Culturally Relevant Pedagogy PDF

But That's Just Good Teaching! The Case for Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Author(s): Gloria Ladson-Billings Source: Theory Into Practice , Summer, 1995, Vol. 34, No. 3, Culturally Relevant Teaching (Summer, 1995), pp. 159-165 Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/sta...

But That's Just Good Teaching! The Case for Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Author(s): Gloria Ladson-Billings Source: Theory Into Practice , Summer, 1995, Vol. 34, No. 3, Culturally Relevant Teaching (Summer, 1995), pp. 159-165 Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/1476635 JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at https://about.jstor.org/terms Taylor & Francis, Ltd. is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Theory Into Practice This content downloaded from 128.95.104.109 on Wed, 06 Sep 2023 20:27:02 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Gloria Ladson-Billings But That's Just Good Teaching! The Case for Culturally Relevant Pedagogy OR THE PAST 6 YEARS I have been engaged in formation about other attempts to look at linkag research with excellent teachers of African between school and culture. Next, I discuss the th retical grounding of culturally relevant teaching American students (see, for example, Ladson-Billings, 1990, 1992b, 1992c, 1994). Given the dismal aca-the context of a 3-year study of successful teache demic performance of many African Americanof African American students. I conclude this discus- stu- dents (The College Board, 1985), I am not surprised with further examples of this pedagogy in action. sion that various administrators, teachers, and teacher edu- Linking Schooling and Culture cators have asked me to share and discuss my findings so that they might incorporate them in their work. Native American educator Cornel Pewewardy (1993) One usual response to what I share is the comment asserts that one of the reasons Indian chil- dren around which I have based this article, "But, that's experience difficulty in schools is that educa- tors traditionally have attempted to insert culture into just good teaching!" Instead of some "magic bullet" or intricate formula and steps for instruction, the education, instead of inserting education into the some members of my audience are shocked to hear what culture. This notion is, in all probability, true for seems to them like some rather routine teaching many strat-students who are not a part of the White, middle- class mainstream. For almost 15 years, anthropolo- egies that are a part of good teaching. My response gists have looked at ways to develop a closer fit is to affirm that, indeed, I am describing good teach- between ing, and to question why so little of it seems to be students' home culture and the school. This occurring in the classrooms populated by Africanwork has had a variety of labels including "culturally American students. appropriate" (Au & Jordan, 1981), "culturally con- The pedagogical excellence I have studied is gruent" (Mohatt & Erickson, 1981), "culturally re- good teaching, but it is much more than that. This sponsive" (Cazden & Leggett, 1981; Erickson & article is an attempt to describe a pedagogy I haveMohatt, 1982), and "culturally compatible" (Jordan, come to identify as "culturally relevant" (Ladson-1985; Vogt, Jordan, & Tharp, 1987). It has attempted Billings, 1992a) and to argue for its centrality in theto locate the problem of discontinuity between what academic success of African American and other students experience at home and what they experi- ence at school in the speech and language interac- children who have not been well served by our nation's tions public schools. First, I provide some background in-of teachers and students. These sociolinguists have suggested that if students' home language is incorporated into the classroom, students are more Gloria Ladson-Billings is associate professor of educa- tion at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. likely to experience academic success. THEORY INTO PRACTICE, Volume 34, Number 3, Summer 1995 Copyright 1995 College of Education, The Ohio State University 0040-5841/95$1.25 This content downloaded from 128.95.104.109 on Wed, 06 Sep 2023 20:27:02 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms THEORY INTO'PRACTICE / Summer 1995 Culturally Relevant Teaching Villegas (1988), however, has argued that these academic skills. The way those skills are develo micro-ethnographic studies fail to deal adequately may vary, but all students need literacy, numera with the macro social context in which student fail- technological, social, and political skills in order t ure takes place. A concern I have voiced about stud-be active participants