Behavioral Theories of Leadership PDF

Behavioral Theories of Leadership Theorists Concerned with what leaders do and act; the action Paul Hersey & Kenneth Blanchard and not their mental qualities or traits make them a Leaders should adapt their leadership style to leader....

Behavioral Theories of Leadership Theorists Concerned with what leaders do and act; the action Paul Hersey & Kenneth Blanchard and not their mental qualities or traits make them a Leaders should adapt their leadership style to leader. follower development style (or maturity) Based on: how ready and willing the follower is The Theorists to perform the tasks Kurt Lewin Readiness depends on: competence and Proposed that worker’s behavior is influenced by: motivation Interactions between the personality Hersey & Blanchard Leadership Style The structure of the primary workgroup S1 Directing / Telling Leaders Socio-technical climate of the workplace S2 Coaching / Selling Leaders Chris Argyris S3 Supporting / Participating Leaders Studied the patterns of reasoning that explains S4 Delegating Leaders one’s behavior Fred Fiedler With proper training one can become more The premise of his theory is that Leader’s aware of one’s mental models personal characteristics are stable and so is Alvin Toffler the leadership style. Examined technology and its impact to the The Fiedler Contingency Model is about world and the reaction of and changes in leadership styles and behavior. society Victor Harold Vroom and Yetton He categorized the changes in cultural Suggested that the selection of a leadership behavior in terms of “waves” style will determine decision-making. In the 3rd wave (post-industrial society and The effectiveness of the decision-making age of information and knowledge) aging depends on: societies will be using new medical 1. Importance of the decision quality and technologies delivered by nanotechnology acceptance instead of doctors and nurses. 2. Amount of relevant information Rensis Likert possessed by the leader and Used the concept “family” to characterize the subordinates desirable social interaction that should occur 3. Subordinates likelihood that they will between different work units. accept Likert Scale 4. Amount of disagreement among Linking Pin Model subordinates Robert Blake and Jane Mouton Robert House Developed the Managerial Grid Model. It Path-Goal Theory of Leadership conceptualized management in terms of Robert House said that the leader can affects the relation and leadership style performance, satisfaction and motivation of a group 2 Behavioral Dimensions through: ○ Concern for task or production Rewards ○ Concern for people Clarification of paths Removal of obstacle in work performance Robert House’s Leadership Style ○ Directive Leadership - specific advice is given and ground rules and structure are established ○ Supportive Leadership - good relations are promoted and sensitivity to subordinates needs is shown Situational or Contingency Theories ○ Participative Leadership - Situational Approach - different situations decision-making is based on demand different types of leadership consultation with the group and A situation, in this context is a set of values information is shared and attitudes with which the individual or group ○ Achievement-Oriented Leadership - has to deal challenges goals are set and high Contingency because the leadership style performance is encouraged while would be dependent on the situation that a confidence is shown in the group’s leader is faced at the moment. ability. Contemporary Leadership Theories Transactional Leadership Style Leader motivates followers by appealing to their own self-interest Motivates by means of exchange process, a contract for mutual benefit that has contingent rewards. A competitive task-focused approach that takes place in a hierarchy. Transaction Leadership can be manipulative and counter-productive ○ Is an approach in which a leader Daniel Goleman’s Model inspires and motivates team members Self-awareness is the ability to recognize one’s own to create positive changes within an feelings as it happens (the keystone to emotional organization. intelligence). ★ A leader works with teams to identify needed Self-management or self-regulation, is the ability changes To keep disruptive emotions and impulses in ★ Creating a vision to guide the changes through check (self-control) inspiration, and executing the change in Maintain standards of honesty and integrity tandem with committed members of a group (trustworthiness) Take responsibility of one’s performance (conscientiousness) Handle change (adaptability) and be comfortable with novel ideas (innovations) Motivation is the emotional tendency of guiding or facilitating the attainment of goals. It consists of: Achievement drive Commitment Initiative to act on impulses Optimism or the persistence Empathy is the understanding of others