ken-rosen-discrete-mathematics-and-its-applications.pdf

Kenneth H. Rosen Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications Eighth Edition Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications Eighth Edition Kenneth H. Rosen formerly AT&T Laboratories DISCRETE MATHEMATICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS, EIGHTH EDITION Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright c 2019 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous editions c 2012, 2007, and 2003. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education, including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning. Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States. This book is printed on acid-free paper. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 LWI 21 20 19 18 ISBN 978-1-259-67651-2 MHID 1-259-67651-X Product Developer: Nora Devlin Marketing Manager: Alison Frederick Content Project Manager: Peggy Selle Buyer: Sandy Ludovissy Design: Egzon Shaqiri Content Licensing Specialist: Lorraine Buczek Cover Image: Karl c Dehnam/Alamy Stock Photo Compositor: Aptara, Inc. All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright page. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Rosen, Kenneth H., author. Title: Discrete mathematics and its applications / Kenneth H. Rosen, Monmouth University (and formerly AT&T Laboratories). Description: Eighth edition. | New York, NY : McGraw-Hill, | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identiﬁers: LCCN 2018008740| ISBN 9781259676512 (alk. paper) | ISBN 125967651X (alk. paper) Subjects: LCSH: Mathematics. | Computer science–Mathematics. Classiﬁcation: LCC QA39.3.R67 2019 | DDC 511–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018008740 The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites. mheducation.com/highered Contents About the Author vi Preface vii Online Resources xvi To the Student xix 1 The Foundations: Logic and Proofs.................................... 1 1.1 Propositional Logic............................................................ 1 1.2 Applications of Propositional Logic............................................. 17 1.3 Propositional Equivalences.................................................... 26 1.4 Predicates and Quantiﬁers..................................................... 40 1.5 Nested Quantiﬁers............................................................ 60 1.6 Rules of Inference.............................................................73 1.7 Introduction to Proofs......................................................... 84 1.8 Proof Methods and Strategy.................................................... 96 End-of-Chapter Material..................................................... 115 2 Basic Structures: Sets, Functions, Sequences, Sums, and Matrices....................................................... 121 2.1 Sets........................................................................ 121 2.2 Set Operations............................................................... 133 2.3 Functions................................................................... 147 2.4 Sequences and Summations................................................... 165 2.5 Cardinality of Sets........................................................... 179 2.6 Matrices.................................................................... 188 End-of-Chapter Material..................................................... 195 3 Algorithms......................................................... 201 3.1 Algorithms.................................................................. 201 3.2 The Growth of Functions..................................................... 216 3.3 Complexity of Algorithms.................................................... 231 End-of-Chapter Material..................................................... 244 4 Number Theory and Cryptography.................................. 251 4.1 Divisibility and Modular Arithmetic........................................... 251 4.2 Integer Representations and Algorithms........................................ 260 4.3 Primes and Greatest Common Divisors........................................ 271 4.4 Solving Congruences.........................................................290 4.5 Applications of Congruences................................................. 303 4.6 Cryptography............................................................... 310 End-of-Chapter Material..................................................... 324 iii iv Contents 5 Induction and Recursion............................................ 331 5.1 Mathematical Induction...................................................... 331 5.2 Strong Induction and Well-Ordering........................................... 354 5.3 Recursive Deﬁnitions and Structural Induction.................................. 365 5.4 Recursive Algorithms........................................................ 381 5.5 Program Correctness......................................................... 393 End-of-Chapter Material..................................................... 398 6 Counting........................................................... 405 6.1 The Basics of Counting.......................................................405 6.2 The Pigeonhole Principle..................................................... 420 6.3 Permutations and Combinations............................................... 428 6.4 Binomial Coeﬃcients and Identities........................................... 437 6.5 Generalized Permutations and Combinations................................... 445 6.6 Generating Permutations and Combinations.................................... 457 End-of-Chapter Material..................................................... 461 7 Discrete Probability................................................. 469 7.1 An Introduction to Discrete Probability........................................ 469 7.2 Probability Theory........................................................... 477 7.3 Bayes’ Theorem............................................................. 494 7.4 Expected Value and Variance................................................. 503 End-of-Chapter Material..................................................... 520 8 Advanced Counting Techniques..................................... 527 8.1 Applications of Recurrence Relations.......................................... 527 8.2 Solving Linear Recurrence Relations.......................................... 540 8.3 Divide-and-Conquer Algorithms and Recurrence Relations...................... 