Digital Literacy PDF

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323018313 Digital Literacy Chapter · January 2016 DOI: 10.3726/978-3-653-07022-4/10 CITATIONS...

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323018313 Digital Literacy Chapter · January 2016 DOI: 10.3726/978-3-653-07022-4/10 CITATIONS READS 2 26,990 1 author: Bünyamin Ayhan Selcuk University 75 PUBLICATIONS 478 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE All content following this page was uploaded by Bünyamin Ayhan on 05 October 2019. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.  Prof. Bünyamin Ayhan* 2 Digital Literacy “Tomorrow’s illiterate will not be the man who can’t read; He will be the man who has not learned how to learn.” Alvin Toffler, 1970 Introduction Reading and writing activities can be interpreted as understanding nature, the earth, and social relations using various technological tools and recording them, establishing a bond between the past and future, and translatıng or contextu- alizing the moment. Literacy competence, which is as old as socialization and state process, has been the key determinant for societies since archaic communi- ties started producing written text. Therefore, literacy, which initiates the logical transformation of humans and the formation of the logical chain, is seen as a factor that tames the individual and society with data production, memory, and identification factors (Goody, 2011: 161). Moreover, the alteration of the conscious structure of literature (script) (Ong, 2007: 97) has been an important tool for the formation of new literacy structures. Text-centric structures and activities around it have composed a part of daily life. Text has made an individual a social being by integrating life and has resulted in a diversity of literacy due to differences in language and practice, especially in cultural features and symbolic factors (Barton & Hamilton, 2000: 7–13). Factors such as language factor, the inclusivity of daily life, and the interdisciplinary and historical feature of education, as well as the diversity with writing action (Barton & Papen, 2010: 6–8) have diversified literacy. Literacy, which occurs with writing, historically resulted in the formation of social layers. In particular, continuity and permanence provided by informa- tion caused literate individuals to have a privileged position in the state (power) apparatus. Literacy provides the storage of information and it can be reached when it is needed. This situation ensures an obligation of literacy for systems with the prediction of situations and the interpretation of time and space. The layer which has improved since the use of writing in social structures is identified * Selcuk University, Faculty of Communication, [email protected] 30 Bünyamin Ayhan with bureaucracy. Literacy has also influenced the development of societies and civilization (Goody, 2013). On the other hand, with regards to reading activity, we can focus on three points for an individual and society. The first one is the writing formed with the use of symbols, while the second one is the comprehension and interpretation of events and facts which happen around us and around the world (Altun, 2005; Gellner, 1992). Finally, the third one is critical comprehension and rewriting the thing which is read through interpretation (Freire & Macedo, 1998). Literacy composes modern common culture and national reality as writing develops its own tradition against verbal communication and its cultural traditions (Goody & Watt, 1963: 344). The formation of pictured communities and common memories depend on literacy. Literacy is individualization and it is the prerequisite for all expertise in a society that everybody is an expert (Gellner, 1992: 231). Therefore, text and readers, which are cultivated with ideological factors and are exposed to continuous manufacturing, have become one of the core factors that hold society together. They also provide the reading and interpretation of yesterday, today, and tomorrow. Literacy can be differentiated by the material used in writing, the writing tool, the writing type and content, the features of the writers, and also by the socio- economic and cultural features of the communities. Beside these two factors, it may differ in time, space, and functions. Literacy, Historical Process, and Effects Though literacy is focused on by various disciplines, the history of literacy re- search dates back to old times. Being the area that is not given due attention (Yıldız, 2007: 46), studies including new literacy approaches and historical pro- cesses that made this subject obligatory to be studied has been revealed. (Yıldız, 2007: 58). In this respect, though literacy is as old as being a historical fact, the studies related to that area are brand new. However, historical processes and stages of writing particularly need to be followed to analyze literacy. The development of writing deals with not only the internal dynamics of the society, but it is also the product of common culture and thought. Formations that have occurred in a society are supported by other social processes. Though the processes are undulate, the common structure becomes the cultural expan- sion (Nissen, 2004: 129). Writing activity has always developed since the first day. The starting point is the transferring of speech to the script as in verbal to text. Therefore, writing, which developed swiftly after hundreds of years and centuries, has become a clear tool for the use of humanity. Writing that is excluded from  Digital Literacy 31 belonging to one language and that has spread swiftly, has become an open struc- ture to anybody. Thus, other languages’ words have