in a democracy. During ies situated in speech and language interactions is 1960s when African Americans were fighting that, in general, few have considered the needs of civil rights, one of the primary battlefronts was African American students.' classroom (Morris, 1984). Despite the federal g Irvine (1990) dealt with the lack of what she ernment's failed attempts at adult literacy in termed "cultural synchronization" between teachers South, civil rights workers such as Septima Cl and African American students. Her analysis includ- and Esau Jenkins (Brown, 1990) were able to te ed the micro-level classroom interactions, the "mid- successfully those same adults by ensuring that t level" institutional context (i.e., school practices and students learned that which was most meaningful policies such as tracking and disciplinary practices), them. This approach is similar to that advocated and the macro-level societal context. More recently noted critical pedagogue Paulo Freire (1970). Perry's (1993) analysis has included the historical While much has been written about the need to context of the African American's educational struggle. improve the self-esteem of African American stu- All of this work-micro through macro level-has dents (see for example, Banks & Grambs, 1972; contributed to my conception of culturally relevant Branch & Newcombe, 1986; Crooks, 1970), at base pedagogy. students must demonstrate academic competence. This was a clear message given by the eight teachers What is Culturally Relevant Pedagogy? who participated in my study.2 All of the teachers In the current attempts to improve pedagogy, demanded, reinforced, and produced academic ex- several scholars have advanced well-conceived con- cellence in their students. Thus, culturally relevant ceptions of pedagogy. Notable among these scholars teaching requires that teachers attend to students' are Shulman (1987), whose work conceptualizes ped- academic needs, not merely make them "feel good." agogy as consisting of subject matter knowledge, The trick of culturally relevant teaching is to get pedagogical knowledge, and pedagogical content students to "choose" academic excellence. knowledge, and Berliner (1988), who doubts the abil- In one of the classrooms I studied, the teacher, ity of expert pedagogues to relate their expertiseAnn to Lewis,3 focused a great deal of positive atten- novice practitioners. More recently, Bartolome (1994) tion on the African American boys (who were the numerical majority in her class). Lewis, a White has decried the search for the "right" teaching strat- egies and argued for a "humanizing pedagogy that woman, recognized that the African American boys respects and uses the reality, history, and perspec- possessed social power. Rather than allow that pow- tives of students as an integral part of educational er to influence their peers in negative ways, Lewis practice" (p. 173). challenged the boys to demonstrate academic power I have defined culturally relevant teaching as bya drawing on issues and ideas they found meaningful. pedagogy of opposition (1992c) not unlike critical As the boys began to take on academic leadership, pedagogy but specifically committed to collective, other students saw this as a positive trait and devel- not merely individual, empowerment. Culturally rele- oped similar behaviors. Instead of entering into an antagonistic relationship with the boys, Lewis found vant pedagogy rests on three criteria or propositions: (a) Students must experience academic success;ways (b) to value their skills and abilities and channel them in academically important ways. students must develop and/or maintain cultural com- petence; and (c) students must develop a critical con- sciousness through which they challenge the status Cultural competence quo of the current social order. Culturally relevant teaching requires that students maintain some cultural integrity as well Academic success as academic excellence. In their widely cited article, Fordham and Ogbu (1986) point to a phenomenon Despite the current social inequities and hostile classroom environments, students must develop called their"acting White," where African American 160 This content downloaded from 128.95.104.109 on Wed, 06 Sep 2023 20:27:02 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms  Ladson-Billings But That's Just Good Teaching! students fear being ostracized by their peers for dem- a time for a period of 2-4 days. The parents, in con- onstrating interest in and succeeding in academic and sultation with Winston, demonstrated skills upon other school related tasks. Other scholars (Hollins, which Winston later built. 