by being aware of their needs, perspectives, feelings, concerns, and sensing the developmental needs of others. Community, Family, & Social Skills Includes: Servant Leadership, emphasizes the leader’s role as - Influence steward of the resources such as human, financial and - Communication all else provided by the organization - Leadership - Robert Greenleaf - Building bonds or nurturing instrumental To be a servant leader, one must be prepared to: relationships 1. Endure misunderstanding and suffering - Collaboration and cooperation instead of honor and glory - Ability to create group synergy in pursuing 2. Show initiative when people are apathetic collective goals 3. Forge ahead so it will be easy to drift with the tide Emotional Intelligence (EQ) In Nursing Leadership EQ is defined as a person’s self-awareness, self-confidence, self-control, commitment and integrity, and a person’s ability to communicate, influence, initiate change and accept change. - A combination of competencies, contributing to a person’s ability to manage and monitor her own emotions, to correctly gauge the emotional state of others and to influence opinions. Management Theories Contemporary Management Theories Early Management Theories Management by Objectives - Peter Drucker Emphasizing Organizational Structure The approach involved joint efforts between Scientific Management Theory - Frederick Taylor supervisors and subordinates and a breakdown of their The central premise of the theory is that management respective responsibilities, goals and objectives. and labor both want to increase productivity, and that it Management as Decision Making - Herbert Simon is possible to find “one best practice” through which a Viewed that decisions are made by employes worker is able to get the most work done for the least at all levels of organizations, forming a energy spent. network of decision making Basic Components of the Theory: Optimizing and Satisfying as 2 distinct 1. Analysis and synthesis of the operation approaches to decision-making through time and motion studies. ○ Optimizing meant the search for the 2. Scientific selection of workers best alternative possible 3. Training of workers ○ Satisfying meant using the first 4. Proper tools and equipment workable solution, one that is just 5. Proper incentives and payment enough to work out Systematic Management Theory - Henri Fayol 3 Step process to arrive with the best ultimate decision 1. Listing alternative strategies for resolving the problem 2. Determining the consequences that would follow each alternative 3. Comparative evaluation of these consequences Organization Theory Max Weber, advocated a complex form of bureaucracy based on: ○ Hierarchy of authority division of work based on specialization of function Theories Focused on Human Relations Social Process Mary Follet Focuses on motivation of individual and groups Based: ○ Collaboration and cooperation rather than power and authority Elton Mayo and Frits Roethlisberger Tested the assumption of the scientific management theory through the Hawthorne Effect  Nursing Management Functions McGregor X - Y Theories Planning - is a management function, concerned with defining goals for future organizational performance Theory X Theory Y and deciding on the tasks and resources to be used to People need close People want attain those goals supervision independence in Principle of Planning Will avoid work work Deciding in advance what to do, how to do a when possible People seek particular task, when to do it, and who is to do Will avoid responsibility it. responsibility People are A cognitive process for decision making, That they desire motivated by only money self-fulfilment based on facts and information, as opposed to People must be People naturally manager’s preferences or wishes pushed to perform want to work Must be adaptable and flexible to current People will drive realities themselves to perform Theory Z A “Japanese Management Style” popularized by Dr. William Ouchi Theory Z focused on increasing employee loyalty to the company by providing a job for life with a strong focus on the well-being of the employee, both on and off the job Based on the principle that work is natural and can be a source of satisfaction when aimed at a higher order to meet human psychological needs. Theory Z important Elements Characteristics of a Plan 1. Collective decision making ➔ Involve the future 2. Long term employment ➔ Involve actions 3. Slower but more predictable promotions ➔ Have an organizational identification 4. Indirect supervision Planning Process 5. Holistic concern for employees 1. Forecast or Estimate the Future Total - Quality - Management Weighing the unknown values and Centered on quality, based on the participation using them as basis for and of all its members and aiming at long term educational guess about future success through customer satisfaction