become writeable in more than one language. Writing which is copied quickly has eliminated complexities thanks to text production and record systems (Nissen, 2004: 158–159; 182–89). Since “Writing is the fixation of meaning. When we talk our words fly away with the volatility of human behavior, unless our words put down on a paper (or another adopted record system) what we were done shall be forgotten. Therefore, when they are written, …they die still; yet, at least the meaning, what they say not saying (articulation) is protected to a certain extent for a while. In general meaning, this is not different from an action. The meaning can endure a certain extent though the loss of reality” (Geertz, 2007: 43). This endurance is related to social processes and information which provides the continuity of text. Writing has been widely used in other areas thanks to the development of tech- nological tools during the period that metal tools spread into the public. Writing action, with their contribution to letters and writing, which was the secret of a small erudite writer class until that period of metals and tools, has started to be common among public layers (Childe, 1983: 23). The elements initiating the common use of writing are discourses which build the identity of an individual with technical, cultural, and political situations and provide the continuity, and the parts that read and use the writing (Assmann, 2001: 27). Though a tendency to the public is in ques- tion, writing and reading style(s) that developed with interactions and transition have gradually been the respect and power field of elites, religious leaders, finance officers, and the administrative part under the control of a limited structure (Kaestle, 1985: 15–17). On late centuries when full mobilization of the society occurred, it was required to be anticipated to developed public participations. On the other hand, it can be alleged that religions influenced the development and continuity of literacy in the world. Religions, which have thousands of years of history, have protected their historical features at the end of writing. In addition to this, cultures developed different mental perceptions and belief systems (Smart, 1982: 297). The development of religions and the influence on communities have naturally influenced the literacy–social relation. In particular, the expansionist and globalizing feature of excessive religions naturally required them to create their own systems. Moreover, reading religious books has made the average com- munity adapt their writing. Books formed the basis of new social structures that are constructed from the text and differentiate the readers that are the believers. The period in which social revolutions and fractions within literacy occurred is the period that the printing technique was formed. Printing, with the settlement of the printing system in public, opened a new world both psychologically and 32 Bünyamin Ayhan technologically. Printing also revealed a new type of man. Mcluhan’s (2014) defini- tion of the typographic man has proceeded to the development of computer and communication technologies with the development in the printing field. Printing has become the basis of modernism and the transformation of thought and lit- eracy, rather than science, secularism, and bureaucratization. During that period, literacy can be called the simple literacy period between 1600–1850 years (Kaestle, 1985: 15–20). Reform movements underlie the changes during that period. In particular, literacy sticks out from Latin fact and has become an influential tool in both the formation of states and national beliefs. Though mass literacy is less im- portant among the first wave conclusions of nation-building (Wimmer and Fein- stein, 2010: 768), the Protestant and German sample provide an important clue at that point. Literacy and ideational change with reform, and new society building initiated (Gawthrop & Grastrauus, 1984). Another important point during that period for literacy was the newspapers and magazines started to be published in 1600. Newspapers and magazines created new reader types and reading forms. On the other hand, before the end of the seventeenth century, newspapers became a commercial meta. The development of the sector provided magazine literatures in different sections as authors, journalists, publishing houses, and busi- nesses. The press, merchants, and readers started to improve themselves depend- ing upon the base. In particular, seventeenth-century European wars expanded the audience and capitals started to follow each other in newspaper numbers. Refer- ence books and encyclopedias, as well as press, increased by leaps and bounds. The more that references increase, the more that expertise started to increase. In that case, the knowledge of the majority of individuals lasted for centuries and started to be built on purchased information from information stores like encyclopedias. (Burke, 2001: 168–173; Company, 1983). Expertise also developed an evolve into the local points of communities. New reading formations were revealed with the strengthening of local languages and production knowledge about it, and the em- powerment of the bourgeois. The reading style shifted from a loud and intensive reading form to a silent and skimming form. The obligatory tools created by the printing presses (Iskender, 2014: 557–60) caused the transition of the mass. The rise of literacy in Europe occurred in the 1850s and 1900s. The 1850s is the end of a second age of discovery (Burke, 2013: 12). During that period, huge social changes obliged society to increase the level of literacy. These are industrialization fact, urbanization, literacy demand