1994; King, 1994) have provided alternate explana- For example, a parent who was known in the tions of this behavior.4 They suggest that for too community for her delicious sweet potato pies did a many African American students, the school remains 2-day residency in Winston's fifth grade classroom. an alien and hostile place. This hostility is manifest On the first day, she taught a group of students7 how in the "styling" and "posturing" (Majors & Billson, to make the pie crust. Winston provided supplies for 1992) that the school rejects. Thus, the African Amer- the pie baking and the students tried their hands at ican student wearing a hat in class or baggy pants making the crusts. They placed them in the refriger- may be sanctioned for clothing choices rather than ator overnight and made the filling the following specific behaviors. School is perceived as a place day. The finished pies were served to the entire class. where African American students cannot "be them- The students who participated in the "seminar" selves." were required to conduct additional research on var- Culturally relevant teachers utilize students'ious aspects of what they learned. Students from the culture as a vehicle for learning. Patricia Hilliard's pie baking seminar did reports on George Washing- love of poetry was shared with her students throughton Carver and his sweet potato research, conducted their own love of rap music. Hilliard is an Africantaste tests, devised a marketing plan for selling pies, American woman who had taught in a variety of and researched the culinary arts to find out what schools, both public and private for about 12 years.kind of preparation they needed to become cooks She came into teaching after having stayed at home and chefs. Everyone in Winston's class was required for many years to care for her family. The mother to ofwrite a detailed thank you note to the artist/crafts- a teenaged son, Hilliard was familiar with the music person. that permeates African American youth culture. In- Other residencies were done by a carpenter, a stead of railing against the supposed evils of rap former professional basketball player, a licensed prac- tical nurse, and a church musician. All of Winston's music, Hilliard allowed her second grade students to bring in samples of lyrics from what both she andguests were parents or relatives of her students. She the students determined to be non-offensive rap did not "import" role models with whom the stu- songs.5 Students were encouraged to perform the dents did not have firsthand experience. She was songs and the teacher reproduced them on an over- deliberate in reinforcing that the parents were a knowledgeable and capable resource. Her students head so that they could discuss literal and figurative meanings as well as technical aspects of poetry such came to understand the constructed nature of things as rhyme scheme, alliteration, and onomatopoeia. such as "art," "excellence," and "knowledge." They Thus, while the students were comfortable us-also learned that what they had and where they came ing their music, the teacher used it as a bridge from to was of value. school learning. Their understanding of poetry far A third example of maintaining cultural com- petence was demonstrated by Ann Lewis, a White exceeded what either the state department of educa- tion or the local school district required. Hilliard's woman whom I have described as "culturally Black" work is an example of how academic achievement (Ladson-Billings, 1992b; 1992c). In her sixth grade and cultural competence can be merged. classroom, Lewis encouraged the students to use their home language while they acquired the secondary Another way teachers can support cultural compe- tence was demonstrated by Gertrude Winston, a Whitediscourse (Gee, 1989) of "standard" English. Thus, woman who has taught school for 40 years.6 Winston her students were permitted to express themselves in worked hard to involve parents in her classroom. She language (in speaking and writing) with which they created an "artist or craftsperson-in-residence" pro- were knowledgeable and comfortable. They were then gram so that the students could both learn from each required to "translate" to the standard form. By the other's parents and affirm cultural knowledge. Win-end of the year, the students were not only facile at ston developed a rapport with parents and invited this "code-switching" (Smitherman, 1981) but could them to come into the classroom for 1 or 2 hours at better use both languages. 