Estimation of time series, Aimed at embedding awareness of quality in cross-sectional or longitudinal data all organizational process Risks and uncertainties are central to Basic Principle of TQM forecasting Focus on achieving customer satisfaction Forecasts must be supported by facts, Seek continuous and long-term improvement reasonable estimates and accurate in all the organization’s process and outputs reflection of policies and plans. Take steps to ensure the full involvement of 2. Set Objectives/Goals and Determine results the entire workforce in improving the quality desired goals are broad statements on  intent derived from the purpose of the A nursing budget allocates resources for nursing organization programs and activities to deliver patient care during a Objectives are specific behavior or fiscal year tasks set for the accomplishment of a goal. A hospital budget is designed to meet future service 3. Develop and Schedule Strategies expectations, to provide quality patient care at Programs/ Projects/Activities; Set the Time minimum cost. Frame Four Components of a Budget Plan A strategy is the technique, method or 1. Revenue budget, the income the management procedure expects to generate during the planning period Program are activities put together to 2. Expense budget is describing expected activity facilitate attainment of desired goals in operational financial terms for a given period Time Management is the organization of time of tasks or events 3. Capital budget outlines the programmed Tools in Project Management acquisitions, disposals and improvements in Gantt Chart show task and schedule the institution’s physical capacity information 4. Cash budget consists of money received, cash Performance Evaluation and Review receipts and disbursements expected during Technique (PERT) is a network of system the planning period model for planning and control which involves identifying key activities, sequences them in a 5. Establish Policies, Procedures and flow diagram and assigning duration for each Standards phase of work Policies are defined as standing plans Critical Path Method (CPM) can calculate used repeatedly, or guides or basic time and cost estimates for each activity rules that govern action at all levels in the organization Procedure are more specific guide to action Standards indicates the minimal level of achievement acceptable to meet the set objective Elements of Planning Defining Vision - “Description of something in the future” - “Mental perception of the kind of environment an individual, or an organization, aspires to create within a broad time horizon and the underlying conditions for the actualization of this perception” Mission 4. Prepare the Budget and Allocation of - Outlines the purpose of the agency Resources - Provides for the kind of services that will be Budgeting is given ○ A systematic financial - The soul of an organization translation of a plan Philosophy ○ The allocation of scarce - Describes the vision of an organization resources on the basis of - A statement of beliefs and values that directs forecasted needs for proposed the organization’s life or practice activities overa Core Values Specified Period of Time - Are the fundamental beliefs of a person or ○ A tool for planning, monitoring organization. These guiding principles dictate and controlling cost behavior and can help people understand the And Meeting Expenses difference between right and wrong  - Core values also help companies to determine 2. Flat Organization if they are on the right path and fulfilling their A decentralized type goals by creating an unwavering guide. A flattened scalar chain and fewer Core Values levels of position ➔ Service Also known as horizontal organization, ➔ Excellence with few or no levels of intervention ➔ Integrity between management and staff. ➔ Loyalty ➔ Discipline Organizing Organizing is the process of establishing formal authority It involves setting up the organizational structure through identification of groupings, roles and relationships Determines the staff needed by developing 3. Staff Organization - purely advisory to the and maintaining staffing patterns and line structure with no authority to place distributing them in the various areas needed. recommendations into action Organizing also includes developing job descriptions by defining the qualifications and function of personnel Organization Is both a function and a framework A process and a structure A human activity, and a group of people Type of Organizational Structure 1. Line Organization / Bureaucratic / Pyramid Each position has general authority over the lower position in the hierarchy There is a clearly defined superior 4. Functional Organization - permits a subordinate relationship specialist to aid line positions within a limited Authority, responsibility, accountability and clearly defined scope of authority and power are concentrated at the top. 5. Ad Hoc Organization - a modification of the bureaucratic structure and is used as a temporary basis to facilitate completion of a project within a formal line organization  6. Matrix Organization is designed to focus on The relationships can include: both products and functions. 