553 8.4 Generating Functions........................................................ 563 8.5 Inclusion–Exclusion......................................................... 579 8.6 Applications of Inclusion–Exclusion........................................... 585 End-of-Chapter Material..................................................... 592 9 Relations........................................................... 599 9.1 Relations and Their Properties................................................ 599 9.2 n-ary Relations and Their Applications......................................... 611 9.3 Representing Relations....................................................... 621 9.4 Closures of Relations.........................................................628 9.5 Equivalence Relations........................................................ 638 9.6 Partial Orderings............................................................ 650 End-of-Chapter Material..................................................... 665 Contents v 10 Graphs............................................................. 673 10.1 Graphs and Graph Models.................................................... 673 10.2 Graph Terminology and Special Types of Graphs............................... 685 10.3 Representing Graphs and Graph Isomorphism.................................. 703 10.4 Connectivity................................................................ 714 10.5 Euler and Hamilton Paths..................................................... 728 10.6 Shortest-Path Problems....................................................... 743 10.7 Planar Graphs............................................................... 753 10.8 Graph Coloring.............................................................. 762 End-of-Chapter Material..................................................... 771 11 Trees............................................................... 781 11.1 Introduction to Trees......................................................... 781 11.2 Applications of Trees........................................................ 793 11.3 Tree Traversal............................................................... 808 11.4 Spanning Trees.............................................................. 821 11.5 Minimum Spanning Trees.................................................... 835 End-of-Chapter Material..................................................... 841 12 Boolean Algebra.................................................... 847 12.1 Boolean Functions........................................................... 847 12.2 Representing Boolean Functions.............................................. 855 12.3 Logic Gates................................................................. 858 12.4 Minimization of Circuits..................................................... 864 End-of-Chapter Material..................................................... 879 13 Modeling Computation............................................. 885 13.1 Languages and Grammars.................................................... 885 13.2 Finite-State Machines with Output............................................. 897 13.3 Finite-State Machines with No Output......................................... 904 13.4 Language Recognition....................................................... 917 13.5 Turing Machines............................................................. 927 End-of-Chapter Material..................................................... 938 Appendices......................................................... A-1 1 Axioms for the Real Numbers and the Positive Integers.......................... A-1 2 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions........................................ A-7 3 Pseudocode................................................................ A-11 Suggested Readings B-1 Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises S-1 Index of Biographies I-1 Index I-2 About the Author K enneth H. Rosen received his B.S. in Mathematics from the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor (1972), and his Ph.D. in Mathematics from M.I.T. (1976), where he wrote his thesis in number theory under the direction of Harold Stark. Before joining Bell Laboratories in 1982, he held positions at the University of Colorado, Boulder; The Ohio State University, Columbus; and the University of Maine, Orono, where he was an associate professor of math- ematics. He enjoyed a long career as a Distinguished Member of the Technical Staﬀ at AT&T Bell Laboratories (and AT&T Laboratories) in Monmouth County, New Jersey. While working at Bell Labs, he taught at Monmouth University, teaching courses in discrete mathematics, cod- ing theory, and data security. After leaving AT&T Labs, he became a visiting research professor of computer science at Monmouth University, where he has taught courses in algorithm design, computer security and cryptography, and discrete mathematics. Dr. Rosen has published numerous articles in professional journals on number theory and on mathematical modeling. He is the author of the widely used Elementary Number Theory and Its Applications, published by Pearson, currently in its sixth edition, which has been translated into Chinese. He is also the author of Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications, published by McGraw-Hill, currently in its eighth edition. Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications has sold more than 450,000 copies in North America during its lifetime, and hundreds of thousands of copies throughout the rest of the world. This book has also been translated into many languages, including Spanish, French, Portuguese, Greek, Chinese, Vietnamese, and Korean. He is also co- author of UNIX: The Complete Reference; UNIX System V Release 4: An Introduction; and Best UNIX Tips Ever, all published by Osborne McGraw-Hill. These books have sold more than 150,000 copies, with translations into Chinese, German, Spanish, and Italian. Dr. Rosen is also the editor of both the ﬁrst and second editions (published in 1999 and 2018, respectively) of the Handbook of Discrete and Combinatorial Mathematics, published by CRC Press. He has served as the advisory editor of the CRC series of books in discrete mathematics, sponsoring more than 70 volumes on diverse aspects of discrete mathematics, many of which are introduced in this book. He is an advisory editor for the CRC series of mathematics textbooks, where he has helped more than 30 authors write better texts. Dr. Rosen serves as