161 This content downloaded from 128.95.104.109 on Wed, 06 Sep 2023 20:27:02 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms THEORY INTO PRACTICE / Summer 1995 Culturally Relevant Teaching Critical consciousness The teachers who participated in the study were ini- Culturally relevant teaching does not imply that tially selected by African American parents who be- it is enough for students to chose academic excel- lieved them to be exceptional. Some of the parents' lence and remain culturally grounded if those skills reasons for selecting the teachers were the enthusi- asm their children showed in school and learning and abilities represent only an individual achievement. Beyond those individual characteristics of academicwhile in their classrooms, the consistent level of re- achievement and cultural competence, students must spect they received from the teachers, and their per- develop a broader sociopolitical consciousness that ception that the teachers understood the need for the allows them to critique the cultural norms, values, students to operate in the dual worlds of their home mores, and institutions that produce and maintain community and the White community. social inequities. If school is about preparing stu- In addition to the parents' recommendations, I dents for active citizenship, what better citizenship solicited principals' recommendations. Principals' tool than the ability to critically analyze the society? reasons for recommending teachers were the low Freire brought forth the notion of "conscienti- number of discipline referrals, the high attendance zation," which is "a process that invites learners rates, to and standardized test scores.8 Teachers whose engage the world and others critically" (McLaren, names appeared as both parents' and principals' rec- 1989, p. 195). However, Freire's work in Brazil ommendations was were asked to participate in the study. not radically different from work that was being done Of the nine teachers' names who appeared on both in the southern United States (Chilcoat & Ligon, lists, eight were willing to participate. Their partici- 1994) to educate and empower African Americans pation required an in-depth ethnographic interview who were disenfranchised. (Spradley, 1979), unannounced classroom visitations, In the classrooms of culturally relevant teach-videotaping of their teaching, and participation in a ers, students are expected to "engage the world and research collective with the other teachers in the others critically." Rather than merely bemoan the study. This study was funded for 2 years. In a third fact that their textbooks were out of date, several of year I did a follow-up study of two of the teachers to the teachers in the study, in conjunction with theirinvestigate their literacy teaching (Ladson-Billings, students, critiqued the knowledge represented in the 1992b; 1992c). textbooks, and the system of inequitable funding that Initially, as I observed the teachers I could not allowed middle-class students to have newer texts. see patterns or similarities in their teaching. Some They wrote letters to the editor of the local newspa- seemed very structured and regimented, using daily per to inform the community of the situation. The routines and activities. Others seemed more open or teachers also brought in articles and papers that rep- unstructured. Learning seemed to emerge from stu- resented counter knowledge to help the studentsdent de- initiation and suggestions. Still others seemed velop multiple perspectives on a variety of social eclectic-very structured for certain activities and and historical phenomena. unstructured for others. It seemed to be a research- Another example of this kind of teaching was er's nightmare-no common threads to pull their reported in a Dallas newspaper (Robinson, 1993). A practice together in order to relate it to others. The group of African American middle school students thought of their pedagogy as merely idiosyncratic, a were involved in what they termed "community prob- product of their personalities and individual perspec- lem solving" (see Tate, this issue). The kind of social tives, left me both frustrated and dismayed. Howev- action curriculum in which the students participated er, when I was able to go back over their interviews is similar to that advocated by scholars who argue and thatlater when we met together as a group to discuss students need to be "centered" (Asante, 1991; Tate, their practice, I could see that in order to understand their practice it was necessary to go beyond the sur- 1994) or the subjects rather than the objects of study. face features of teaching "strategies" (Bartolome, Culturally Relevant Teaching in Action 1994). The philosophical and ideological underpin- As previously mentioned, this article and nings its of their practice, i.e. how they thought about theoretical undergirding come from a 3-year study themselves as teachers and how they thought about of successful teachers of African American students. others (their students, the students' parents, and other 162 This content downloaded from 128.95.104.109 on