KIN 4571 Final Exam PDF

‭ he Vision System‬ T ‭Eye anatomy‬ ‭‬ ‭Pupil - hole in the central iris, allows light to enter‬ ‭‬ ‭Iris - muscles that regulate the amount of light entering the eye‬ ‭○‬ ‭Circular fiber: contract for constriction‬ ‭○‬ ‭Radial fiber: contract for dilation‬...

‭ he Vision System‬ T ‭Eye anatomy‬ ‭‬ ‭Pupil - hole in the central iris, allows light to enter‬ ‭‬ ‭Iris - muscles that regulate the amount of light entering the eye‬ ‭○‬ ‭Circular fiber: contract for constriction‬ ‭○‬ ‭Radial fiber: contract for dilation‬ ‭(pink-Fovea(dip)) (yellow-optic disk(CN11))‬ *‭ superior view of R eyeball‬ ‭*if light comes from R side visual field projects on L side right side for right eye is temporal portion and left side for right eye‬ ‭is nasal portion‬ ‭‬ ‭Sclera - (white) shapes and protects eye‬ ‭‬ ‭Lens - focuses light rays onto the retina‬ ‭‬ ‭Cornea - transparent iris covering; helps focus light‬ ‭‬ ‭Choroid - lies within the sclera; provides nutrients to the retina‬ ‭‬ ‭Retina - lines ¾ of the eyeball; start of visual pathway; contains photoreceptors (rods/cones)‬ ‭○‬ ‭Rods: sensitive to light, peripheral vision‬ ‭○‬ ‭Cones: specializes for visual acuity and color, clear‬ ‭‬ ‭Optic disc -‬ ‭○‬ ‭Start of CNII‬ ‭○‬ ‭No photoreceptors (rods & cones) on the optic disc (no in the book)‬ ‭*Optic nerve - cranial nerve 2‬ ‭Retina:‬ ‭The fovea:‬ ‭‬ ‭The area with the largest # of cones that “sees” most clearly‬ ‭‬ ‭Is located lateral to the optic disc‬ ‭*blind spot of the right eye is on the right‬ ‭Visual Field‬ ‭‬ ‭Monocular: 160 deg (w) x 135 deg (h), one eye‬ ‭‬ ‭Binocular: 200 deg (w) x 135 deg (h), two eye‬ ‭‬ ‭Binocular overlap: 120 deg (w) x 135 deg (h), what both eyes see when looking straight ahead‬ ‭Visual Pathway‬ ‭‬ ‭Retina‬ ‭‬ ‭Optic disc‬ ‭‬ ‭Optic nerve‬ ‭‬ ‭Optic chiasm‬ ‭‬ ‭Optic tract‬ ‭‬ ‭Lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN, thalamus)‬ ‭‬ ‭Optic traditions‬ ‭‬ ‭Primary visual area (occipital lobe, area 17) goes to the medial side‬ ‭Visual Association Areas‬ ‭Visual Pathway‬ ‭‬ ‭Monocular vision loss (1)‬ ‭○‬ ‭“closing one eye”‬ ‭‬ ‭Loss of temporal vision (2)‬ ‭○‬ ‭“only binocular overlap”‬ ‭‬ ‭Hemianopsia (3)‬ ‭○‬ ‭“only see left visual field”‬ ‭Review‬ ‭‬ ‭When light enters the eye, it is refracted before it reaches the retina. A loss of refractive power can lead to a loss of‬ ‭visual acuity. A surgical procedure to restore the main refractive power of light entering the eye involves the….‬ ‭○‬ ‭Ans: cornea‬ ‭‬ ‭Which of the following is the area of the eye with the highest visual acuity?‬ ‭○‬ ‭Fovea‬ ‭‬ ‭Optic disc is medial to fovea.‬ ‭‬ ‭Blind spot is lateral where you can see most clearly.