of trade, nation-state building, production of national identity, development of institutions related to literacy, and support of governments (Kaestle, 1985: 15–28). Literacy has become an important tool not only for national identity formation but also for the formation of other identities  Digital Literacy 33 (Moje et al., 2009). With these processes, the production of an individual, which was attempted to be idealized with citizenship education in the process of the nation state, increased the importance of literacy. However, these processes cannot be generalized with other factors. It may differ from social development and cultural codes. When the literacy level and literacy rates of Europe during that period are considered, southern and eastern parts had lower rates than northern and eastern parts (Houston, 1983: 288; Briggs, 2000: 481; Frago, 1990: 581). On the other hand, during that period, reading halls appeared in England (Darnton, 1990: 7–8) which started to be dominant in the printing industry. Readers subscribed to these halls for low fees and read the materials that they could not afford to buy (Jeanneney, 2006: 40; Company, 1983: 137). Therefore, literacy has become an invisible-functional structure in socialized daily life. In the 19th century, literacy and writing systems started to change. In particu- lar, writing activity, which was massified (popularized) and commercialized, and the production of paper, shifted out the classical tools. Firstly, the iron pencil fountain pen came to the ground at the beginning of the twentieth century and pens including the ball pen were revealed in the later years of the same century. Albeit, in the later century, the typist system in offices (Burke, 2013: 105) started the centenary adventure of personal writing and multiplication (copy) processes. Following the twentieth century, literacy demonstrated development in various elements. Difficulty in business life, wars, and different structures between migra- tions and groups caused a change in literacy and made functional literacy popular during the thirties. In the forties, the effect of war, especially the situation of war in the United States (US), increased the importance of more functional literacy. The functionality term (Castell & Friends, 11–12) started to find a place within the target of basic education with “survival literacy” and “basic literacy”. The twentieth century, with the definition of Hobsbawn (1996), is the period of immoderate- ness and different eras in the century. Wars and ideologies surrounding the world have become the reality of people. The rapid rising in readings in conflict zones, which was created by wars, made technology the tool of scientific revolutions. This period was followed by a humanistic process. Reading was no longer defined as a knowledge process, and in the eighties, understanding the text had become at- tached with reading fact. Developments in reading and writing that fit into periods of hundreds of years have started to shift to periods of years to ten years. Literacy discussion in the eighties moved on with new literacy fact. New lit- eracy is the meeting of the message which is formed with the unification of idea and knowledge with a media tool instead of paper, ink, and printing. This idea, focusing on McLuhan’s thesis, put computer technologies into the center. This new 34 Bünyamin Ayhan literacy is the literacy of computer and television (Compaine, 1983: 1312–133). With new literacy, the situation created by the replacement of text with screens (Sutherland-Smith, 2002), the screen has become the purveyor of the modern myth (Poster, 1984). Television is a tool that includes everything and has more in- fluence than it seems. Technologies such as television, the Internet, and web con- necting the earth have caused the formation of new literacies and multi-literacies. Finally, throughout reading history, there have been periods where the concern has not been centered on the individual student or his or her mental structures or processes. Rather, the focus has been on the student in relation to others (human- to-human interactions) or the learning of groups who share history (e.g. gender or ethnic groups) or geography (e.g. classroom communities). We see this socio- logical framework clearly in the rising interest of sociocultural perspectives and in research on cooperative or collaborative learning (Alexander & Fox, 2004: 57). Literacy Types Literacy differs by community and time and can be generally considered as tradi- tional, modern, and digital literacy. Generally if literacy is considered as a linear point-starting from reading and writing goes by following the way of half literacy and letracy. In the situations of both half literacy and new literacy, regression and secret illiteracy can be observed. After that level, functional and multifunctional literacy levels appear (Güneş, 1994: 504). The main point of this difference is the function of the individual against reading and writing. General literacy starts at the reading-writing activity and in the situation of using them. Modern literacy is a situation that is formed by going out of the traditional community organization and demonstrates a period where literacy gets rid of the monopoly of the minority. Therefore, the flow of daily life can be lived without an attachment to tradition. This situation discussed as reflexivity is a structure where the continuity of new knowledge is ensured. The reflexivity, defined as the projection of idea and the act to each other at all times, is related to modern literacy (Giddens, 1994: 40). Digital literacy is digitizing technologically and is also a literacy that is developed on modern literacy formed with the interaction. On the other hand, literacy is analyzed categorically as individual and multi literacy. Individual literacy can be grounded on status and power-centered literacy, while multi literacies can be grounded around the public fact. At that point, lit- eracy should be considered within the social structure and values system with the environment and community. Another categorization is literacy formed with the use of a tool. Many tools from clay tablets to electronic tablets changes literacy fact. Each produced tool or object related to literacy varies the literacy fact.  Digital Literacy 35 Another categorization is dominant describing facts that communities lived in. Literacy fact varies as the organization type and content of a community be- come different. That point reveals the traditional, modern, postmodern, indus- trial, knowledge, or agriculture and similar features of society. These features are sometimes in intricate relations. For instance, the final stage of technology and modernism can be approached as the definition of digital society. That stage is a new stage on its own, digital modernism. Digital modernism (Pressman, 2014) finds its implementation area with its own tools and cumulation of tradition. Social dynamics started to be analyzed with new facts and concepts with the Internet and tools of the Internet. Moreover, whether the individual is present or using case provides a generation gap. The most important fact of research is the digital local and migrant fact (Prensky, 2001: 3). Digital migrants are people who were born before 1980 and digital locals are people who were born after the eighties. Many points that the generation used from texts to tools and visuals to applications are categorized with digital tools. Though this distinction is the new categorization of former social distinction and disintegration, it caused featured literacy to gain more importance by getting more and more variance. Compulsory relations of society, depending on data and the interaction process, naturally put literacy into the center of daily life. The multi literacy type is another literacy type in the twenty-first century. Providing literacy to individuals against the multi-layered text structures which are not only words, verbal communication forms, or visuals, but rather the use of these three together, has gained importance. Research states that though multi- layered literacy is available, it is seen as a problematic area for education (Tüzel, 2013). Another problem at that point is literacy. This situation lasts for a lifetime and requires a continuous dynamic structure of learning and teaching fact. How- ever, it is a very difficult situation in terms of literacy and system since the litera- cies that occurred also brought their own problems (Önal, 2010). Since the process that is formed with the diversity of literacy, the literacy con- cept has always undergone change and has transformed. When this process is generally considered, it is transformed into a tool and technic, and in the last century, it has transformed into a comprehension in an expertise area and an analyzing ability. When there is more expertise in the social fields, the increase in the literacy of this (digital technology) type is compulsory. In addition to this, new areas related to literacy are added with the fictionalization of former insti- tutions and areas. Overall, literacy area, which is explained with them today, is observed. These literacies find a place within daily life in the direction of the wish and demands of individuals. Especially in understanding technology, social life, 36 Bünyamin Ayhan and survival. These literacies are media literacy, digital literacy, knowledge literacy, network literacy, screen literacy, law literacy, computer literacy, scientific literacy, environment literacy, culture literacy, art literacy, e-literacy, economy (finance, stock, investment) literacy, critical literacy, visual literacy, graphic literacy, Inter- net literacy, library literacy, politics literacy, cinema literacy, agriculture literacy, history literacy, technology literacy, consumer literacy, citizenship literacy, and so on. It is possible to multiply the number of these literacies to the expertise area. It can even be alleged that these literacies shall go on with hybridization and development (Snavely & Cooper, 1997; Altun, 2005; Kurudayıoğlu & Tüzel, 2010; İşler, 2002; Önal, 2010; Yücetokur, 2015; Goodfellow, 2011). Digital Literacy Social conditions and happenings made people learn continuously when they meet face-to-face. This learning process always changes because of technological devices and transforms into a multi-structure. Digital literacy appears as effec- tive literacy during this process. Digitalization is originally based on digitizing, multimedia, interaction, and being everywhere. Developed digital technology and integration systems of the 1970s started the formation of the digital world. Digital technology, voice, image, data or packaging, and storing of all kinds of messages with coding came with the development of computer technologies and communication devices. After the liberation of fixed control centers, the process of facts being transferred via the network has become liberal. In addition to this, digitalization prepared systems for globalization with their own universal lan- guage and communication system networks (Castells, 2008: 57). Developments in satellite and televisions in the 90s made it necessary for societies to digitalize. This process also built their own social structures. Each fact no longer started to be defined with a digital term. Digital literacy is one of these formations. Digital literacy is a process that reposes on knowledge literacy, Internet literacy, web literacy, and digital literacy. In that process, each step is important and all of them should be used together for digitalization. At the same time, digital literacy also finds its own place as being a systematic obligation. Developing technology and massified structures necessitate digital literacy (Allen, 2016: 16). Learning from digital text forms and reading skills are essential in digital lit- eracy. Naturally, structures in learning forms, teaching situations, and reading sources change as well. Another point is the formation of source materials that constitute a source. Glister (1997), who conducted one of the first studies in digi- tal literacy, defined the above fact as the comprehension of technical methods, information use, and an ability in multi-formatting via computers with cognitive  Digital Literacy 37 and emotional skills. At another point, Goodfellow (2011: 131) stated that digital literacy is the activities of new information and communications media. It suc- ceeds ‘computer’ (based, assisted, mediated), ‘online’, ‘networked’, ‘web-based’, and the now ‘ubiquitous’. The development of digital literacy that reflects variable character is composed of the contribution of integrated literacies and Internet devices of nations via public policy, the effect of the global economy in information and communica- tion areas, and the rising of the Internet in professional and personal lives (Leu et al., 2004: 1151–1156). Leu et al. (2004: 1158) emphasized eight main features of development literacy, as follows: “1. The Internet is this generation’s defining technology for literacy and learning within our global community. 2. The Internet and related technologies require additional new literacies to fully access their potential. 3. New literacies are deictic. 4. New literacies are multiple, multimodal, and multifaceted. 5. Critical literacies are central to new literacies. 6. New forms of strategic knowledge are required with new literacies. 7. New social practices are a central element of New Literacies. 8. Teachers become more important, though their role changes, within new literacy classrooms”. However, this situation is valid for social structure. In particular, the existence of the digital divide fact (Hargittai, 2003) is valid not only for rich and poor nations but also for different ethnic, gender, and regions as well (Monreo, 2004; O’Brien & Scharber, 2008). On the other hand, it is necessary to identify knowledge, find a definition, evaluate and organize, and use it for digital literacy. Digital literacy has become a “survival skill” in the technological era – a key that helps users to work intuitively in executing complex digital tasks (Eshet- Alkalai & Amichai-Hamburger, 2004: 421). A comprehensive conceptual model of digital literacy, which is comprised of six literacy skills, argues that digital literacy encompasses all the cognitive challenges faced by users of present day digital environments, include the following skills: photo-visual literacy, reproduc- tion literacy, branching literacy, information literacy, socio-emotional literacy, and real-time thinking (Eshet-Alkalai & Chajut, 2010: 174). Defining these skills proves to be the achievement of digital literacy. On the other hand, in the com- plexity of communicative tools and the relations between them, literacy practices involve cultural knowledge, the employment of artifacts, and representations of the world (Gillen, 2009: 72). 38 Bünyamin Ayhan Opportunities, Threats, and Problems As it happens in each fact, digital literacy finds a place in the life of individuals and society with its contributions, problems, and negative sides. In particular, lit- eracy that has more interaction with institutions and an individual who is open to changes and uses opportunities come with many problems. The problems, which are not related to changes as happening in all facts, should be considered with the structures that are directly generated by digitalization. Another point related to the subject is that technologic fact always has a dark, invisible, and insensible side such as in knowledge. For instance, the Internet defined that dark side as positive in classic meaning, which can appear as the organization of the worst sides of humans with the deep Internet. In the digital world, the opportunity is given for almost every participant rang- ing from authors and publishers up to readers and followers that make digital literacy be taken more attentively. Internet and digital systems contribute to devel- opments in the sector, have expanded the share in publishing, and have provided convenience to easy access. Knowledge production, transference, storage, and presentation on a computer allowed literacy to reach low levels of society. At the beginning, this computer and communication-based literacy has continued to develop with other devices and institutions (distance education, digital university, etc.) (Pachler et al., 2014). Digitalization, as in many social areas, created many opportunities in literacy. In particular, countries invested in education in technology in the nineteenth-cen- tury and this investment resulted in students using technology at an early stage. During this process, important acquisitions for gaining skills and creativity and individualization were provided. The Fatih project in Turkey (http://fatihprojesi. meb.gov.tr) provided a technological structure in the education system. With the needs of schools and courses, tablets were delivered at no cost, resulting in teacher and student-centered education creating a comprehensive situation for education both inside and outside of the school. This is an aspiring situation for social stratification and democratic and transitive social structures. Another con- tribution of the project is the variance and enrichment of material’s language. In particular, narrations from life instead of classical texts and discourses were put forward. On the other hand, applications such as watt pad (https://www.wattpad. com) were established as a social network by communication devices resulting in new literacies appearing, especially among new authors. Since its establishment, the social network, which has 45 million members and creates a new format in digital literacy, has provided an environment that everyone who has specific tech- nical devices can easily get involved in. Wattpad, as it transacts enormes written  Digital Literacy 39 books in a digital format, has contributed to the media sector in terms of literacy. Therefore, new social networks are formed where e-books are produced and sold, multimedia opportunities are created, and where authors and readers meet at a digital chat rooms. Aydoğan, 2014: 32). Literacy and continuous learning, being very important it is observed that could be more achievable in the digital world. Trivets such as the production of mate- rials, their distribution, storage, and continuity became reasonable for literacy. In particular, the elimination of the space (in publishing pages) concept, having multi-tasking structures with a low cost, and the becoming of speed as a normal concept in the digital would have provided opportunities in digital literacy. The digital environment is revealing new opportunities not only for individuals, but also for societies. The opportunity of interactivity that made distances no longer a problem could be included on one of its fruits. (Önder, 2013: 98–104). The transparency and accessibility fact make digital literacy attractive. According to the research completed in Turkey on fifth-grade students, it was determined that traditional reading is more effective than screen literacy. It is observed that screen literacy is not strong and cannot be replaced with traditional literacy (Ertem & Özen, 2014: 344–346). Though Turkey is investing greatly in digitalizing fact in education, we should be patient to see the results of the pro- ject. Teachers in public and private schools demonstrated uneven use in digital devices. While teachers used digital and media devices less than 10% of the time in a semester, 40% of them can reach the required devices. On the other hand, a meaningful difference was observed between digital learning motivation of teachers and fields of teachers. ICT teachers use technology better (Hobbs & Tüzel 2015: 11). In another research study, it was shown that interactive boards and tablets created pedagogical problems (Pamuk et al., 2013: 1811). Even if the dimension is different, a similar problem was observed in Norway’s system of edu- cation. (Sefton-Green, Nixon & Erstad, 2009). This situation can be dealt with by considering education and literacy as hybrid literacy (Ware & Warschauer, 2005) in countries such as the US. The problem can be interpreted as the continuity of interaction between traditional texts and computer literacy. Learning and teaching materials are needed for digital competence of digi- tal locals (Li & Ranieri, 2010). In addition to this, though there is a need for producing meaning and awareness with education technologies whose digital locals are formed institutionally, it was determined that digital literacy can be taught (Ng, 2012). Providing digital fluencies (Emily et al., 2012) in teaching with digital sources, and also other factors (socio-demographic, psychological, and social effect), should be noteworthy because of (Burnett & Merchant, 2013) 40 Bünyamin Ayhan the learners’ position on how, when, and what makes them learn; however, the status of teachers, the effect of print literacy, and the relation of teenagers with new devices are still unclear. Another important point related to digitalization is the discussion of the future of writing and reading. Writing constitutes an interwoven structure with digital technology. At the same time, the central position in communication is exposed to great changes (Merchant, 2007: 126–127). Not only writing activity, but also language and its factors are changing (Karahisar, 2013). In fact, it is a hybrid situ- ation which means that the traditional one is replaced with a digital one; however, the digital one cannot totally contain social events or facts. This situation causes many fractions and newly built structures. The problems of today’s illiterates, the dearth of writing practice in the schools, the absence of critical reading skills on the job, and the negative effect of electronic media on reading activities are all matters of legitimate concern and have some basis in fact; however, they should not lead us to invent a golden age of literacy in some earlier decade (Kaestle, 1985: 33). One of the problems related to digital literacy is the obligatory change in relations and former institutions and structures which have not adopted changes and have demonstrated resistance. Digital division has continued to increase in some areas though it is expected to decrease. Research completed in Turkey observed that students with family members that use technological devices are different from the ones that do not use them; furthermore, the status of parents, sex, and access opportunities con- tributes to digital divide (Yılmaz & Ersoy, 2014: 26–27). Readers who cannot reach required infrastructure for problems naturally load negative effects rather than offering a contribution. On the other hand, it is observed that the attitudes and behaviors of shareholders in education against digital literacy are also another source of the problem. Digital literacy is also a problem not only for education shareholders, but also for parents. In particular, parents should be aware of risks and opportunities of digital devices (Kabakçı et al., 2013). The second point is of control. The third point is ethic issues and the last point is to follow innovations (Yurdakul et al., 2013). Innovation is not required not only for parents, but also for all social structures. Social networks, the share of knowledge and results of new forms of knowledge building, should be analyzed in a detailed way and investigated. This is a result of the pervasive nature of digital technologies, commercial interests, investments, and the fact that wide Internet-based sources are irregular. Therefore, critical digital literacy should be sketched out. Children, and more critically youth, should be actively prepared for the digital future (Merchant, 2007: 127). Critical digital  Digital Literacy 41 literacy has five sources (Hinrichsen & Coombs, 2013). These are decoding, mean- ing making: narrative complexity in the digital; using: producing and consuming digital texts; analyzing: becoming a discerning practitioner; and persona: identity issues and the digital. These processes need to be analyzed with digital literacy. Failure of the analyses may cause more serious problems in the future. As sharp critics against the electronic age such as Sanders (2010) alleged, the closure of traditional literacy, the creation of impassable limits, and the tendency to violence, gang, and negative behaviors of teenagers that are based on the failure of teen­agers searching for a voice in uninvolved verbality can lead to such an era that even no hope to leave out of the virtual world. The collapse of written culture because of the electronic age, and not establishing a verbal approach about the future is opening up destructive ways for the teenager. On the other hand, as the e-book industry is a brand new area of digital literacy, it has some important issues such as generalized standards, inspection, collection, and the protection of copyrights (Önder, 2013: 11). Moreover, reliable information, technological competency, sale safety, demand issue, cost, publishing house issue, quality, qualification, the independence of authors, the status of material used, lending, and library issues are still waiting for solutions (Önder, 2013: 105–107). When digital literacy is considered as a threat, information pollution and the majority of increasing information in digital settings causes difficulty in following the updates by individuals. The important thing for the individual is to not be lost in the abundance and wideness of information. Another threat is related to the time fact. Following the updates as a tool in digitalization can be a threat to tools, as well. In particular, societies that do not attend to the production of technology and do not invest in technology have become forever dependent on the digital technology. Another threat with regards to that issue is the commercial concern of technology companies, as some societies cannot closely follow digital technol- ogy. Many problems cased by technology will also create situations influencing literacy. More importantly, the multi-tasking ability of the digital technology is creating a serious problem on an individual in terms of biological capabilities and isolation from society. Results Literacy which is not a stabile categorical situation is varied and changes with its own internal dynamics and external factors. Literacy which is always supported with both social and technical tools acts as the prerequisite of modern societies. To- day, literacy, not belonging to any time and moment, is a must for lifelong learning. 42 Bünyamin Ayhan Each area where individuals meet in daily life functions as a socialization of indi- viduals thanks to the development of literacy. Digital literacy is a literacy where digital factors are dominant and it develops over other literacies. This literacy is not a single form. Rather it is an integrated structure with its sub- dimensions. Technological device knowledge, the ability to use them, and the formation of creative factors should be mentioned about digital literacy. In addition to this, these situations should be supported with other literacies. Because digital literacy functions as a roof comprising all other kinds of literacies. Digital literacy has provided many opportunities for society and individu- als. In particular, accessibility, openness, and support by the system ensured the implementation of literacy for everyone at any age. It also brought about many innovations to education and has changed standardized contents and applica- tions. Social networks revealed within systems provide accessibility by individuals outside of the shareholders in the education field. On the other hand, the arising problems and opportunities demonstrate that literacy is always in a state of flux. Socio-economic and cultural problems are visible here. Generation difference, digital divide, e-book content, investments, and many problems seem to last into the future. The biggest issues in the field are the ones posing a threat. These are the factors that make the life of society and individuals a general problem with the contribution of technologic factors. References Alexander, P. A. & Fox, E. (2004). A Historical Perspective on Reading Research and Practice, Alvermann D. E. Unrau, N. J. Ruddell R. B. (Eds) Theoretical Mod­els and Processes of Reading, USA, International Reading Association, 33–68. Allen J. V. (2016). 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