1. Supervisory reporting It has both vertical and horizontal 2. Command and control relationships chain of command 3. Command-subordinate relationships 4. Coordination relationship between equals STAFFING The process of assigning component people to fill the roles designated for the organizational structure through recruitment, selection and development. The process also includes induction and orientation of the new staff on the goals, mission, vision, objectives and philosophy of the organization Steps in Staffing 1. determine the Number and Types of Personnel 7. Shared Governance Organization - most Needed radical and idealistic type of organization 2. Recruit Personnel structure 3. Interview The critical concept of nursing shared governance is 4. Induct or Orient the Personnel shared decision making between the bedside nurses 5. Job Offer and leaders, which includes areas such as: Staffing Pattern Resources Is a plan that articulates how many and what Nursing Research/Evidence-based practice kind of staff are needed by shift and day to New equipment purchases, and staffing staff a unit or department. This type of shared process allows for active Ways of Developing Staffing engagement throughout the healthcare team to Determine Nursing Care Hours needed for a promote positive patient outcomes and also creates a specific patient or patients culture of positivity and inclusions which benefits job Then generate the Full Time Equivalents and satisfaction. staff to patient ratio needed to provide that care StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Factors Affecting Time Requirement of Nursing Publishing; 2021 jan. Care 2020 Sep 22. 1. Acuity of the patient’s illness 2. Degree of dependence of the patients on the 8. Lateral Organization is one of coordination caregivers and collaboration between and among 3. Communicability of the ailment nursing staff and hospital staff. 4. Rehabilitation needs and special treatments The process of task-oriented work and and procedure decision-making being completed across different units Patient Classification System within the organization. Is a measurement tool used to articulate the nursing workload for a specific patient or group Allows organizations to spread work to allow for of patients over a specific period of time decentralization of management decisions. Patient acuity is the measure of nursing workload generated for each patient. The Utilizes a team or group design to encompass skillsets more sick the patient is, the higher is the level of various employees. of patient acuity. 1. Self-Care or Minimal Care patients capable of Place the leader in the position of creating goals, carrying activities of daily living building teams and making decisions. 2. Intermediate or Moderate Care requires some help from the staff with special treatments ORGANIZATION RELATIONSHIPS 3. Total Care Patients those who are bedridden 1. Formal relationships are represented by and lacks strength and mobility to do average uninterrupted lines, between units showing daily living who reports to whom 4. Intensive Care Patients those who are critically 2. Informal relationships represented by a broken ill and in constant danger of death or serious or dotted line where power relationships are injury. coordinated  Formulation to Determine Staffing Patterns 40 hour / week 1. Full Time Equivalent For personnel working in hospitals with 100 bed 5 days a week or 40 hours per week for capacity or over / or which are located in a 1 million 52 weeks a year = Amounts to 2080 of work population time 48 hour / week For personnel who work in agencies with lesser bed capacity or which are located in communities with less than 1 million population 2. Forty-Hour Work Law How to Determine The Nursing Personnel Needed 1. Determine the type of hospital whether it is primary, secondary or tertiary. a. Standard Value of NCH Hospital A is a 100-bed capacity secondary level hospital, a 250-bed capacity hospital is Areas NCH Areas NCH tertiary level 2. Categorize Patients According to Levels of Surgery 3.4 Nursery Nursery Care General 3.5 Medical 3.4 CATEGORY PRIMARY SECONDARY TERTIARY Ward Minimal Care 70% 65% 35% Pediatrics 4.6 OB 3.0 Intermediate 25% 30% 45% Mixed M/S 3.4 b. Percentage of Professional and Intensive 5% 5% 20% Care non-profissional ratio Areas Ratio Areas Ratio 3. Find the NCH needed by the patient per day Surgery 60:40 Pediatrics 70:30 and get the SUM. Minimal Care = 1.5 hours General 60:40 Nursery 55:45 Intermediate Care = 3 hour Ward Intensive Care = 4.5 hours 4. Find the Total NCH X 