‬ ‭ halamus/ascending pathways‬ T ‭General‬ ‭‬ ‭Part of the Diencephalon - rostral to the brain stem, sits in the middle of the brain‬ ‭○‬ ‭It’s between the cerebral cortex and midbrain → located in the middle of the brain‬ ‭‬ ‭Relays sensory and motor signals to the cerebral cortex → major function‬ ‭○‬ ‭Acts as a relay station, gathering sensory info of all kinds and passes it one to the cerebral cortex‬ ‭Sensory information → not involved with olfactory (NOT directly)‬ ‭‬ ‭Receives it‬ ‭‬ ‭Processes it‬ ‭‬ ‭Interprets it (unlike the spinal cord)‬ ‭‬ ‭Integrates sensory information with cognitive processes (ex. Memory - smelling something and thinking of another‬ ‭time/place you smelled it)‬ ‭Regulates consciousness, sleep and alertness‬ ‭‬ ‭Often described as the gatekeeper to consciousness‬ ‭Gives meaning to our environment - perception (sensory)‬ ‭(ex. Seeing a teddy bear & it gives that sense/feeling that it will feel soft)‬ ‭Contains many nuclei‬ ‭‬ ‭Receive specific afferent information‬ ‭‬ ‭Project to specific areas in the cortex‬ ‭Major Somatosensory Pathways–to the thalamus **where they decussate and what they respond to; projects to‬ ‭Medial Lemniscus Pathway – originates in dorsal funiculus, later decussate (body/s.c. to thalamus) and spinothalamic tract‬ ‭(anterolateral; s.c. to thalamus)‬ ‭‬ ‭Receptors sources:‬ ‭○‬ ‭Joint‬  ‭ ‬ ‭Cutaneous‬ ○ ‭○‬ ‭muscle‬ ‭‬ ‭Sensations: more for body position/on the skin‬ ‭○‬ ‭Joint position‬ ‭○‬ ‭Touch‬ ‭○‬ ‭Pressure‬ ‭‬ ‭Ex. walking or running‬ ‭Spinothalamic Tract (anterolateral) - info comes in dorsal root, decussates to anterior funiculus, ascends to thalamus (s.c.‬ ‭to thalamus)‬ ‭‬ ‭Sensations (body):‬ ‭○‬ ‭Nociceptive (pain)‬ ‭○‬ ‭Temperature‬ ‭○‬ ‭Itch, tickle (light touch)‬ ‭Trigeminothalamic Tract: starts in trigeminal nuclei (CN5) (pressure of light touch to your face)‬ ‭‬ ‭Trigeminal nuclei to the thalamus sensory of the face‬ ‭‬ ‭Can’t see interthalamic adhesion in lateral view, only medial‬ ‭‬ ‭Ends in thalamus‬ ‭‬ ‭Tortora‬ *‭ ventral lateral & ventral anterior work together‬ ‭Lateral dorsal & anterior work together‬ ‭Lateral posterior & pulvinar work together‬ ‭Damage to the Thalamus‬ ‭‬ ‭Sensory disorders‬ ‭○‬ ‭Problems distinguishing stimuli‬ ‭‬ ‭Type (stimuli like light: vision, temperature, pressure, etc)‬ ‭‬ ‭Location – if you touch their arm, they wouldn’t know where it is‬ ‭‬ ‭intensity‬ ‭○‬ ‭Hemianopsia (hemianopia) – vision loss 1 side (PP)‬ ‭○‬ ‭Thalamic pain syndrome - every sensation is painful for them‬ ‭○‬ ‭All of these are ascending tracts b/c sensory‬ ‭‬ ‭Motor disorders‬ ‭○‬ ‭Sensory ataxia – no motor coordination‬ ‭○‬ ‭Dyskinesia–involuntary motion; can’t control movements‬ ‭‬ ‭Chora– jerky movements; movements of body = bigger movements‬ ‭‬ ‭Dystonia–change in tone; postural control‬ ‭‬ ‭tremors–hands/legs/fingers, smaller movements‬ ‭‬ ‭Neuropsychological problems‬ ‭‬ ‭Thalamic syndrome–combination of disorders‬ ‭○‬ ‭Example:‬ ‭‬ ‭thalamic pain syndrome‬ ‭‬ ‭Hemianesthesia – loss of sensation on one body side (sensory disorder)‬ ‭‬ ‭Hemiparesis – weakness on one body side (motor disorder)‬ ‭‬ ‭Dyskinesia link: parkinson’s disease symptom (lady sitting in chair jerking) saw chorea & dystonia‬ ‭‬ ‭Dystonia body link: arched back; postural control‬ ‭ he Basal Ganglia‬ T ‭The basal ganglia are several structures.