Wed, 06 Sep 2023 20:27:02 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms  Ladson-Billings But That's Just Good Teaching! community members), how they structured social they used this as an opportunity to examine conven- relations within and outside of the classroom, and tional interpretations and introduce alternate ones. how they conceived of knowledge, revealed their The content of the curriculum was always open to similarities and points of congruence.9 critical analysis. All of the teachers identified strongly with teach- The teachers exhibited a passion about what ing. They were not ashamed or embarrassed about they were teaching-showing enthusiasm and vitali- their professions. Each had chosen to teach and, more ty about what was being taught and learned. When importantly, had chosen to teach in this low-income, students came to them with skill deficiencies, the largely African American school district. The teach- teachers worked to help the students build bridges or ers saw themselves as a part of the community and scaffolding so that they could be proficient in the teaching as a way to give back to the community. more challenging work they experienced in these They encouraged their students to do the same. They classrooms. believed their work was artistry, not a technical task For example, in Margaret Rossi's sixth grade that could be accomplished in a recipe-like fashion. class, all of the students were expected to learn alge- Fundamental to their beliefs about teaching was that bra. For those who did not know basic number facts, all of the students could and must succeed. Conse-Rossi provided calculators. She believed that by us- quently, they saw their responsibility as working ing to particular skills in context (e.g., multiplication guarantee the success of each student. The students and division in the context of solving equations), the who seemed furthest behind received plenty of indi- students would become more proficient at those skills vidual attention and encouragement. while acquiring new learning. The teachers kept the relations between them- selves and their students fluid and equitable. They Implications for Further Study encouraged the students to act as teachers, and they, I believe this work has implications for both themselves, often functioned as learners in the class- the research and practice communities. For research- room. These fluid relationships extended beyond the ers, I suggest that this kind of study must be repli- classroom and into the community. Thus, it was com- cated again and again. We need to know much more mon for the teachers to be seen attending community about the practice of successful teachers for African functions (e.g., churches, students' sports events) and American and other students who have been poorly using community services (e.g., beauty parlors, served by our schools. We need to have an opportunity stores). The teachers attempted to create a bond withto explore alternate research paradigms that include the all of the students, rather than an idiosyncratic, indi- voices of parents and communities in non-exploit- vidualistic connection that might foster an unhealthy ative ways." competitiveness. This bond was nurtured by the For practitioners, this research reinforces the teachers' insistence on creating a community of learn- fact that the place to find out about classroom prac- ers as a priority. They encouraged the studentstices to is the naturalistic setting of the classroom and learn collaboratively, teach each other, and be re- from the lived experiences of teachers. Teachers need sponsible for each other's learning. not shy away from conducting their own research As teachers in the same district, the teachers in about their practice (Zeichner & Tabachnick, 1991). this study were responsible for meeting the same Their unique perspectives and personal investment state and local curriculum guidelines.10 However, the in good practice must not be overlooked. For both way they met and challenged those guidelines helped groups-researchers and practitioners alike-this to define them as culturally relevant teachers. Forwork is designed to challenge us to reconsider what these teachers, knowledge is continuously recreated,we mean by "good" teaching, to look for it in some recycled, and shared by the teachers and the stu- unlikely places, and to challenge those who suggest dents. Thus, they were not dependent on state cur- it cannot be made available to all children. riculum frameworks or textbooks to decide what and how to teach. Notes For example, if the state curriculum framework1. Some notable exceptions to this failure to consider called for teaching about the "age of exploration,"achievement strategies for African American students are 163 