Edexcel Geography A - Knowledge Organisers PDF

EDEXCEL GEOGRAPHY A – KNOWLEDGE ORGANISERS V 1.1  VERSION 1.1 – WHAT’S NEW? CHANGES Stretch and Challenge sections at the end of each topic. This includes additional terms and geographic processes which will help you acces...

EDEXCEL GEOGRAPHY A – KNOWLEDGE ORGANISERS V 1.1  VERSION 1.1 – WHAT’S NEW? CHANGES Stretch and Challenge sections at the end of each topic. This includes additional terms and geographic processes which will help you access the top grades (7-9). Updates to the fieldwork sections to reflect your experiences Exam technique skills for 2, 3, 4, 8 and 12-mark questions with model paragraphs Mathematical skills – key concepts and graphs Found at the back of this document Map skills  PAPER 1 – THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT WHAT TO EXPECT IN YOUR EXAM Your exam is 1hr and 30 minutes (without extra time). 94 marks are available for this exam. The topics you will be assessed on: 1. Changing UK Landscapes Overview of UK Landscapes (6 marks) Coastal landscapes (12 marks) River landscapes (12 marks) 2. Weather Hazards and Climate Change (30 marks) 3. Ecosystems and Biodiversity (30 marks + 4 marks for SPaG) Traditionally, this exam has lower grade boundaries. Therefore, this is chance to pick-up a lot of marks! CASE STUDIES Changing UK Landscapes: Dawlish Warren and River Severn Weather Hazards and Climate Change: Hurricane Sandy, Typhoon Haiyan, California Drought and Drought in Ethiopia Ecosystems and Biodiversity: Costa Rica (TRF) and Forest of Dean (deciduous woodland)  TOPIC 1: CHANGING UK SPECIFICATION - DO YOU KNOW ALL THIS? WHAT TO EXPECTLANDSCAPES IN YOUR EXAM 2x eight-mark question. This will be an examine question. For this command word there is always 4 marks available for AO4. The other four marks could be AO2 or AO3 AO2: knowledge and geographical processes and the relationship between these processes, places and the environment. AO3: apply knowledge to interpret, analyse and evaluate geographical information (in other words, answer the question!). CASE STUDIES AO4 (geographic skills): Dawlish Warren (spit) and River Severn. Due to select, adapt and use a the structure of the exam it is unlikely that you variety of skills and will have to use these in Paper 1. However, they techniques to investigate could be really important knowledge to have for questions and issues and  OVERVIEW Igneous rocks (red) are found in upland areas HOW DISTINCTIVE UPLAND AND LOWLAND where volcanic activity has taken place. They are LANDSCAPES FORM Moving glaciers have carved upland valleys for millions of years as formed by cooling magma that solidifies to form the move. When they melt, the vast surface runoff moves material new rock. They are hard and often porous. through rivers, carrying sediment to coastal areas. This deposition Examples include Basalt and Granite. has created flat plains of silt at our coastal areas. Metamorphic rocks (purple) are rocks that used to Weathering and slope processes (rock fall, slides and slumping) be one rock type but changed under heat and creates material for rivers to transport and eventually deposit. pressure. Schist, slate and marble are examples. These processes have helped create distinctive upland and lowland They are hard and have crystals. These rocks are landscapes such as waterfalls, spurs, scarps, meanders and ROCK TYPES often formed by tectonic plates moving – when floodplains. they interact vast heat and pressure build up Humans also create changing the structure of rocks. distinctive landscapes Sedimentary rocks are softer and form in layers. in both upland and lowland areas. They are found in lowland and coastal areas. Deforestation and Examples include sandstone and limestone. afforestation (forestry), These rocks are formed as sediment is crushed agriculture and and compacted until they harden. settlements have CHANGING changed the look of UK small and vast areas of COASTS Longshore drift (LSD) occurs when, sediment moves WAVE ACTION: DESTRUCTIVE AND CONSTRUCTIVE COASTS LANDSCAPE land. along a coastline due to wave action. The direction S WAVES Erosion. Hydraulic action – the Destructive waves have high wave height and low wave lengths. They of LSD is determined by the movement of water breaks down PHYSICAL PROCESSES AT THE prevailing wind. deposit less sediment in the swash and take more from the beach in the material. Attrition – material collides, causing pieces to break off. backwash. Constructive waves have low wave height and larger wave lengths. They Abrasion – sediment rubs against deposit more sediment in the swash than they take away with the the cliff, breaking it down over time. Mass movement (large quantities of backwash. sediment moving at one time). The strength of a wave is HOW THE UK CLIMATE IMPACTS COAST Rockfall – large pieces of rock fall determined by: wind speed, wind THE RATE OF EROSION from a cliff due to gravity. Sliding – duration and the fetch (the distance over which the wind affects the The prevailing wind (most common) material slides down a surface Transportation (sediment is moved comes from the west (Atlantic). This collecting material as it moves. wave). by waves). Traction – large There are greater rates of erosion in leads to high levels of erosion on the Slumping – material slumps down a Weathering. sediment rolls along the beach as it west coast. The east coast also curved plane.Biological – plant roots the winter as winds are stronger. This an animals break down material. moves. Saltation – slightly lighter leads to greater frequency of experiences high rates of erosion due Freeze-thaw – frozen water expands materials bounces as it moves. destructive waves and higher rates of to winds from the arctic creating Suspension – light material is Storms are more destructive common due to waves. cracks (faults) within rocks. erosion. In the summer, waves are carried above the beach as it is climate change. This increases the Chemical – acid rain, dissolves the shorter in wave height leading to less rate of erosion at coastlines.  