‬ ‭Composition:‬ ‭‬ ‭Caudate nucleus‬ ‭‬ ‭Putamen: striatum‬ ‭‬ ‭Globus pallidus: Gpi-internus/Gpe-externus, pallidum‬ ‭‬ ‭Nucleus accumbens‬ ‭‬ ‭Subthalamic nucleus ( damage: Ballism)‬ ‭‬ ‭Substantia nigra: SNr-pars reticulata, SNc-pars compacta‬ ‭Functions‬ ‭‬ ‭Needed to modulate movement (start and stop movement)‬ ‭‬ ‭No projections to the s.c.‬ ‭‬ ‭No afferent input from sensory peripheral receptors‬ ‭‬ ‭Contribute to cognition, emotions through prefrontal/limbic lobe projections‬ ‭Functional loops‬ ‭‬ ‭(pathways, circuits) of the basal ganglia (motor, oculomotor, limbic, sensorimotor association loops)‬ ‭‬ ‭Direct circuits: initiate movement‬ ‭○‬ ‭Cortex (excites, +) → input nuclei (inhibitory, -) → stop output nuclei (GPI & SNr) → thalamus (excite) →‬ ‭cortex‬ ‭‬ ‭Indirect circuits: suppress movement‬ ‭○‬ ‭Input nuclei → stop GPe → STN (+) → output nuclei (excite) → stop cortex (thalamus to slow movement)‬ ‭Input Nuclei‬ ‭‬ ‭Corticostriatal projections (excitatory)‬ ‭○‬ ‭Primary motor/sensory-putamen‬ ‭○‬ ‭Association areas (frontal, parietal, and temporal)-caudate‬ ‭‬ ‭Movement initiation‬ ‭○‬ ‭Striatum inhibits the output nuclei‬ ‭○‬ ‭Increases thalamic activity‬ ‭○‬ ‭Ventral anterior (PM, SMA, MI)‬ ‭○‬ ‭Ventral lateral (PM, SMA, MI)‬ ‭‬ ‭Movement suppression‬ ‭○‬ ‭Straitum removes the inhibition off the subthalamic nucleus‬ ‭○‬ ‭Increases excitation to the output nuclei‬ ‭○‬ ‭Decreases thalamic activity‬ ‭Basal ganglia lesions‬ ‭‬ ‭Hypokinetic (movement deficiencies)‬ ‭○‬ ‭Muscle rigidity‬ ‭○‬ ‭Bradykinesia (slow movements, speech)‬ ‭○‬ ‭Akinesia (difficulty starting movements)‬ ‭‬ ‭Hyperkinetic (unwanted movements)‬ ‭○‬ ‭Tics (twitches)‬ ‭○‬ ‭Tremors‬ ‭○‬ ‭Hyperactivity‬ ‭Disorders:‬ ‭‬ ‭Parkinson’s: loss of cells, substantia nigra (SNc), starts unilaterally (contralateral), loss of 60-80% cells by time of‬ ‭diagnosis‬ ‭‬ ‭(fatal) Huntington’s: loss of neurons in the striatum, (increase firing rate of Gpe to suppress subthalamic activity),‬ ‭mostly impacts indirect‬ ‭‬ ‭Ballism: damage to subthalamic nuclei, Tourette’s‬ ‭ he Cerebellum‬ T ‭General‬ ‭Coordination (predicts)‬ ‭No direct motor neuron connections (most through the thalamus)‬ ‭Damage → clumsy, uncoordinated‬ ‭‬ ‭Abnormal muscle control (force/timing)‬ ‭‬ ‭Tremors/involuntary movements with voluntary movement‬ ‭Cerebellar Anatomy‬ ‭Vermis‬ ‭‬ ‭Input to and projections ←→ vestibular‬ ‭‬ ‭Nuclei function - control of proximal‬ ‭‬ ‭And axial muscles‬ ‭‬ ‭Middle of cerebellum=middle of body‬ ‭Intermediate hemispheres (lateral part of the body, distal limbs)‬ ‭‬ ‭Input and projections ←→ cortical and‬ ‭‬ ‭Brainstem nuclei function – control of distal muscles‬ ‭Lateral hemispheres (talks a lot to SMA)‬ ‭‬ ‭Input and projections ←→ motor and prefrontal cortices function – planning voluntary movements (increasing‬ ‭speed)‬ ‭**outside (legs), innermost (head), top most (?)