This content downloaded from 128.95.104.109 on Wed, 06 Sep 2023 20:27:02 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms THEORY INTO PRACTICE / Summer 1995 Culturally Relevant Teaching Ways With Words (Heath, 1983); "Fostering Early Liter- Bartolome, L. (1994). Beyond the methods fetish: acy Through Parent Coaching" (Edwards, 1991); and ward a humanizing pedagogy. Harvard Education "Achieving Equal Educational Outcomes for Black Chil- Review, 64, 173-194. dren" (Hale-Benson, 1990). Berliner, D. (1988, October). Implications of studies 2. I have written extensively about this study, its meth- expertise in pedagogy for teacher education and ev odology, findings, and results elsewhere. For a full dis- uation. In New directions for teacher assessmen cussion of the study, see Ladson-Billings (1994). (Invitational conference proceedings). New Yor 3. All study participants' names are pseudonyms. Educational Testing Service. 4. At the 1994 annual meeting of the American Educa- Branch, C., & Newcombe, N. (1986). Racial attitudes tional Research Association, King and Hollins presented among young Black children as a function of paren- a symposium entitled, "The Burden of Acting White tal attitudes: A longitudinal and cross-sectional Revisited." study. Child Development, 57, 712-721. 5. The teacher acknowledged the racism, misogyny, and Brown, C.S. (Ed.). (1990). Ready from within: A first explicit sexuality that is a part of the lyrics of some rapperson narrative. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press. Cazden, C., & Leggett, E. (1981). Culturally responsive songs. Thus, the students were directed to use only those songs they felt they could "sing to their parents." education: Recommendations for achieving Lau rem- 6. Winston retired after the first year of the study but edies II. In H. Trueba, G. Guthrie, & K. Au (Eds.), continued to participate in the research collaborative Culture and the bilingual classroom: Studies in throughout the study. classroom ethnography (pp. 69-86). Rowley, MA: 7. Because the residency is more than a demonstration Newbury House. and requires students to work intensely with the artist Chilcoat, or G.W., & Ligon, J.A. (1994). Developing dem- craftsperson, students must sign up for a particular artist. ocratic citizens: The Mississippi Freedom Schools The typical group size was 5-6 students. as a model for social studies instruction. Theory 8. Standardized test scores throughout this district were and Research in Social Education, 22, 128-175. The College Board. (1985). Equality and excellence: The very low. However, the teachers in the study distinguished themselves because students in their classrooms consis- educational status of Black Americans. New York: tently produced higher test scores than their grade level Author. colleagues. Crooks, R. (1970). The effects of an interracial preschool 9. As I describe the teachers I do not mean to suggest program upon racial preference, knowledge of ra- that they had no individual personalities or practices. cial differences, and racial identification. Journal of However, what I was looking for in this study were ways Social Issues, 26, 137-148. to describe the commonalties of their practice. Thus, Edwards, P.A. (1991). Fostering early literacy through par- while this discussion of culturally relevant teaching may ent coaching. In E. Hiebert (Ed.), Literacy for a di- appear to infer an essentialized notion of teaching prac- verse society: Perspectives, programs, and policies (pp. tice, none is intended. Speaking in this categorical man- 199-213). New York: Teachers College Press. ner is a heuristic for research purposes. Erickson, F., & Mohatt, C. (1982). Cultural organization 10. The eight teachers were spread across four schools and participation structures in two classrooms of in the district and were subjected to the specific admin- Indian students. In G. Spindler, (Ed.), Doing the istrative styles of four different principals. ethnography of schooling (pp. 131-174). New York: 11. Two sessions at the 1994 annual meeting of the Holt, Rinehart & Winston. American Educational Research Association in New Or- Fordham, S., & Ogbu, J. (1986). Black students' suc- leans entitled, "Private Lives in Public Conversations: cess: Coping with the burden of "acting White." Ethics of Research Across Communities of Color," dealt Urban Review, 18, 1-31. with concerns for the ethical standards of research in Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: non-White communities. Herder & Herder. Gee, J.P. (1989). Literacy, discourse, and linguistics: In- References: troduction. Journal of Education, 171, 5-17. Asante, M.K. (1991). The Afrocentric idea in education. Hale-Benson, J. (1990). Achieving equal educational Journal of