365 days. OB 60:40 ICU 80:20 c. Distribution per shift A.M. 45% P.M. 37% Night 18% R.A. 5901 Forty Hour Week Rights/Privileges given to Working hr Per Week each personnel 40 hr 48 hr 5. Find the number of working hours per year. 1. Vacation leave 15 15 2. Sick leave 15 15 3. Holidays (Legal & 12 12 Special) 4. Continuing Education 3 3 5. Off duties (R.A., 5901) 104 52 6. Find the nursing personnel needed 6. Total non-working 149 97 days/year 7. Total working days/year 216 268 8. Total working hours/year 1,728 2,144  add nursing personnel and relievers Directing Directing is the act of issuing orders, assignments, Nursing Personnel instructions to accomplish the organization’s goals and objectives. Entails explaining what is to be done, to and by whom, how and why the task should be done. All directing must be consistent with departmental policies Characteristics of Good Directions Clear, concise, consistent and complete Explain the rationale and make certain that it is understood Words used indicate their importance: ○ “Must”, “shall”, “will” indicate that the directions are mandatory ○ “May” denotes that the action is recommended ○ “Should” between mandatory and recommended action CHARACTERISTICS… Person giving the directions must speak distinctly and slowly. Directions should be given in logical manner and prioritize the tasks directed *the average yearly absence of an employee total 35 Avoid giving too many directions at one time days. Dividing 35 days by 365 days is 0.095, including personalize directions all mandatory leaves and other absences. Always check to make sure directions have been followed Nursing Relievers (Tertiary Hospital) Elements of Directing 1. Delegation ____x 0.095 = ____ The act of assigning to someone else a portion of the work to be done with ____x 0.095 = ____ corresponding authority, responsibility and accountability. Secondary Hospital Assignment is a task done without authority 2. Supervision The process of guiding the work to be done. Entails motivating and encouraging Supervisors should be available for Job Description consultation, and must perform Are specifications of duties, conditions and assessment and evaluation of work requirements of a particular job prepared performance and conditions. through a careful job analysis. 3. Staff Development Include: Is a planned experience to help 1. Job title, the position and the employees perform effectively and to necessary qualifications. enrich their competence in practice, 2. Job relationship, degree of supervision education, administration and imposed on the worker research. 3. Performance description, a catalogue It is re-training them for better of the responsibilities of the worker. performance in areas of skills, knowledge and attitude. Continuing Education Is a specific learning activity generally characterized by the issuance of certificates or continuing education units CEU for the  purpose of documenting attendance at a designated seminar or course of instruction. 4. Coordination This activity links the different components of an organization and leads them toward goal achievement. 5. Collaboration The process of two or more people, 7. Evaluation entities or organizations working A desired result of any employee together to complete a task or achieve behavior is effective job performance. a goal. Collaboration is similar to An important role of the manager is to cooperation. determine performance in advance 6. Communication and state the desired outcome of what It is a process by which a message is has been done. sent, received and understood as Conflict Management intended. Conflict: Ensures common understanding via Is a natural, inevitable condition and is often a various routes prerequisite to change in people and The transmission of information, organization. opinion, and intentions between and A consequence of real or perceived among individuals. differences in goals, values, ideas, attitudes, Downward Communication beliefs, feelings and actions Traditional line of communication from superior Levels of Conflict to subordinate. Intrapersonal It is primarily directive which aims to impart Interpersonal what the personnel need to know, what they Intragroup are to do, and why they are to do this Intergroup It includes policies, rules and regulations, Main Types of Conflict memoranda, handbooks, interviews, job Competitive descriptions and performance appraisals. Occurs when two or more groups attempt the Upward Communication same goals and only one group can attain Emanates from subordinates and goes upward them. Usually in the form of feedback to show the Defined by victory and loss extent to which downward communication has A set of rules determines resolution of the been received, accepted and implemented. conflict. Example: discussions between subordinates Disruptive and superiors, grievance procedures, written Takes place in an environment filled with fear, reports, incident reports and statistical reports. anger and stress Horizontal Communication There is no mutually acceptable set of rules Or lateral communication flows between and the goal of each party is the elimination of peers, personnel or departments on the same its opponent. level. Conflict Resolutions In the form of endorsements, between shifts, Dominance and Suppression - represses nursing rounds, journal meetings and rather than settles conflict, creating a win-lose conferences, or referrals between departments situation in which the loser is left feeling angry or services. and antagonistic. Outward Communication Restriction - an autocratic, coercive style that Deals with information that flows from the often leads to an indirect and destructive caregivers to the patients, their families, expression of conflict. relatives, visitors and the community. Smoothing Behavior - a more diplomatic way Patients should understand the nature of their of suppressing conflict, wherein one illness, the medical and their prescribed plans persuades the opponent to give in to the other. of nursing care so that they could participate in Avoidance Behavior creates a situation in the decision regarding these. which there are no difference Majority rule  Compromise or Consensus Strategy, one side Reviewing progress agrees upon solutions that meet everyone’s Having on-going feedback between the needs. appraiser and the one who is being appraised Integrative Problem Solving is a constructive planning for reinforcement process in which the parties involved Deletion or correction of identified behavior recognized that conflict exists and openly try to Purpose of the Evaluation solve the problem To assess the: Win-Win strategy, focuses on goals and ○ Appropriateness attempts to meet the needs of both parties ○ Adequacy Lose-Lose strategy, neither side wins, the ○ Effectiveness and Efficiency of settlement reached is unsatisfactory to both Services sides. Performance Appraisal Tools Confrontation, most effective, in which it is Trait Rating Scale brought out in the open and attempts are Job Dimension Scales made to resolve through knowledge and Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales reason. Checklist Negotiation is a technique where conflicting Peer Review parties give Self-Appraisal Time Management Quality Improvement / Quality Management Is the organization of tasks or events which Techniques for monitoring and measuring begins with estimating how much time is service: needed for a task, and learning to adjust to a. Nursing rounds - paying particular unexpected events that may prevent its attention to issues of patients care and completion nursing practice CONTROLLING b. Quality assurance - monitors Is the use of formal authority to assure the compliance with established standards achievement of goals and objectives c. Nursing audit - consists of Performance is measured and corrective documentation of the quality of nursing action is taken care It involves assisting, regulating, monitoring and Evaluation of performance is necessary to evaluating individual and group performance ensure that tasks are being carried out as Principle of Controlling planned There must be Actual accomplishment is matched with the 1. A critical few acceptance standard to check if there are Few people in control brings about better delays or deviations from the standard result Comparing results determines variation.; 2. A defined Point of Control acceptable variance has to be established Centralized or decentralized Deviation or differences that exceed this range 3. Self-control or Discipline should alert the supervisor to a problem. Personal acceptance of responsibility and Development of Standards accountability It is a pre-determined level of excellence that Types of Control serves as a guide to practice Feedforward Controls A criterion is established and specified Before the process begins Organization standard outline the level of Focus on operation before they begin acceptable practice within the institution Goal is to prevent anticipated problems Nursing audit is a measurement tool used to Concurrent Controls provide the yardstick for measuring quality Enacted while work is being performed care Feedback Controls Type Of Standards Focus on the results of operations, guiding 1. Structure Standard future planning, inputs and process designs Focus on the structure or management system Performance Appraisal to organize and deliver nursing care Is a method of acquiring and processing information 2. Process Standard needed to improve individual’s performance and Refer to actual nursing care procedures or accomplishments activities nurses engage in to administer care Consists of: 3. Outcome Standard Setting standards and objectives against Designed to measure the results of nursing determined standards and objectives care