‬ ‭Peduncles - connect the cerebellum with the brainstem (pons); nervous system ***important‬ ‭‬ ‭Superior cerebellar peduncle (INFO OUT)‬ ‭○‬ ‭Mostly cerebellar efferents‬ ‭‬ ‭Middle cerebellar peduncle (IN)‬ ‭○‬ ‭Cerebellar afferents‬ ‭‬ ‭Inferior cerebellar peduncle (IN)‬ ‭○‬ ‭Mostly cerebellar afferents‬ ‭Cerebellar (efferent) output‬ ‭‬ ‭Deep nuclei (come in through middle/inf > nuclei > out through superior)‬ ‭○‬ ‭Dentate‬ ‭○‬ ‭Embolism‬ ‭○‬ ‭Globose‬ ‭○‬ ‭Fastigial‬ ‭***emboliform and globose are interposed‬ ‭Deep cerebellar nuclei (most output) ***important & the table is important‬ ‭‬ ‭Don’t‬ ‭‬ ‭Eat‬ ‭‬ ‭Green‬ ‭‬ ‭Frogs‬ ‭Note: input to the deep cerebellar nuclei are‬ ‭‬ ‭From Purkinje cells‬ ‭○‬ ‭Active (tonic)‬ ‭○‬ ‭Inhibitory‬ ‭‬ ‭This inhibition is controlled by afferent input → mossy and climbing fibers‬ ‭Cerebellar (afferent) input‬ ‭‬ ‭***mossy fiber input (many) → granule cells (synapse), “+” or “-”, many cells → 1 Purkinje cells - evoke simple‬ ‭spikes (1 AP)‬ ‭○‬ ‭Brainstem & s.c.‬ ‭‬ ‭Climbing fiber input (1 cell) → 1 Purkinje cell - evokes complex spikes (keep doors open longer)‬ ‭○‬ ‭Medulla‬ ‭○‬ ‭(a longer depolarization component → stronger connection)‬ ‭Learning and the Cerebellum‬ ‭‬ ‭Cerebellum is also associated with learning‬ ‭○‬ ‭If damaged, no motor improvement (even with practice)‬ ‭‬ ‭Cognitive and cerebellar interactions ***don’t have to memorize‬ ‭○‬ ‭Tactile learning (touch)‬ ‭○‬ ‭Verbal learning (language)‬ ‭○‬ ‭Spatial problem solving (using map)‬ ‭○‬ ‭Auditory - verbal memory‬ ‭○‬ ‭Visual memory (picture of moana)‬ ‭○‬ ‭Mental imagery (making up a picture of moana)‬ ‭Cerebellar Damage‬  ‭‬ ‭Tremors/involuntary movements with voluntary movement‬ ‭○‬ ‭Unlike basal ganglia lesions‬ ‭○‬ ‭(resting and action tremors)‬ ‭‬ ‭“Past pointing”‬ ‭○‬ ‭Associated with timing (braking)‬ ‭‬ ‭Going too far when grabbing bottle‬ ‭‬ ‭Vermis → instability‬ ‭○‬ ‭Axial and proximal muscles‬ ‭Neuro control I, eye movements‬ ‭Sensory exploration is greater in the arms and hands than the lower limb‬ ‭Because we use them all the time‬ ‭‬ ‭What are some of the senses we rely on for movements of the arms?‬ ‭Visual perceptions are‬ ‭‬ ‭Experience and exposure dependent‬ ‭Visuomotor Coordination‬ ‭Visual cues for object location and its characteristics such as size, shape, texture and orientation - parallel processing of‬ ‭vision‬ ‭‬ ‭Newborn animals raised in environments without light become “cortically blind”‬ ‭‬ ‭What do you see? Are these different?‬ ‭○‬ ‭Some teddy bears are different colors and sizes‬ ‭○‬ ‭Right one look fuzzier‬ ‭○‬ ‭Koalas aren’t fuzzy‬ ‭‬ ‭What are the differences?‬ ‭Visual Perception of object properties also influences movement‬ ‭“Association”‬ ‭‬ ‭How would you throw a medicine ball to someone across the room? With both arms and chuck it‬ ‭‬ ‭How would you throw a beach ball to someone across the room? Spike it with one arm‬  ‭ ‬ ‭What were the properties that influenced your decision? The weight of the object‬ ‭Head-eye Coordination‬ ‭‬ ‭Types of conjugate eye movements (used to orient the fovea) - fovea has more cones‬ ‭○‬ ‭Saccades – moves the eyes closer to the position of interest‬ ‭‬ ‭Fastest muscular movements in human‬ ‭‬ ‭Position dependent‬ ‭‬ ‭Tracking‬ ‭‬ ‭Head stationary‬ ‭○‬ ‭Smooth-pursuit – keeps the eye (fovea) on a moving object‬ ‭‬ ‭Velocity of dependent‬ ‭‬ ‭Tracking‬ ‭‬ ‭Head stationary‬ ‭○‬ ‭Vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) – holds eye fixation during head movement (fast head movements)‬ ‭‬ ‭Fast-quick movement: a quick response (20ms)‬ ‭‬ ‭Holding eyes steady while head is moving‬ ‭○‬ ‭Optokinetic reflex (OKR) – holds eye fixation with respect to the environment (relatively slow/normal‬ ‭movement)‬ ‭‬ ‭Slow-relatively slow movements, slower response (100ms)‬ ‭‬ ‭Tracking with you and environment is moving‬ ‭‬ ‭Head moving‬ ‭ ontrol II - Hand-Eye Coordination‬ C ‭Involves the object, the hand (arm) and the eyes (head)‬ ‭Gaze direction influences: (strong connection between eye and hand)‬ ‭‬ ‭Directs arm placement‬ ‭‬ ‭Influence movement speed‬ ‭‬ ‭Exp–”move to moving target as quick as possible” but arm speed changed with target speed‬ ‭‬ ‭“Cerebellum” blamed for the speed-sensitive sensorimotor transformation‬ ‭Catching (hitting):‬ ‭‬ ‭Need time to foviate (direct the fovea on the object of interest)‬ ‭‬ ‭Need time between foviating the ball and contact‬ ‭‬ ‭“Keep your eye on the ball until contact” → not really but close (time to process vs time to react), last 100ms before‬ ‭contact if notice, not reacting in time‬ ‭Eye/head vs eye/hand: can we dissociate eye and hand movements‬ ‭‬ ‭eye/head: no‬ ‭‬ ‭eye/hand: yes‬ ‭‬ ‭Example: look one way, throw another (catching?)‬ ‭Reaching and Grasping ***important‬ ‭Reaching:‬ ‭‬ ‭Final target position: is from afferent stimuli → vision‬ ‭‬ ‭Initial hand position: is from afferent proprioceptive cues‬ ‭○‬ ‭Together → distance and amplitude of movement‬ ‭○‬ ‭Triphasic muscle activity pattern → agonist–antagonist–agonist‬ ‭‬ ‭Start-stop-stabilize‬ ‭○‬ ‭Heavy involvement of the primary motor cortex‬ ‭As you reach to grasp an object you ***simultaneously (parallel processing of visual information)‬ ‭‬ ‭Move your arm toward the object location‬ ‭‬ ‭Adjust the orientation of your hand‬ ‭‬ ‭Adjust the size of your graph aperture‬ ‭ rm movement → location and orientation‬ A ‭Hand movement → size and weight‬ ‭Multi-joint control‬ ‭‬ ‭Involves‬ ‭○‬ ‭Descending motor commands‬ ‭○‬ ‭Sensory information (vision, proprioception, tactile)‬ ‭○‬ ‭Integration of descending and sensory information‬ ‭○‬ ‭Generation of movement‬ ‭Uses feed-forward and feedback sensory systems‬ ‭‬ ‭Feed-forward (before the movement)‬ ‭○‬ ‭Information provided in advance to influence the source’s output‬ ‭○‬ ‭Operates intermittently‬ ‭○‬ ‭Used for initial estimates‬ ‭‬ ‭Feedback (as soon as the movement starts)‬ ‭○‬ ‭Information sent back to a source that influences the source’s output during the movement‬ ‭○‬ ‭Operates continuously‬ ‭○‬ ‭Used for posture and slow regulation of movements‬ ‭○‬ ‭Slow‬ ‭Peripheral neuropathy (a disorder with no peripheral sensations)‬ ‭‬ ‭No tactile‬ ‭‬ ‭No position sense‬ ‭‬ ‭No stretch reflexes‬ ‭**major errors without vision and deficits in planning‬ ‭“If people can’t update the internal representation of their limb, then accurate reaching is gone.”‬ ‭Dependence on vision and proprioception is task specific‬ ‭‬ ‭During very fast movements the role of visual acuity decreases‬ ‭○‬ ‭Need about 200ms‬ ‭○‬ ‭Proprioceptive only needs 100ms‬ ‭‬ ‭The longer the movement the more involvement of the eyes‬ ‭ ontrol III - Posture and upper extremity movements: arm movements displace the CoG‬ C ‭Newton’s 3rd Law‬ ‭‬ ‭For every act there is an equal & opposite reaction‬ ‭***note: for voluntary movements, most postural activation precedes the arm movements,‬ ‭→ suggesting that posture is an important aspect of arm movements‬ ‭Postural muscle activations are efficient → mechanical energy‬ ‭‬ ‭Latency (relative to movement onset; before or after)‬ ‭‬ ‭Sequencing (order of muscle activation)‬ ‭No peripheral receptors to detect‬ ‭‬ ‭CoG changes in the upper limb‬ ‭‬ ‭Limb accelerations‬ ‭○‬ ‭Where do we detect acceleration? Ears (semicircular canal & etc)‬ ‭‬ ‭Measure position‬ ‭Postural changes to arm movements‬ ‭‬ ‭General → activation leg, trunk muscles‬ ‭‬ ‭One side → activation contralateral arm, ipsilateral leg if not activate arm, you would twist‬ ‭‬ ‭Similar to → loss of balance responses‬ ‭○‬ ‭Suggesting propriospinal pathways‬ ‭‬ ‭Between segment connections‬ ‭‬ ‭Ascend & descend‬ ‭Posture and upper extremity movement *don’t memorize‬ ‭Influences:‬ ‭‬ ‭Body position‬ ‭‬ ‭Instructions‬ ‭‬ ‭Anxiety‬ ‭‬ ‭Task specificity‬ ‭‬ ‭Experience‬ ‭‬ ‭Learning‬ ‭***people increase proficiency with repeated exposure‬ ‭This is consistent with the concept involving feed-forward and feedback mechanisms.‬ ‭Postural adaptation characteristics for voluntary movements:‬ ‭The reactions can be:‬ ‭‬ ‭1 – anticipated (minimize CoG displacement - feed-forward) -before movement‬ ‭‬ ‭2 – adapted (external conditions; context - feed-back); can these two occur at the same time? No‬ ‭‬ ‭3 – influenced (by intent & emotions)‬ ‭‬ ‭4 – modified (learning; experience)‬ ‭Bimanual Coordination‬ ‭Different brain areas are likely to used for unimanual and bimanual arm control‬ ‭Are the hands controlled together or independently?‬ ‭‬ ‭Tapping task:‬‭synchronous (mirror image‬‭) vs asynchronous; slow vs‬‭fast‬ ‭‬ ‭Head tap/belly rub‬ ‭Is being synchronous detrimental? Reasons that it would be beneficial?‬ ‭Synchronous behavior could be due to ??? Some theories:‬ ‭*Sensorimotor connections!!!‬ ‭‬ ‭If we had these two, wouldn’t need to be synchronous‬ ‭○‬ ‭Left sensorimotor right sensorimotor‬ ‭The ability to break arm movement synchronicity indicates good motor skill acquisition (motor learning)‬ ‭Motor learning involves:‬ ‭‬ ‭Processing sensory input‬ ‭‬ ‭Generating motor responses‬ ‭Since speed is an issue, it has been suggested that synchronous bimanual tasks involve‬ ‭‬ ‭Cortical control (higher centers) - decrease‬ ‭‬ ‭Subcortical control - increase‬  ‭ ‬ ‭Think harder to be asynchronous‬ ‭Development of upper extremity control‬ ‭The majority of arm control is completed within 5-7 years.‬ ‭Visual dependence‬ ‭‬ ‭Early in life infants‬ ‭○‬ ‭The flailing arm movements‬ ‭‬ ‭In their visual field‬ ‭‬ ‭Learn body dimensions‬ ‭‬ ‭Interpret visual cues‬ ‭There is a concern for visually challenged infants‬ ‭‬ ‭Sensorimotor difficulties‬ ‭Physicians check development as the child grows.‬ ‭‬ ‭They monitor the progress or may test for possible causes if certain task are not achieved by a specific age‬ ‭ otor Learning‬ M ‭Motor learning concepts‬ ‭Types‬ ‭1.‬ ‭Adaptation: ability to modify motor output in response to changing sensory input‬ ‭a.‬ ‭Ex. throwing with prism goggles‬ ‭2.‬ ‭Conditioned-associative: can be considered adaptive and automatic (ANS)‬ ‭a.‬ ‭Ex. dogs that salivate to bell ringing, not constant‬  ‭3.‬ ‭Conditioned Nonassociative: requires repetitive stimuli, constant (i.e., clothing)‬ ‭a.‬ ‭Habituation: suppression of a response to a stimulus‬ ‭i.‬ ‭Ex. wearing clothing‬ ‭b.‬ ‭Sensitization: accentuation of a response to a stimulus‬ ‭i.‬ ‭Ex. wearing clothing‬ ‭All of these contribute to:‬ ‭Motor skill learning: formation of a new movement sequences to gain speed, precision, accuracy and/or efficiency‬ ‭‬ ‭Acquiring motor skill → learning‬ ‭‬ ‭Retaining a motor skill → memory‬ ‭Acquiring motor skill → Retaining a motor skill‬ ‭Phases of learning motor skills **important‬ ‭1.‬ ‭The early-cognitive phase‬ ‭a.‬ ‭Following the concepts and facts–requires concentration‬ ‭b.‬ ‭Brain stimulation → language centers‬ ‭c.‬ ‭Never done task, need to read about it/listen to how to perform‬ ‭2.‬ ‭The intermediate phase‬ ‭a.‬ ‭Trial and error–you attempt different strategies‬ ‭b.‬ ‭Brain stimulation → motor/sensorimotor association areas‬ ‭3.‬ ‭The late-autonomous phase‬ ‭a.‬ ‭Mastry‬ ‭b.‬ ‭Brain stimulation → basal ganglia‬ ‭Memory: Parallel but separate learning systems:‬ ‭ ome Neural Structures and Learning‬ S ‭Sensory afferent information **memorize sentences!‬ ‭Lesions of the dorsal roots (sensory afferents) → impair learning new movements‬ ‭*previously learned motor programs are retained!‬ ‭(ex. Patient with new car)‬ ‭What does this suggest in regards to afferent info & learned tasks!‬ ‭Spinal cord:‬‭changes in s.c. motor neurons‬‭have been found in response to up and/or down regulation of certain‬ ‭reflexes‬ ‭Cerebellum‬ ‭‬ ‭Involves in adaptive learning‬ ‭‬ ‭Adaptive learning: sequencing for multi-joint movements‬ ‭Cerebral cortex **know which part of the brain active when‬ ‭‬ ‭Parietal areas (and thalamus) – new complex motor task (i.e. baseball swing)‬ ‭‬ ‭Primary motor (MI) – encode force and direction (i.e. how fast/how far)‬ ‭‬ ‭Premotor area – new movement sequences (i.e. new dance)‬ ‭‬ ‭Supplementary motor area (SMA) – pre-learned sequence (i.e. remembering the dance)‬ ‭‬ ‭Prefrontal areas and some cingulate gyrus – direct attention and motivation aspects‬ ‭Summary‬ ‭‬ ‭Early skill acquisition – language areas, parietal areas, thalamus‬ ‭‬ ‭Actual performance – sensorimotor cortex, SMA, premotor, associated parietal areas and part of the cerebellum‬ ‭‬ ‭Motor skill acquisition – increased activity in parts of the basal ganglia and less activity in the cortical association‬ ‭areas‬ ‭‬ ‭Will errors always go down w/ practice? Not always what happen‬