Negro Education, 60, 170-180. outcomes for Black children. In A. Baron & E.E Au, K., & Jordan, C. (1981). Teaching reading to Ha- Garcia (Eds.), Children at risk: Poverty, minor waiian children: Finding a culturally appropriate status, and other issues in educational equity ( solution. In H. Trueba, G. Guthrie, & K. Au (Eds.), 201-215). Washington, DC: National Association Culture and the bilingual classroom: Studies in School Psychologists. classroom ethnography (pp. 69-86). Rowley, MA: Heath, S.B. (1983). Ways with words. Cambridge, Newbury House. Cambridge University Press. Banks, J., & Grambs, J. (Eds.). (1972). Black self-con- Hollins, E.R. (1994, April). The burden of acting W cept: Implications for educational and social sci- revisited: Planning school success rather than ences. New York: McGraw-Hill. plaining school failure. Paper presented at the an 164 This content downloaded from 128.95.104.109 on Wed, 06 Sep 2023 20:27:02 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms  Ladson-Billings But That's Just Good Teaching! meeting of the American Educational Research As- Au (Eds.), Culture and the bilingual classroom: sociation, New Orleans. Studies in classroom ethnography (pp. 105-119). Irvine, J.J. (1990). Black students and school failure. Rowley, MA: Newbury House. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Morris, A. (1984). The origins of the civil rights move- Jordan, C. (1985). Translating culture: From ethnographic ment: Black communities organizing for change. information to educational program. Anthropology New York: The Free Press. and Education Quarterly, 16, 105-123. Perry, T. (1993). Toward a theory of African-America King, J. (1994). The burden of acting White re-exam- student achievement. Report No. 16. Boston, MA: ined: Towards a critical genealogy of acting Black. Center on Families, Communities, Schools and Chil- Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Amer- dren's Learning, Wheelock College. ican Educational Research Association, New Or- Pewewardy, C. (1993). Culturally responsible pedagog leans. in action: An American Indian magnet school. In E. Ladson-Billings, G. (1990). Like lightning in a bottle: Hollins, J. King, & W. Hayman (Eds.), Teaching Attempting to capture the pedagogical excellence diverse populations: Formulating a knowledge bas of successful teachers of Black students. Interna- (pp. 77-92). Albany: State University of New York tional Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, Press. 3, 335-344. Robinson, R. (1993, Feb. 25). P.C. Anderson students Ladson-Billings, G. (1992a). Culturally relevant teach- try hand at problem-solving. The Dallas Examiner, ing: The key to making multicultural education work. pp. 1, 8. In C.A. Grant (Ed.), Research and multiculturalShulman, ed- L. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Founda- ucation (pp. 106-121). London: Falmer Press. tions of the new reform. Harvard Educational Re- Ladson-Billings, G. (1992b). Liberatory consequences of view, 57, 1-22. literacy: A case of culturally relevant instructionSmitherman, for G. (1981). Black English and the education African-American students. Journal of Negro Edu- of Black children and youth. Detroit: Center for cation, 61, 378-391. Black Studies, Wayne State University. Ladson-Billings, G. (1992c). Reading between the lines Spradley, J. (1979). The ethnographic interview. New and beyond the pages: A culturally relevant approach York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. to literacy teaching. Theory Into Practice, 31, 312-Tate, W.F. (1994). Race, retrenchment, and reform of 320. school mathematics. Phi Delta Kappan, 75, 477- Ladson-Billings, G. (1994). The dreamkeepers: Success- 484. ful teaching for African-American students. San Villegas, A. (1988). School failure and cultural mismatch: Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Another view. The Urban Review, 20, 253-265. McLaren, P. (1989). Life in schools. White Plains, NY: Vogt, L., Jordan, C., & Tharp, R. (1987). Explaining Longman. school failure, producing school success: Two cas- Majors, R., & Billson, J. (1992). Cool pose: The dilem- es. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 18, 276- mas of Black manhood in America. New York: Lex- 286. ington Books. Zeichner, K.M., & Tabachnick, B.R. (1991). Reflections Mohatt, G., & Erickson, F. (1981). Cultural differences on reflective teaching. In B.R Tabachnick & K.M. in teaching styles in an Odawa school: A sociolin- Zeichner (Eds.), Inquiry-oriented practices in teach- guistic approach. In H. Trueba, G. Guthrie, & K. er education (pp. 1-21). London: Falmer Press. lip 165 This content downloaded from 128.95.104.109 on Wed, 06 Sep 2023 20:27:02 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms