. Ex te r na lfeaturesofa nima ls i) Te ntaclesi nhydr a ii) Fe athersi nbi rds iii ) S hell si ns nails iv) Wi ng sinbi rds v) Fura ndha i ri nma mma ls vi) S cal e sandf insi nfish vii) Pr oglotidsint ape worms viii ) Ma mma ryg landsinma mma l s ix) Loc omot oryS tructurese. g.li mbsinins ects x) Bodypi g me ntation Pra cti calac tivi ty1 Tocol lec tandobserveani malspeci mens Tocol lec tandobservepla nts pe c imens Wha tiscl assifi ca tion? -I sana reaofbiol og ythatdeal swiththegroupingofl ivi ngorgani smsaccor dingt othei r st ructure.Organi smswi t hsimil arstruc turesareputunderonegroupr efer redtoa sa ta xon—t a xa( plur al). Theg r ouping sals oc onsi derevol utionar yrelat ionshi ps(phyl ogeny)—si nceall living organi s mshadac ommonor i ginatonetime. Taxonomy—S cie nc eofcl assi fi cati on. Taxonomi st —Bi olog is twhos t udiestax onomy. Needforc lassi fi cat ion. Re a s ons 1.Toidenti fyli vingorg a ni smsintot hei rcor rec tg r oupsf orref erenceandstudy 2.Tobr i ngtoget herli vingorgani smswit hsimi larcha rac ter ist icsbuts e pa rate thosewithdi ffer entfeat ure s. Nove ls, Upda tedKAS NEB, ICT, Col leg e,Hi ghS chool &Pr ima rys oft copyNot es 0714497530 4  i saboke mic ah@g mai l. com 3.Toarr angeinf orma t ionofli vingorga nismsina norder lyma nner. Thisavoi ds cha osandconfusi on. 4.Tounder sta ndt heevolut ionaryre lat ionshi pbet weendif fer e ntor gani sms Di ver sit yofLi vingOrganisms  Organismswi thsimil archar acter ist icsareplace dunderoneg roupc all edt axon (t a x a).  Thes c ienc eofcl assi fi cati onisknowna staxonomy.  Biol ogistswhos tudytax onomya recall edtaxonomi sts. Hi stor icalBackgr oundofCl as sific ati on  Longt i mea gocl assif ica tionwa sa r tif ici alwherel ivi ngthingswer ec l assi fie das eit he rpl antsoranimals.  Plantswerecla ssif iedashe rbs , s hrubsa ndt rees.  Anima l swe ref urtherdividedintocarni vores ,herbi voresandomnivore s.  Toda ymodernclassi fi cati onus esevoluti onar yr e lat ions hipsbet we enli ving organisms. Taxonomi cUnits Areg roups(t a xa)i ntowhic horganismsareplacedasama t terofconvenienc e. Groupsa rebasedonobs ervablecharact eris tic sc ommoni nthegroup. Inac l a s sif ica tionscheme( taxonomicunitsorgroups,ahierar chyofg roupsare recognizedstart ingwiththefirstlar gestandhighestg r oup;t heKing domt othe sma l lestandlowe s tunit; thes pecies. The r ea re7ma jortax onomi cuni t s. KI NGDOM PHYLUM/DI VIS ION CLASS ORDER FAMI LY GENUS TheKingdom SPECIES Ther ea r ef i veKi ngdomsofl i vingorganisms,namely: 1.KingdomMone ra:bact eria 2.Kingdomprotocti sta:al gae,pr otozoa , amoeba , paramec ium 3.KingdomFung i :Moulds,Yeast ,Mus hrooms 4.KingdomPlantae:Mossplants ,ferns,mai ze,garde npea,pi ne,mer uoa k,be ane tc. 5.KingdomAnima l ia:hydra, tapewor ms,bees ,huma nbe ingset c. Nove ls, Upda tedKAS NEB, ICT, Col leg e,Hi ghS chool &Pr ima rys oft copyNot es 0714497530 5  i saboke mic ah@g mai l. com Aki ng domi sdi vide di nt oPhyl aina nima lsordi visi onsinplantsa nds ortsout org anismsba sedonbodypl ana ndf orm. Plani st heada pta tiont oas pecialwa yofl ife. TheCl assisfur the rdi vide dintos ma l lgr oups ;Or de r susingstructuralfea tur e s. Orde r sa r edi vi de di ntof ami l iesus ings truc tural feat ures,t henFa mili esi ntoGe ner a (sing ulargenus )–ba se donr ecentc ommona nce st ralfeat urestha tareles sadapti ve. Ge nusi sdivide di ntos pec i esi. e.kindofpl ant,ora nima l. Downt hehie rarchy, thenumbe rofor gani smsi ne achg r oupde c rease sbutt heir si mi la ri tiesincre ase s. TheS pe ci esg roupme mbe rsnatur allyint erbr e e dt oproducefertileof fs pr i ngs. Mi nordi f fer e nce sa ree xhibit edi nt hes pe c i esg roupse.g.oncol ouroft hes kinin huma nbe i ngsa ndva rietiesofpl ants. Theg roupsoft hes pe c iesa r ete rme dt oa sva ri e tie s , racesorstrains. Class if icati onofAhuma nbe i nga ndama iz eplant Tax onomi cunit Huma nbe ing ma ize bean king dom Ani ma l ia planta e plantae Phyl umor Chor data Ang ios perma phyta Ang i os perma e division class Ma mma l ia monoc otyledona e Dicotyledona e orde r Pr i ma tes Gr a mi na l e s Rosal es fami ly Homi ni dae Gr a mi na ceae Legumi nosa e genus homo zea Pha s e olus spe cies s apie ns ma ys Vulga ri s S cie nti fi me Homos cna api ens Zeamays phas eol usvul gar is Scient ifi cNa mingOfLi vingOr gani sms Presentna mingwa sde ve lopedbycarolusLinnaeus18thc,whe reorganismswe regi ven 2na mesinLa tinlangua ge. Livi ngor ganismsha vet he irsci ent if icname sandc ommonna me si. e. localor vernacularname s. Scient ifi cna mingus est hedoubl enamingsys t em—Bi nomialsyste m. Inbinomia ls yst e m, anor ganismisgi venbot htheg enusands peci e sname. Binomialnome ncl ature( Doubl e–namingsystem)-Isthea s sig ningofs c i enti fi cnames toli vingor gani s msg ove rne dbyadefi nitesetofrulesrecogni z e di nternati onal ly. Pr inci plesofbinomi alnome ncl ature a)Thefirst ,ge nusna me,shouldbeginwi thacapit all ett era ndt hes econdna me, speci es,shoul dbe gi norwr it teninsmal lle tte rse.g. Lion-- --Pant heraleo Leopard--- --Pant herapardus Dome sti cdog - --- -Canisfarmil iar is Huma nbe ing - --Homos apiens Nove ls, Upda tedKAS NEB, ICT, Col leg e,Hi ghS chool &Pr ima rys oft copyNot es 0714497530 6  i saboke mic ah@g mai l. com Ma i z epl a nt ---Zeamays LionandLe oparda rec l oselyrelated---Sa meg enusbutdi s tant l yr el ated—di f ferent specie s. b)Thes c i entificna me smus tbepr inte dinital icsintextbooksa ndwhe rehand wr i ttent obeunde rli nede. g. Panther aleo. c)Thes pe ci ficna me( speci es)i sfr e que ntl ywr it tenwi t ht hena meoft hes c ienti st whof ir s ta de qua t elydescribe dandna me dtheor ga ni s me.gPhas. eolusvulgar is i. e.Vul gari si st hescienti stwhode scribedandna me dt hebe anplant. d)Biolog i stss houl dgiveaLa ti ni ze dna mef orane wlyde scribeda ni ma lorplant specie swhe r eLa ti nna meismi ssinge. g. Meladogyneki kuyuens i s–I sas cie nti ficnameofane ma todefromki kuyu. Aloeki li fi ens is- - -Ame mbe rofAl oe ceaefamilyfromKi l if i di scovery. Garins ogapar vif lorawawer uensis- - -ame mbe rofMa cdona l de yefamily discove redbyWa we ru. StudyQuest ion1 Complet ethetabl ebe low Tax on Lion Domes tic Ga rde npe a Napi er dog gr ass kingdom Phylum/ di vis ion clas s orde r family genus species Scienti fi cname - - -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- - - -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --- - -- --- - - --- -- -- -- --- -- Nove ls, Upda tedKAS NEB, ICT, Col leg e,Hi ghS chool &Pr ima rys oft copyNot es 0714497530 7  i saboke mic ah@g mai l. com THECELL I ntr oducti on  Thec e llist hebasicuni tofanorganis m.  Alll ivi ngor ganis msa remadeupofc el ls. S omeor ga nismsarema deupofonec el landot her saresa idt obemul ti cel lul ar.  Otherorga nismsa remadeofmanyc el lsandar esai dtobemult ice llul ar.  Cell saret ool i tt letoseewitht hena kedeye.  Theyc a nonl ybes eenwit htheaidofami cr osc ope. Themi cros cope Themi cros copei sus edt oma gni fyobj ect s. Mi cros copePa rts&Func tion 1. Eye pie ce Cont ainsamagni fyi nglenst hatf ocuse sthe i ma g ef r omtheobje cti veint oyoureye. 2. Cour seAdj ust Forf ocus ingunde rlowma gni fi cat ion 3. FineAdj ust Forfoc usi ngunde rhi ghma gni fi cat ionor low Nove ls, Upda tedKAS NEB, ICT, Col leg e,Hi ghS chool &Pr ima rys oft copyNot es 0714497530 8  i saboke mic ah@g mai l. com 4. LowPowe rObj ect ive Forl arg espe cime nsorove rvi ew 5. Hig hPowe rObj ect ive Forde tai ledvi ewi ngors mal lspe cime ns 6. Spe cime nong las ssl ide Wha tyouwa ntt olooka t 7. Sta ge S uppor tss pec ime ninc orr ectl oca tiont o l ens 8. Conde nse r Foc use sthel ightons pec ime n 9. Dia phr agm( iri sordi sc) Re gul ate samountofl ighta ndc ont ras t 10. Lig htS our ce I ll umi nat est hes pec ime nforvi ewi ng Handl inga ndCa reoft heMi cros cope Thefoll owi ngr ules houl dbeobs erved: 1.Us ebot hha ndwhe nc arryingt hemi croscope.Oneha nds houldhol dtheba sea nd theot herhol dst heli mb. 2.Ne verpl acethemi cr os copet ooc loset ot hee dg eofthebe nch. 3.Donott ouc ht hemi r rora ndt hel e nseswi tht hef ingers. 4.Cleandi rtyle ns esusings ofttissue. 5.Cleanot he rpa rtsus i ngas oftclot h. 6.Donotwe tanypa rtofthemi cros cope. 7.Ma kes ur ethel owpowe rc licksi ntopos it ioni nlinewi tht heeyepi ecebeforeand afterus e. 8.Alwa yss toret hemi c r oscopei nas afepl acef re efromdus tandmoi s ture. Us ingtheMi croscope 1.Placemi c roscopeont hebe nchwi tht hes tag ef acingawa yf romyou. 2.Tur nthel owpowe robje ctivele nsunt ili tc licksi ntoposition. 3.Ens urethedi aphr agmi sf ullyope n. 4.Lookt hr oug ht hee yepiec ewi thonee ye.Adj us tthemi rrortoe nsurema ximum lig htc anpa sst hrough. 5.Placet hes li dec ontainingt hes pe c i me nont hes tageandc l ipitintoposit ion. Ma kes ur ethes l ideisa tt hec ent reoft hef ieldofvi ew. 6.Ag ainlookt hr oug hthee yepie cewhi l ea djus ti ngt hemirr ortoe nsurema ximum lig htr eac hthes pecime n. 7.Us ethec oa rsea djustme ntknobt obr ingt hel owpowe robj ect ivelenstothe lowe stpoi nt.Whi l evi ewi ngt hroug hthee yepi e c e ,t urnthec oarseadjust me nt knobg entlyunt i l t hes pe cime nc ome si ntof oc us. Nove ls, Upda tedKAS NEB, ICT, Col leg e,Hi ghS chool &Pr ima rys oft copyNot es 0714497530 9  i saboke mic ah@g mai l. com 8.Usethefinea djustmentknobtobri ngthei ma geintosha r pf ocus. 9.Ma keadr awingofwha tyousee. 10. Forhi gherma gni fi cati on,t urntheme di umpowe rintopos it iona nda dj ust thefocusus i ngt hecoars eknob.Usethefinea djust me ntknobf orsharpe rf ocus. 11. Fore venla r gema gni fi cati ons,t urnt hehig hpowe robje c tivelensinto posit ion.Inthisc a seuseonlythefi neadjus t me ntknobt obr ingde t ailsinto sharperfocus. Magnificati on  Thema gnifyingpowe risus ual lyi ns cri be dont hel e ns.  Tof indouthowma nytime sas pec ime ni sma gnifi ed,thema gnif yingpowe rof theobj ectivel ensismul tipli edbytha toft heeyepi ecelens. I fthee yepi ec ema gnifi ca t ionlensisx10a ndtheobj ecti velensisx4,thetota l ma gni f icationi sx40.  Ma gni f icationha snouni ts. I tshoul da lwa yshavet hemul tipl ic a t ions ign.e. g. x40  Ma gni f icationoft heobj ectviewedunde rthemi croscopeiscalc ulatedby; Ma gni f ication =EyePi ec eLensMa gnificati onXObj ect iveLensMa g nifi cati on. I fthee yepi ecelensha sthema gni ficat ionofx 5a ndthelowpowe robjec tivelens ha sama gni f icati onofx 10, thetotalmag nifi cationis5x10=50. StudyQue s tion1 Fil l thet abl ebe low. Eyepi e c elens Obj ectivelens Tot alma gnific ation ma ginificat ion ma gnifi cation X5 X4 X10 X5 X10 X100 X40 X600 X10 X100 Pr act ica lAc tivi ty1 Ce llSt ructuresasSeenUndertheLig htMi cros cope  Thefoll owingc el lor gane lle sc a nbesee nunde rt hel ightmi cros cope. - Cellwall. - Cellmembr ane - Cytoplasm - Nuc l eus - Vacuole. - Chloroplas ts. Cel lSt ruct ureasSeenThr ought heLi ghtMi croscope Nove ls, Upda tedKAS NEB, ICT, Col leg e,Hi ghS chool &Pr ima rys oft copyNot es 0714497530 10  i saboke mic ah@g mai l. com TheElec tronMicr oscope. I ti smor epowe rf ul t hantheli ghtmi cr oscope. I tc anma gnif yupt o500,000t i mesa ndhashighresolvingpower.  Thehighresolvingpowe roftheelectr onmi cr oscopee nabl esitt os e pa r ate obj ectswhichl iecloset oonea nother.  Ele ctronmicros copeusesabe amofe l ect ronsinstea dofl ig httoil luminatet he obj ect. Cel lStr ucture sa sS eenUnde rtheEle c t ronMi c roscope Nove ls, Upda tedKAS NEB, ICT, Col leg e,Hi ghS chool &Pr ima rys oft copyNot es 0714497530 11  i saboke mic ah@g mai l. com TheCel lOr g a ne lles i ) Cel lmembr ane( PlasmaMembrane). I tha st hr eelayersi. e.onela yerofphos pho- li pidl aye rsa ndwi che dbe twe ent wo prot einlayers. Nove ls, Upda tedKAS NEB, ICT, Col leg e,Hi ghS chool &Pr ima rys oft copyNot es 0714497530 12  i saboke mic ah@g mai l. com Iti sfl exibl ewi t hpor esandahsthef oll owingmainf unct ions. a)Enclose sa l lthecellc ontent s. b)Ital lowss e lect ivemove mentofs ubsta ncesi ntoandoutoft hec ell sinc eiti s semi-permeable. i i) Cytoplasm Itissf luidmediuminwhichche mic al r eact ionstakepla ce. Ithassomemove mentca lle dc ytopl asmicstreaming. Itcont ainsorga nell es, star ch,glycogen,f atdrople tsandothe rdi ssol ved s ubsta nce s. i ii ) Nuc l eus I thasdoubleme mbraneca l ledthenucl earmembrane.  Themembr a neha sporesa l lowingpass ageofmateri alsi ntoandoutofthecel l.  Nucleushasaf lui dc al lednuc l eoplas minwhichthenuc l eol usandchromatinar e suspended.  Nucleol usma nufact uresribosomeswhilechr oma t incontai nstheher editar y ma t erial. i v) Mi tochondria(Mitochondri on)  Theya resausag esha pe da ndarether es pirat orysi tes.  Mitochondrionha st wome mbranes.I nnerme mbranei sgreat lyfol dedinto cr istaetoinc r ea sethesurfac ea re af orrespi rat ion.  Cel lstha trequi r ealotofenergyha velargenumberofmit ochondri ae.g. musc le cel l,spermc ell ,kidne ycel letc. v) Endopl asmi cRet icul um( ER) Nove ls, Upda tedKAS NEB, ICT, Col leg e,Hi ghS chool &Pr ima rys oft copyNot es 0714497530 13  i saboke mic ah@g mai l. com  Someendopl asmicreti culumsha vegranulescal ledRi bosomesonthei rs ur face s hencer e fer redt oasroughendopl as micr et icul um.  Othersdonotc ontai nribosome shencethena mesmoothendopl asmicreti cul um.  Roughendopl a s micret iculum t ransportprotei nswhil ethesmoothendoplasmic ret iculum t ransportsl ipids. vi ) Ri bosomes  The sea resmalls pheric al st ructure satta chedtotheER.  The yc onsi stofprote inandr ibonucl eicac id(RNA).  The ya ctassi tesfort hes ynthesi sofprotei ns. vi i) Lys osomes  Theyc ontainl yti cenzymeswhic hbre akdownl arg emol ecul es, des troywor nout org anel lesoreve ntheenti rece ll. vi ii ) GolgiBodies(Gol giappar atus )  Thei rfuncti oni stopac kageandtrans tg por lyc o-pr otei ns.  Theyarealsoassoci ate dwi hs t ecret ionofsynt hesi zedprot einsand car bohydrates. i x) Cent ri oles  Theyarerodsha pedstr uc t ure stha tar eus e nc di el ldi vis ionandi nthef orma tion ofci li aandf l agella.  Pla ntcell slacktheCe nt riol es. x ) Chl oroplast s  Theya ree ggshape da ndcont aintwomembr a nes.  Chloroplasthaschl orophyl lwhichtr apsl ightene rgyt obeus eddur ing photosynthe s is. x i) Vac uoles  Thisa res acsf il ledwi t haflui dc al ledce llsap.  Animalcell scontai ns mall vacuoleswhil eplantce llsha vela rgevacuol es. S apvacuolesst oresug a rsandsalt s.  Foodvacuolestor ea nddiges tfoodwhilecontr act ilevac uol esexc reteunwant ed mater ialsfr omt hece l l. x ii) Cellwall I ti sar i g i dout erc overofthepl antcel lsmadeofcel lul ose. I tgi vesthepla ntc elade l f ini teshapewhil eprovi dingme c hanic alsupportand protec tion.  Cell wa llal soal lowswa ter , g ase sa ndothe rma t eria lst opa sst hroughit. S tudyQue sti on3 Nove ls, Upda tedKAS NEB, ICT, Col leg e,Hi ghS chool &Pr ima rys oft copyNot es 0714497530 14  i saboke mic ah@g mai l. com Di ff erenc esbetweenPl antandAni malCel ls Pr acti cal Acti vit y3 Pr eparat ionandObs ervat ionofTempor ar ySlidesofPlantCell s  Apie c eofe pi de rmisisma defromt hef l e s hyleafofanonionbul b. Iti spl ace don ami croscopes li dea ndadr opofwa te radded.  Adr opofi odineisadde dandac ove rs l ipplac edont op.  Obse r vationsa rema de,unde rl owa ndme di umpowe robjec tive.  Thec ell wa l landnuc l eusstaindarke rthanotherparts.  Alabe l leddr awingisma de.  Thef ollowi ngarenoted: Nucl eus ,cellwal l,cyt oplasma ndc e llmembr ane. Obs ervati onofper manents l idesofanimalcel ls  Permane ntsli desofanima lcel lsar eobtaine de. g,ofc heekce lls ,nervec ell sand mus c lec el ls.  Theslideismount edont hemicrosc opeandobs e rvati onsmadeunderl owpowe r andme di umpowe robjecti ves.  Labell eddr awingsofthec el lsaremade.  Acompa r isonbetwe e npl antandanimalcel lismade. Obser vationandEs t imat i onofCellSiz eandCalculati onof Procedure -Clic kt ol owpowe r  placetransparentrulerwi thitsmill imet erma r ksont hest a g e f ocussot hatt hemi ll imete rma r kscanbes eenasthi ckda rkli nes e st imatethediame te roffi eldofviewbyc ounti ngtheonemi l li me t e rs pac es be t we e nt hefi rs tmarkandthelastoneacrossthefi eldofviewa sshownbel ow t hediame t erofthefiel dofvi ewa bovei sest ima tedas3.2mm c onvertthediameterofthef iel dofviewfr ommi l li me ter stomi crome t ersi. e. 3.2/1000  Esti ma tethefrac tion ofthefie ldofviewoc cupi e dby thecell.Thisisdone bye s timati ngt henumbe rof cell splacesendto endthatwoul dfil lthediamete r ofthefiel dofview asshownbe low Nove ls, Upda tedKAS NEB, ICT, Col leg e,Hi ghS chool &Pr ima rys oft copyNot es 0714497530 15  i saboke mic ah@g mai l. com i nthef i gur eabove,i tises tima t edt hatapproximatelysi xcel lswil loccupythe diame terofthefiel dofview t herefore,onec e llwil loccupy1/ 6ofthefie ldofvi ew i tsdiame t e ri sc al cul atedas1/ 6timesthedia meterofthef iel dofview i)Inadr a wi ngofag i raffe ,thehe ig htoft hehea df romthegroundwa s re corde da s10cm. thedrawingalsoshowe dama g nif ica tionof0. 02.ca lcul atetheact ual hei ghtoft heg ir affe Dra winghe ight=10c m =500c m Ma gnifi c at ion 0. 02 QUES TI ON i ) I naclassexperi me ntt oe s tima tesi zesofce llsas tude ntobse rve da nd obtai nedmi ll imete rma rksonthef iel dofvi ewofami c ros copeass howni n thediag r a mbe l ow. Mi ll ime terma rks -Ift hestudentcount ed40cel lsonthedia meteroft hef iel dofvi ew, wha twa sthe approx ima t esizeoft heeachcel linmic romet ers? Diameteroff iel dofview =3x1000=75mµ Numbe rofcel ls 40 Nove ls, Upda tedKAS NEB, ICT, Col leg e,Hi ghS chool &Pr ima rys oft copyNot es 0714497530 16  i saboke mic ah@g mai l. com CELLPHYSIOLOGY  Thi sist hes tudyofthef unct ionsofc ell str uct ure s. Me mbraneStructur ea ndPr ope rties  Ame mbr aneisasurfacestr uctur ewhi c he nc los esthecel landorganell es. Me mbranesregulat et hefl owofma ter ial sint ooutofthecel lororganel le.  Examplesofme mbr anes:ce llmembrane,t onoplas t(membr a nesurroundi ngt he vacuol e),nucl e a rme mbr ane,mit ochondri almembrane,c hloropl astmembr a ne et c. TheCell Me mbrane I thasthr eelaye rs, twopr ote inl aye rsa ndaphos -phol ipi dla yers andwi che din betweenthetwo. Pr ope rti esofCe llMe mbr ane Nove ls, Upda tedKAS NEB, ICT, Col leg e,Hi ghS chool &Pr ima rys oft copyNot es 0714497530 17  i saboke mic ah@g mai l. com 1.Semi -perme abil it y. –Ithassma llporesa l lowingf orthepa s sageofmole cul esof sma l l sizeintoandoutoft hec el l.Ce l lWa llhowe vera l lowsallmateri alstopa s s throug hithe nceitisrefe rredtoa sbeingPe r me able. 2.Sensitivit yt oChang esinTempe r atureandpH–Ex tr e metempe r aturea ndpH aff e c tst hec ell me mbr anesinceitha ssomepr ot e i nlaye r s.Suchchangesa l terthe str uc tureoft heme mbr anea f fecti ngi tsnorma lf unc t ioning. 3.Posse ssi onofEl ectricCharges–i thasbot hthene gati vea ndposi tivecha rg es helpingt hec el ltode te ctchang esinthee nvironme nt.Thesechargesal s oaff ect thema nneri nwhi c hs ubsta nc esmovei nandoutoft hec ell Phys iol ogi calProc e s s es  Theabi lit yofthec el ltoc ontrol themovementofs ubst ancesi nandoutoft hec ell isac hie vedthr oughphys iol ogic alpr oces sessuchasDi ff usi on,Os mosisand Acti veTransport. Di ffusi on  Thi si sapr oc es sbywhichpar tic lesmovef romaregi onofhi ghc onc ent rat iont oa regi onoflowc oncent rat ion. Pra c t icalAct ivi ty1 Todemons tr a t edif fusionusi ngpotas siumpermang ana te(VII ) 