COAS Bays and headlands form on discordant coastlines. They occur when COASTAL LANDFORMS (DEPOSITION) COAST TS softer rock erodes faster between two bands of harder rock. S Headlands ‘jut’ out into the sea. Spits and bars are created by longshore drift and deposition. Headlands have limited width. Refracted Sediment moves over time with the direction of the prevailing waves attack the headland – abrasion wind. As it reaches the headland it is deposited – over time and hydraulic action create caves, this builds up and forms a spit. If a spit connects to another arches, collapsed arches, stacks and headland a bar is formed with the water behind called a COASTAL LANDFORMS stumps. lagoon. Salt marshes form behind spits as the water flow Headlands have limited width. Refracted reduces, allowing salt tolerant plants to grow. If a spit forms in waves attack the headland – abrasion a river estuary, the flow of the river will limit growth. (EROSION) and hydraulic action create caves, Beaches are formed by deposition. Where constructive waves arches, collapsed arches, stacks and are more common, sediment carried by the waves is deposited. stumps. Larger material at the back of beaches is carried in stormy Wave-cut platforms are created by cliffs conditions. This part is known as the storm beach. retreating backwards. A notch is cut by The UK coastline is becoming more urbanised due to population erosion, causing the unstable cliff above pressure. This can damage coastal ecosystems. Coastlines are HOW HUMANS to collapse over time. At low tide, the rich in rocks that are mined by heavy machinery. This can cause CHANGE base of the cliff is exposed. This process significant erosion as the seabed is impacted through dredging. COASTLINES repeats causing the wave-cut platform to Agriculture contributes to biological weathering on cliff-tops. increase in size as the cliff continues to CHANGING retreat. UK COAST LANDSCAPE A CHANGING COASTLINE: DAWLISH WARREN COASTS S S Dawlish Warren is a spit located in Devon on the estuary of the River Exe. 480,000 people visit the spit each year. Dawlish Warren includes homes, COASTAL DEFENCE SCHEMES businesses and a significant fishing industry. It was made a National Nature Reserve in 2000. However, the spit is subject to significant changes due to erosion and deposition. The size of the spit has reduced by almost a half in the last 150 years. Recently, winter storms in 2013/14 caused significant erosion and damaged the famous railroad that runs on the south-west side of the spit. Storm surges from this period damaged wildlife habitats and eroded the tip of the spit. Humans are also affecting the coastline at Dawlish Warren. Groynes, a sea wall and rip-rap have been put on the spit to limit longshore drift and erosion. 18 groynes were first installed in 1959 and have Coastal defences are classified as recently been replaced. Since 1970, a 300m sea either hard or soft engineering. Hard- wall has been built. engineering uses ‘solid’ materials that usually last a long time. Soft The Dawlish Warren Beach Management Scheme engineering uses soft materials or no was established following the 2013/14 storms. materials at all to provide defence.  RIVERS Transportation (sediment is moved RIVERS HOW RIVER LANDSCAPES CHANGE (UPPER, MIDDLE & by waves). Traction – large LOWER COURSE) PHYSICAL PROCESSES IN RIVER Erosion. Hydraulic action – the The Bradshaw model (left) shows how river characteristics sediment rolls along the bed of the movement of water breaks down change as they move downstream. river as it moves. Saltation – material. Attrition – material slightly lighter materials bounces The long collides, causing pieces to break off. as it moves. Suspension – light profile of a Abrasion – sediment rubs against material is carried above the bed LANDSCAPES the banks and bed, breaking it down river (right). Mass movement (large quantities of as it is moved by the river. Material over time. sediment moving at one time). is deposited when the river loses More vertical Rockfall – large pieces of rock fall energy. Solution – microscopic erosion from a cliff due to gravity. Sliding –sediment dissolves within the water happens in material slides down a surface and is carried. the upper collecting material as it moves. More erosion course due Slumping – material slumps down a occurs to the steep Weathering. curved plane.Biological – plant roots gradient. As downstream as an animals break down material. the gradient the velocity and Freeze-thaw – frozen water expands flattens, discharge cracks (faults) within rocks. more lateral increases. This Chemical – acid rain, dissolves the erosion impacts particle surfaces of rocks. CHANGING occurs size and channel RIVERS DRAINAGE BASINS UK roughness. HOW HUMANS making theCHANGE RIVER LANDSCAPES RIVERS LANDSCAPE channel A drainage basin is the area in which a river S Humans are increasingly building homes next to rivers on flat flood plains to meet wider. collects its water. Any water that falls on the other the demands caused by population pressures. This is leading to more side of the watershed will end up in a different impermeable surfaces (concrete) that slows infiltration of rainfall into the soil. As river/drainage basin. a result, surface run-off occurs during heavy rainfall – this causes river discharge Tributaries are small rivers that join the main river to increase rapidly, increasing the chances of flooding. channel. This increases the discharge and velocity Humans are dredging rivers (removing sediment) to widen banks and deepen the of the main channel, causing greater levels of bed. This allows river to carry greater discharge but has a role in impacting local erosion in the channel. A confluence is the point ecosystems. where a tributary joins the main river channel. Trees help reduce flooding as their leaves and roots intercept water. If trees are HOW UK WEATHER AND CLIMATE IMPACT RIVER LANDSCAPES deforested for agriculture, urbanisation etc. less interception occurs leading to soils becoming saturated quicker and increased surface run-off. As a result, the Rivers have greater discharge in the autumn and winter when rainfall is heavier. risk of flooding increases. In the summer, discharge drops as rainfall drops. Storms cause greater discharge Trees help reduce flooding as their leaves and roots intercept water. If trees are in the short-term as they are heavy precipitation events. Storms are becoming deforested for agriculture, urbanisation etc. less interception occurs leading to more common due to climate change. Resultingly, flooding is becoming more soils becoming saturated quicker and increased surface run-off. As a result, the common and destructive in the UK. risk of flooding increases. UK rivers are crucial for supplying water for businesses and homes. However, Physical factors also increase the chances of flooding. Increased rainfall due to increasing droughts in the summer are reducing the supply of water. This has led climate change has led to greater frequency and severity of flood events. to temporary restrictions such as hose-pipe bans.  RIVER Waterfalls and gorges are found in the The gorge is Meanders form, when the current is directed towards a notch/weakness in one side of the S upper course. created when bank. This creates more erosion on this bank and deposits material on the opposite bank due to the waterfall the falling velocity – point bars (slip-off slopes) are created as they emerge above the water recedes line. The fastest flow, then rebounds across the river and the process is repeated to create a upstream, series of ‘s’ like meanders (see diagram). Where erosion is fastest, river cliffs are created as leaving steep erosion undercuts the bank. Further erosion causes the neck to narrow. Eventually the two sided cliffs either bends will meet, cutting off the river as meander as the river follows the easiest path. Due to RIVER LANDFORMS (EROSION AND DEPOSITION) RIVER LANDFORMS side of the river. this, an oxbow lake will form. Levees (left) are formed after (EROSION) flood events. Sediment is Interlocking spurs deposited on the banks as the are formed in the upper river floods. This causes the course where the river banks to build up. takes the easiest path Flood plains are formed by through softer rock. the deposition of river Harder rock is left material over long periods. forming a zip-like Deposition occurs during pattern of sloping flooding, creating a large flat spurs. RIVER LANDFORMS area of sediment next to the CHANGING (DEPOSITION) UK river channel. RIVERS LANDSCAPE A CHANGING RIVER LANDSCAPE: RIVER SEVERN RIVERS S The River Severn is the longest river in the UK. It is a significant landscape that is crucial in providing water for large towns and cities such as Shrewsbury, RIVER DEFENCE SCHEMES Worcester and Bristol. Fishing and agriculture rely on the water on the Severn. Geology play an important role in shaping the Severn. Softer rocks in the lower course allow the river to widen and deepen. In the upper course, shales and slates limit erosion. The rivers discharge is impacted by the wet conditions in the western areas of the UK due to the prevailing wind from the Atlantic Ocean. Humans are also impacting the Severn drainage basin. Urbanisation has led to increased flooding due to greater surface run-off. Shrewsbury has frequent flooding due to urbanisation and local deforestation. Since 2007, River defences are classified as either hard or soft engineering. Hard- Gloucestershire County Council has spent £48 million on engineering uses ‘solid’ materials that usually last a long time. Soft flood defences, while local services in Tewkesbury have engineering uses soft materials or no materials at all to provide defence. handed citizens free sandbags. In total, 100 gauging stations have been placed across the River Severn to  STORM HYDROGRAPHS RIVERS EXAM SKILLS ‘EXAMINE’ 8-MARK QUESTIONS Storm hydrographs are graphs that show how river discharge changes during a flood event. By using a hydrograph, we can see how rainfall impacts discharge over time. River discharge is Peak measured in cumecs discharge (cubic metres per second). Rainfall is represented Falling limb by the bar graph. You will always get two eight- Risin mark questions in the Changing g This graph contains two UK Landscapes section. These are limb hydrographs: one for always examine questions – in Peak rainfall an urban area and one these you must reference the for a rural area. figure in the question. There are four marks available for using geographical skills (AO4) CHANGING UK LANDSCAPE S To get the AO4 marks in the question, use whatever the figure gives you. In this case, your answer must include compass Rising limb – the sudden rise in river discharge directions and distances using the Falling limb – the sudden drop in river discharge scale. For example, as you talk about Lag time – the time between peak discharge and peak the processes that form the bar rainfall (deposition, longshore drift) The urban hydrograph is ‘flashy’ – steep rising and falling limbs. This is due to mention: the amount of impermeable surfaces. Therefore, the discharge will rise sharply and quickly (hence the short lag time) during heavy rainfall. In contrast, the lag Length of the bar time between peak rainfall and discharge in the forested river is much longer (six hours compared to three hours). This is due to interception from trees and Direction of prevailing wind the permeable soil allowing infiltration. These processes slow down the flow of Direction of longshore drift water to the river channel as they limit surface run-off – a process that is Width of the beach common in urban areas. This will gain you easy marks!  TOPIC 1: CHANGING UK LANDSCAPES: additional key words/aspects (S+C) Differential erosion: describes how a cliff/rock/bank/bed etc. undergoes erosion at different rates due to differences in rock resistance. For example, bays and headlands form on a discordant coastline due to differential erosion between soft and hard rock. Lithology: describes the characteristics of rocks, especially the resistance to erosion. Coastlines have varying lithology which helps explain why differential erosion occurs. Fetch: the distance over which wind affects a wave. The south-west of the UK is particularly prone to erosion as the fetch is very large – waves can travel uninterrupted from the other side of the Atlantic Ocean. Wave refraction: describes how waves approaching a coastline become increasingly parallel to the coastline due to the irregular shape of that coastline. This causes wave energy to be concentrated on headlands, causing them to erode (see right). Storm surge: a temporary increase in sea levels caused by intense low-pressure systems (storms). This leads to significantly greater levels of erosion. Storm beach: an area towards the back of a beach which contains large sediment carried by the strongest waves during high tide. Wave refraction – stronger waves converge on the headland due to the shape of the surrounding coastline. This will lead to the Aeolian processes: refers to the role of wind in the transport and deposition of sediment. For development of caves, arches, stacks and stumps. example, longshore drift occurs due to wave transportation and deposition, but also due to aeolian processes. In the summer, the water table Alluvium: the name given to sediment carried by a river. drops due to greater Thalweg: the fastest flow of a river. On a meander, the thalweg is found on the outside bends. evaporation. In the winter, Water table: the natural level of water within soil and rocks. Flooding commonly occurs when increased the water table rises. rainfall leads to the water table Environment agency: this is the government department responsible for assessing flood risk rising. This in the UK. It is also a regulator that checks on the service provided by private water companies means flooding like Thames and Anglia Water – they try and prevent these companies dumping raw sewage into is more waterways.  TOPIC 1: CHANGING UK LANDSCAPES: additional key words/aspects (S+C) Wave cut notch: occurs when a wave undercuts a cliff causing the creation of a small hole/notch. This weakness will allow landforms such as wave-cut platforms to form. At headlands, notches will lead to the development of caves. Cliff recession: describes how cliff move backwards due to continuous erosion, weathering and mass movement. Coastal recession is also used to describe how coastlines are retreating. Berm: a ridge of sediment that marks the usual high-tide line. Only during a storm will sediment be deposited past the berm. Shoreline Management Plan (SMP): a plan devised by the Environment Agency and local authorities (town council for example) to manage coastal erosion and flood risk. There are four possible policies that SMPs consider: No intervention Hold the line - maintain the existing shoreline with defences Managed realignment – allow the shoreline to change naturally but manage and direct the process Advance the line – build new defences closer to the sea Which policy is taken is down to economics – the value of the land and the cost of coastal defences. Meltwater: water that seasonally melts from upland areas. This can lead to excess river An example of an SMP for the Morecambe Bay area of north-west discharge and flooding. England. Each area of coastline is given different management options based on the economic value of land. Afforestation: the process of planting new trees. This can reduce the impact of flooding as trees will intercept more water. Bedding plane: describes the point where two layers of rock meet. At coastline, slumping commonly occurs on a bedding plane where the lower layer of rock is clay, as it becomes slippery when saturated (after heavy rainfall).  TOPIC 2: WEATHER HAZARDS AND CLIMATE SPECIFICATION - DO YOU KNOW ALL CHANGE WHAT TO EXPECT IN YOUR THIS? EXAM 1x eight-mark question. This will be either an assess or evaluate question. For both these command words there is 4 marks for AO2 and 4 marks for AO3. AO2: knowledge and geographical processes and the relationship between these processes, places and the environment. CASE STUDIES AO3: apply knowledge to interpret, analyse and Tropical cyclone developed: Hurricane evaluate geographical Sandy information (in other words, answer the question!). Tropical cyclone developing/emerging: Typhoon Haiyan For assess questions, you must talk about how significant each Drought developed: California (USA) point your making is. For example: “the most significant Drought developing/emerging: factor is…” Ethiopia  Global atmospheric circulation describes ROLE OF OCEAN CURRENTS IN REDISTRIBUTION OF HEAT how air moves around the planet. The diagram shows where air falls (creating A current describes the movement of water in an obvious and continuous high pressure – dry conditions) and air pattern. GLOBAL ATMOSPHERIC rises (creating low pressure and wet The map shows ‘gyres’ – conditions). circular gears that drive At the equator, stronger solar radiation the majority of ocean CIRCULATION causes air to rise from the surface as it heats.. Some of this air condenses as it currents. reaches the high atmosphere, falling back to the equator as rain. The other These currents brings cold air moves north and south towards the water from the deep ocean poles, falling at 30 degrees north and to the surface and drive south. Air tends to move from areas of cold water from the poles The movement of air (wind) is high to low pressure. This causes air to towards the equator and crucial in redistributing heat move back to the equator and rise once vice versa. around the planet. This starts more, completing a circle. These circles from the sun. In the higher Three cellsair of moving areare created calledby the rising, cells. falling and movement of air around the The Gulf Stream is an atmosphere, fast jet streams planet. important current that form at the boundary between WH & CC two cells. brings warm water to the Over thousands of years, the shape Eccentricity is an example of a HUMAN CAUSES OF CLIMATE UK in Human the winter. activity that adds of the earth’s orbit around the sun CHANGE greenhouse gases (carbon NATURAL CLIMATE CHANGE Milankovitch Cycle. Axial tilt is another changes (eccentricity) impacting Human activity adds to the enhanced dioxide, methane etc.) to the – the angle that the earths sits on its global climate. Circular orbits give axis changes over time. As we tilt greenhouse effect. While the atmosphere: consistent conditions, while oval- closer to the sun, the temperature greenhouse effect is crucial in shaped orbits will lead to more increases. Precession is the last sustaining life on earth – the enhanced Agriculture extreme weather. The impacts of Milankovitch Cycle and describes the effect (where too many greenhouse Transport these are seen in the graph below. earth’s ‘wobble’ on its axis. This will gases trap heat in the atmosphere) is Industry Colder periods are known as glacial lead to periods where the earth is causing global warming. periods. Warmer periods are known Energy production tilted closer to the sun. The enhanced greenhouse as interglacial periods. effect has led to: Lower crop yields (causing famine in developing countries) Rising sea levels (increasing Other natural factors: solar variation; coastal flooding) Retreating glaciers (leading volcanism.  BE CAREFUL! When discussing climate TROPICAL CYCLONES: FORMATION AND CHARACTERISTICS and weather, do not use the terms interchangeably – they are not the same. Weather refers to short term changes in the atmosphere (rainfall and temperature) over the short-term – days and weeks. Climate refers to the general weather trends over UK CLIMATE the long-term (years). The climate of the UK is temperate – it is seasonal and sees cold, warm, wet and dry Tropical cyclones have different To form, tropical cyclones must have: large periods. The graph names depending on their area of water to draw moisture from, warm shows the location. impact of water over 26.5 degrees celsius and winds The map shows how UK over the surface of the sea. The warm water climate The Coriolis effect causes climate is impacted by the evaporates and forms huge storms over the change on tropical cyclones to spin. This movement of air over the ocean. These storms pull in further air from the UK effect does not happen directly course of the year. Most UK the surrounding area causing the storm to over time. on the equator – hence why weather comes from the continuously grow larger. The larger the storm, west due to the prevailing they do not form on it. the lower the pressure and the stronger the WH & CC wind from the Atlantic. winds. An eye forms in where conditions are Tropical cyclones cause heavy TYPHOON HAIYAN (2013): TYPHOON HAIYAN: In the two days before Haiyan hit, 750,000 calm. rainfall and high winds to impact IMPACTS RESPONSES people were evacuated. In response to the TROPICAL CYCLONES: IMPACTS coastal communities. In turn this Typhoon was one of the strongest typhoon, the Philippines government declared a leads to: tropical cyclones in recorder history. A ‘State of National Calamity’ and called on category five storm, it decimated the support from the rest of the world. Storm surges (temporary rises in city of Tacloban in the Philippines. The The local police in Tacloban struggled to cope sea level which can cause map shows the track of Haiyan. with the vast impacts. As a result, law and devastating flooding) Social impacts: more than 7000 killed order broke down and looting became Landslides (from over-saturated and 1.9 million left homeless due high widespread. THE ROLE soils that OF DEVELOPMENT weaken IN the soil profile) winds and storm surges. Huge Internationally, the UK government sent IMPACTS AND RESPONSES outbreaks of diseases due to supplies such as food, water, shelter and contaminated water supplies. medicine for 800,000 people. Charities also Developed countries tend to have Economic impacts: cost the Philippine provided essential supplies to help the short- less severe impacts as economy $5.8 billion. 6 million term response, including the repair of fishing communities are more prepared workers lost their incomes as farming boats that were damaged by the storm surge. (early warning and fishing industries were destroyed The United Nations launched an aid appeal for systems/evacuations), buildings in and around Tacloban. In 2014, the Philippine Environmental impacts: flooding $480 million to finance government used the relief effort. are of higher quality etc. They can billboards in some of the most high-profile also respond more effectively due deforested trees and caused an oil areas of the world (Times Square, Piccadilly to better technology and spill in a delicate mangrove Circus etc.) to thank the international response.  HURRICANE SANDY (2012): HURRICANE SANDY: RESPONSES DROUGHTS: CHARACTERISTICS IMPACTS Social: 72 people died in the USA due By using satellite images and weather A drought describes the lack of expected water in a region. An arid area (like a to storm surges. Power failures at instruments, areas were evacuated and desert) is not in drought as it does not expect much rainfall. There are two main hospitals in New York led to warnings were delivered to the public. types: hydrological and meteorological. This limited the impacts. Meteorological drought occurs when CAUSES OF DROUGHT evacuations of patients. More than 8.5 President Obama warned people to there is less precipitation than million home and businesses left Other than physical reasons Economic: second most costly stay calm. The police evacuated expected. without power. Hydrological drought occurs when (meteorological and hydrological), hurricane on record ($71 billion in hundreds of thousands of people from water stores on earth (rivers, soil, lakes, humans also cause droughts. damages). More than 18,000 flights vulnerable low lying coastal areas. groundwater etc.) have less water than Building dams leads to less discharge were cancelled and local farmers lost At local levels, social media was used expected. Meteorological drought leads downstream as water is trapped. This incomes due to crop losses. extensively by affected towns and to hydrological drought. will cause a shortage of water for Environmental: fallen trees and floods residents. This helped authorities Droughts are hazardous as they impact towns and farms further downstream. destroyed important coastal habitats coordinate the response and prioritise the ability to access water – especially and ecosystems. Untreated sewage support for the most vulnerable. Agriculture can lead to drought. in developing countries. contaminated streets and water The Concert for Sandy Relief saw bands Farmers often irrigate their crops by systems. Wide-scale flooding made such as Bon Jovi perform in order to Deforestation removes carbon sinks. diverting water from rivers and many roads and trainlines unusable, raise awareness and funding to support Carbon is released back into the reducing its flow. This will impact impacting the ability for businesses to the long-term response (building flood atmosphere, contributing to global downstream. trade. Coastal erosion led to 10m of defences, prevention etc.). warming and meteorological drought. coastline loss in New Jersey. WH & CC CALIFORNIA DROUGHTS, USA (2010-2019). IMPACTS CALIFORNIA DROUGHTS, USA (2010-2019). RESPONSES ON PEOPLE ON ENVIRONMENT/ ECOSYSTEMS INDIVIDUALS ORGANISATIONS GOVERNMENT Grey water has been used Schools and media Governor Jerry Brown The overuse of water has led to shortages Abstracting groundwater has caused land to for gardens to reduce the organisation ran campaigns ordered towns and cities to for some farmers. Crops have been badly sink above it (subsidence). need for new water sources. encouraging people to reduce their water affected with some farmers losing their reduce water use. consumption by 25% livelihoods. Some farmers have turned to Research groups have The state is planning to build Food prices have increased rapidly due to Many rivers and marshlands have dried up, drip-irrigation methods, developed new drought new desalination plants to the shortage of crops. Avocado prices have killing fish species and affecting birdlife that risen by 45% in first five years of the relies on these ecosystems. preventing excess water loss resistant crops. provide freshwater. drought through evaporation. The dry conditions have caused wildfires. Flooding resulted in oil being spilled into the These have destroyed homes and local mangrove ecosystem. Drought in California has been caused by many different factors. Climate businesses. Wildfires in 2017 caused change has led to both meteorological and hydrological drought. Less $14.5 billion of damage and killed 44. rainfall and the melting glaciers is removing the once reliable supply of The amount of mental health conditions such Dry weather has increased the number of water for farmers. As one of the world’s most valuable farming areas, as depression and anxiety have risen wildfires in the state. This has sharply reduced water is expensively pumped from rivers like the Colorado. As a result, sharply due to fears over the drought. areas of woodland. discharge in the Colorado River is incredibly low by the time it reaches the Mexico border. This has led to complaints from the Mexican government  DROUGHTS IN ETHIOPIA (1983-): IMPACTS DROUGHTS IN ETHIOPIA (1983-): RESPONSES ON PEOPLE ON ENVIRONMENT/ ECOSYSTEMS INDIVIDUALS ORGANISATIONS GOVERNMENT People have migrated away NGOs (charities) have taught Government has struggled to In the 1983-85 famine, an estimated 1.5 Water sources have dried up, negatively fromaffected areas but farmers to use more resistant deal with faming due to million people lost their lives due to impacting plants. This has caused wildlife often lose their livelihoods in crops that can tolerate dry corruption and poor extreme hunger. numbers to decrease due to a lack of water the process. conditions. infrastructure. and food. The Productive Safety Net NGOs have provided clean Government has recently 85% of people in Ethiopia depend on Droughts have led to soil erosion, damaging Programoffers food and water and food packages to created a scheme to rehouse agriculture. In 2016, crop yields were key habitats for endangered species such as money for individuals who badly affected areas. people closer to water reduced by up to 90% in some areas. the Ethiopian Wolf. agree to work on building sources. Rural-urban migration has increased Wildfires and desertification have become projects. rapidly due to food and water insecurity in more common due to the dry conditions. When rural areas. This has created a brain drain rains occur, most water is lost to surface run- Due to its low development, Ethiopia continues to rely on international aid to in rural areas. off due to the hard soils. offer solutions. Much of the drought has been caused by climate change, with the In 2017, 7.8 million people needed once consistent rainy season becoming unpredictable. Currently, Ethiopia emergency assistance to meet their basic struggles with civil war and government corruption. The result is that everyday food needs. Ethiopians continue to struggle with water and food insecurity despite events such as Live Aid (1985) bringing the country to the attention of the world.  TOPIC 2: WEATHER HAZARDS AND CLIMATE CHANGE: additional key Albedo: describes the ability of a surface to reflect sunlight.words/aspects Ice has an albedo of 90% which(S+C) makes it crucial for keeping the planet cool as solar radiation is reflected back into space. Global warming is reducing the coverage of ice sheets – this is problematic as sea water has an albedo of 10%. Positive feedback loop: occurs when a product of a reaction leads to an increase of that reaction. For example: increasing atmospheric heat → greater melting of glaciers and ice sheets → less reflection of solar radiation → increasing atmospheric heat. Runaway effect: occurs when positive feedback loops become too strong to prevent total collapse of a system. Relief rainfall: the process of rainfall occurring in mountainous areas. The mountains acts as a barrier, causing air to rise into the cooler atmosphere where it condenses and falls on the windward side of the mountain (see right). The leeward side is left in the ‘rain shadow’ where less rainfall occurs. This helps describe why the west of the UK receives significantly more rainfall than the east. Convectional rainfall – the Relief rainfall – the ground is heated by solar prevailing wind from the Convectional rainfall: caused by the heating of the ground by solar radiation. The air above it radiation which leads to the Atlantic brings moist air to starts to vibrate and expand as it heats, causing the density to fall, allowing it to rise into the upper air above it to expand and the west coast. Most is atmosphere (troposphere). As it cools, the air condenses into clouds which when heavy enough, rise as its density decreases. retained on the windward release rain. Convectional rainfall is most common at the equator and is responsible for the It then condenses in the side of the mountain. The development of tropical rainforests. troposphere and falls back leeward side of the down as rain. mountain experiences less Frontal rainfall: occurs where two air masses meat of different temperatures. The warmer air rainfall. mass will rise over the colder air mass due to differences in density. As it rises, the air condenses Frontal rainfall – into clouds. The UK is often at the front of two opposing air masses: cold air from the arctic and the front warm air from the Sahara desert. describes the area where the Troposphere: the area of the atmosphere in which weather is formed. two air masses meet. Notice Magnitude: describes the amount of energy released by a tropical cyclone. The Saffir-Simpson how the warm scale (1-5) is used to represent this. Typhoon Haiyan was a category 5 storm. air rises on contact with the Air mass: describes a large area of moving air. For example, the UK regularly receives a dry, cold cooler air. mass of air from the arctic.  TOPIC 2: WEATHER HAZARDS AND CLIMATE CHANGE: additional key Quaternary period: a time period that started 2.5 words/aspects (S+C) million years ago and continues to the present. The Quaternary is significant as it is a period affected by interglacial and glacial cycles (due to Milankovitch Cycles). Growth rings: the growth rings of trees tend to be wider in warmer, wetter climates compared to thinner rings in colder, drier climates. Ice cores: drilled sections of ice that reveal different layers of compressed ice. Each layer contains microbes, gasses, ash and pollen that can give clues about the climate of that time. Crop yields: the amount of crops grown in a particular season. Climate change has generally led to lower crop yields. Thermal expansion: describes how warmer water occupies a greater volume than colder water. As seas warm-up, thermal expansion causes global sea levels to rise, leading to increased coastal flooding. North-Atlantic Drift: a warm ocean current that takes warm water from the Gulf of Mexico to the UK. This leads to milder conditions. There are various theories about tropical cyclones and how they form. However, all agree that they are huge low pressures systems that store and release vast energy. Once tropical cyclones form, they are self- Glaciers: a large accumulation of ice that moves sustaining systems. As air naturally moves from high to low pressure, air continuously flows from outside of downslope due to gravity. Glaciers contain a large the tropical system to within it (high to low) – this means that the cyclone will keep growing larger. The amount of the earth’s freshwater. The melting of tropical cyclone only dissipates when the primary fuel source (warm water) is cut off. This is why tropical glaciers due to global warming is causing water cyclones lose their power when they make landfall, keeping town and cities far away from the coastline shortages in agriculturally important areas such as relatively safe. The swirling nature of tropical cyclones (due to the Coriolis effect) allows for the formation of California. a high-pressure zone at the cyclones centre – this is known as the ‘eye’, and experiences calm conditions compared to the lower pressure cloud surrounding it.  TOPIC 3: ECOSYSTEMS AND SPECIFICATION - DO YOU KNOW ALL THIS? BIODIVERSITY WHAT TO EXPECT IN YOUR EXAM 1x eight-mark question. This will be either an assess or evaluate question. For both these command words there is 4 marks for AO2 and 4 marks for AO3. AO2: knowledge and geographical processes and the relationship between these processes, places and the environment. AO3: apply knowledge to CASE STUDIES interpret, analyse and For any question that states: “you have evaluate geographical studied a tropical rainforest…” – use information (in other words, Costa Rica answer the question!). For any question that states: “you have For assess questions, you must studied a deciduous woodland…” – use talk about how significant each Forest of Dean point your making is. For example: “the most significant factor is…”  ECOSYSTEMS: DISTRIBUTION AND CHARACTERISTICS UK ECOSYSTEMS: TERRESTRIAL (LAND) AND MARINE (WATER) Moorlands form in upland areas and consist The distribution of biomes (large ecosystems) of shrubs and grasses. Poor soils stop tree is determined mostly by climate (rainfall and growth. Heathlands are similar, but grow in temperature) of an area. Notice how most lowland areas. Wetlands (fens) are found biomes occur in bands across the world. near coastlines and rivers where land is semi or permanently flooded. Most coniferous forests are found in Scotland. UK marine ecosystems are rich in biodiversity. However they are underthreat from: Overfishing Altitude will impact the Bycatch (catching unintended species) distribution of biomes. Pollution (oil spills and sewage runoff) Air pressure is crucial for distribution of UK marine ecosystems are important for Altitudes high above sea level biomes. Tropical rainforests form at the equator local and the national economy. Fishing will not be able to support due to the low pressure conditions that create industries, tourism and energy production biomes that require hot significant levels of rainfall. Deserts form under are important in providing jobs and boosting temperatures. Soil types will high pressure conditions (high = dry). national GDP. Marine ecosystems are impact distribution. Loose ECO & BIO increasingly used for wind farms. soils in deserts stop plants growing. THE BIOSPHERE TRF: BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC TRF: NUTRIENT CYCLE The biosphere is the area of the earth Biotic refers to the living The Gersmehl model (left) shows how inhabited by living organisms. The characteristics of an ecosystems: nutrients cycle around TRFs. Inputs biosphere is crucial in supplying plants and animals. Abiotic refers (precipitation) and outputs (surface resources such as: food, medicine, fuel to the non-living characteristics: runoff) see nutrients enter and leave and building materials. heat, water, soil, air etc. the system. Another output is leaching Due to human need for these resources, Abiotic and biotic components – this occurs when nutrients are we exploit the biosphere by deforesting, dissolved by water which drains are interdependent – one mining etc. Much of this is done for through the soil and away from the commercial profit by large TNCs impacts the other. For example, biomass. TRFs rely on abiotic factors – TRF heat, light, water – to provide the The biomass is the largest store of STRUCTURE conditions needed for plants to TRFs are nutrients – this contains plants and grow. Animals need water to animals. Plants take nutrients from the noted for survive. When they die, water is soil by uptaking them through root their layers. The Each layer lost emergent layer sees trees reach 50m tall. They are long and thin, growing to the soil. systems. The biomass loses nutrients quickly to reach the sunlight. The canopy is the thick mattress like bed of dense through fallout (when plants/animals has trees that compete for light. The understorey is less dense as there is less different die). The litter is the collection of dead sunlight available here. The forest floor receives only 3% of the sun’s light. material on the forest floor. The  Animals and plants have adapted over thousands of year to be able to TROPICAL RAINFORESTS: GOODS & SERVICES survive in TRF ecosystems. PLANTS ANIMALS TRFs are rich in resources and are continuously exploited. Goods are physical objects (can be touched). Goods from TRFs include: tropical fruit TROPICAL RAINFORESTS: Plants in TRFs have drip-tip leaves. Tree frogs have extended, strong like bananas and pineapple, crops such as palm oil and coffee, timber for This feature allows rainwater to limbs that allow them to escape furniture and paper production and medicines. TRFs also provide important quickly run-off the surface of leaves quickly from predators. Toucan’s ADAPTATIONS services such as ecotourism and acts as carbon sinks – they absorb carbon – this avoid them rotting. Emergent have large beaks that can generate trees have to grow quickly in order the forces required to break nuts. from the atmosphere and store it, keeping the atmosphere cool. TRF DEFORESTATION: CAUSES TRF: THREATS FROM CLIMATE to reach the sunlight. Therefore, they The Emerald Boa is a snake species CHANGE have roots systems above the that camouflages into the TRFs are deforested due to the value Warmer temperatures is leading to less surface of the ground called surrounding vegetation. This help it they create for economies. Global rainfall in TRF regions. As a result, buttress roots, as well as below to escape predators and stealthily hunt demand for goods is responsible for plant and animal species are under give additional stability and strength. prey. much deforestation. Other reasons continuous threat of extinction as they include: struggle to adapt. This has lowered Urbanisation (space to build cities biodiversity in TRFs. As the structure of and roads) TRFs changes due to these pressures, Agriculture (to support food the Gersmehl model is disrupted and demands) the flow of nutrients affected. Over Mining (for valuable resources such time, more areas of TRFs are as gold) transitioning to tropical grasslands due SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF TRFs: COSTA RICA NEGATIVES? Hydroelectric power (to provide DECIDUOUS WOODLANDS: to the uneven NUTRIENT nature of rainfall. energy from rivers) CYCLE Costa Rica is one of the few places on earth where the amount of TRF is The strategies to the left Notice how the increasing. This is due to sustainable management due to political and suggest sustainable stores (biomass, economic factors. management has been very litter and soil are a POLITICAL ECONOMIC successful in Costa Rica. For lot more even in the most part, this is true. The government banned logging Some logging continues, but it size in deciduous in 1996 unless a permit was must be FSC (Forest Stewardship However, illegal logging still woodlands. In TRFs granted Council) certified. This protects occurs, especially in areas the litter is small 1997, the PES scheme was vulnerable areas where gold has been found. due to rapid introduced. This pays landowners Ecotourism is heavily promoted. This has encouraged decomposition. $64 a hectare per year to protect This has led to 3 million tourists deforestation as people mine the earth to look for it. In deciduous woodlands, the litter is larger forested areas. This scheme has visiting per year while having a as the climate is cooler so material paid out over $500 million since limited impact on TRFs decomposes at a slower rate. Furthermore, Furthermore, Costa Rica 1997 Ecotourism is now worth $4 billion Poverty still cannot respond individually the biomass is not as dense so less nutrients The PES also encourages tree a year to exists CostainRica Costa Rica. Many to the threat of climate are uptaken from the soils. Many nutrients feel that exploiting TRFs would benefit planting – 7 million have been change and will likely are added to the soil through the weathering impoverished communities and allow planted struggle to maintain such (w) of rocks.  Biodiversity is a lot lower in deciduous woodland than TRFs as the climate is DECIDUOUS WOODLANDS: GOODS & SERVICES less consistent. Cold winters means much of the biomass dies. Animals and Like TRFs, deciduous woodlands are exploited for their goods and services. ADAPTATIONS IN DECIDUOUS plants still have to adapt to survive. ANIMALS PLANTS Forestry is a large industry in the UK, with timber being used in the construction of furniture and housing. Furthermore, wood is collected as a fuel source for heat Many animals have adapted by The Oak is one of the most – with log burning furnaces being popular in the UK. To keep woodlands storing food in the summer months successful tree species in deciduous sustainable, conservation is an important service that aims to balance the WOODLANDS to consume in the winter – squirrels woodlands. They have shaped leaves economic opportunities and environmental protection. Recreation & tourism are are an example of this. Hedgehogs that help cover a large surface area, important services to the UK economy, as woodlands such as the New Forest and hibernate in the winter months to allowing them to absorb sunlight for DEFORESTATION Forest DECIDUOUS of Dean contribute to economic growth.WOODLANDS: THREATS FROM save energy when food sources are photosynthesis. Furthermore, they CLIMATE CHANGE Deforestation occurs for Warmer climates are affecting the functioning of scarce. Many bird species like the loose their leaves in winter to much the same reason woodlands. For example, warmer winters are swallow migrate in the winter to conserve on water when as it does in TRFs: causing bluebells to grow earlier in the spring. This head to warmer climates in North The oak photosynthesis is at its least Urbanisation has caused problems to the wider ecosystem as Africa. creates a seal efficient. Timber extraction other animal species that feed on the bluebell have between twig Agriculture had hibernation patterns disrupted. This uncertainty and leaf, in the ecosystem is leading to a loss of biodiversity. causing the