an Associate Editor for the journal Discrete Mathematics, where he handles papers in many areas, including graph theory, enumeration, number theory, and cryptography. Dr. Rosen has had a longstanding interest in integrating mathematical software into the educational and professional environments. He has worked on several projects with Waterloo Maple Inc.’s MapleTM software in both these areas. Dr. Rosen has devoted a great deal of energy to ensuring that the online homework for Discrete Mathematics and its Applications is a superior teaching tool. Dr. Rosen has also worked with several publishing companies on their homework delivery platforms. At Bell Laboratories and AT&T Laboratories, Dr. Rosen worked on a wide range of projects, including operations research studies, product line planning for computers and data communications equipment, technology assessment and innovation, and many other eﬀorts. He helped plan AT&T’s products and services in the area of multimedia, including video com- munications, speech recognition, speech synthesis, and image networking. He evaluated new technology for use by AT&T and did standards work in the area of image networking. He also in- vented many new services, and holds more than 70 patents. One of his more interesting projects involved helping evaluate technology for the AT&T attraction that was part of EPCOT Cen- ter. After leaving AT&T, Dr. Rosen has worked as a technology consultant for Google and for AT&T. vi Preface I n writing this book, I was guided by my long-standing experience and interest in teaching discrete mathematics. For the student, my purpose was to present material in a precise, read- able manner, with the concepts and techniques of discrete mathematics clearly presented and demonstrated. My goal was to show the relevance and practicality of discrete mathematics to students, who are often skeptical. I wanted to give students studying computer science all of the mathematical foundations they need for their future studies. I wanted to give mathematics students an understanding of important mathematical concepts together with a sense of why these concepts are important for applications. And most importantly, I wanted to accomplish these goals without watering down the material. For the instructor, my purpose was to design a ﬂexible, comprehensive teaching tool using proven pedagogical techniques in mathematics. I wanted to provide instructors with a package of materials that they could use to teach discrete mathematics eﬀectively and eﬃciently in the most appropriate manner for their particular set of students. I hope that I have achieved these goals. I have been extremely gratiﬁed by the tremendous success of this text, including its use by more than one million students around the world over the last 30 years and its translation into many diﬀerent languages. The many improvements in the eighth edition have been made possible by the feedback and suggestions of a large number of instructors and students at many of the more than 600 North American schools, and at many universities in diﬀerent parts of the world, where this book has been successfully used. I have been able to signiﬁcantly improve the appeal and eﬀectiveness of this book edition to edition because of the feedback I have received and the signiﬁcant investments that have been made in the evolution of the book. This text is designed for a one- or two-term introductory discrete mathematics course taken by students in a wide variety of majors, including mathematics, computer science, and engineer- ing. College algebra is the only explicit prerequisite, although a certain degree of mathematical maturity is needed to study discrete mathematics in a meaningful way. This book has been de- signed to meet the needs of almost all types of introductory discrete mathematics courses. It is highly ﬂexible and extremely comprehensive. The book is designed not only to be a successful textbook, but also to serve as a valuable resource students can consult throughout their studies and professional life. Goals of a Discrete Mathematics Course A discrete mathematics course has more than one purpose. Students should learn a particular set of mathematical facts and how to apply them; more importantly, such a course should teach students how to think logically and mathematically. To achieve these goals, this text stresses mathematical reasoning and the diﬀerent ways problems are solved. Five important themes are interwoven in this text: mathematical reasoning, combinatorial analysis, discrete structures, al- gorithmic thinking, and applications and modeling. A successful discrete mathematics course should carefully blend and balance all ﬁve themes. 1. Mathematical Reasoning: Students must understand mathematical reasoning in order to read, comprehend, and construct mathematical arguments. This text starts with a discussion of mathematical logic, which serves as the foundation for the subsequent discussions of methods of proof. Both the science and the art of constructing proofs are addressed. The technique of vii viii Preface mathematical induction is stressed through many diﬀerent types of examples of such proofs and a careful explanation of why mathematical induction is a valid proof technique. 2. Combinatorial Analysis: An important problem-solving skill is the ability to count or enu- merate objects. The discussion of enumeration in this book begins with the basic techniques of counting. The stress is on performing combinatorial analysis to solve counting problems and analyze algorithms, not on applying formulae. 3. Discrete Structures: A course in discrete mathematics should teach students how to work with discrete structures, which are the abstract mathematical structures used to represent discrete objects and relationships between these objects. These discrete structures include sets, permutations, relations, graphs, trees, and ﬁnite-state machines. 4. Algorithmic Thinking: Certain classes of problems are solved by the speciﬁcation of an algorithm. After an algorithm has been described, a computer program can be constructed implementing it. The mathematical portions of this activity, which include the speciﬁcation of the algorithm, the veriﬁcation that it works properly, and the analysis of the computer memory and time required to perform it, are all covered in this text. Algorithms are described using both English and an easily understood form of pseudocode. 5. Applications and Modeling: Discrete mathematics has applications to almost every conceiv- able area of study. There are many applications to computer science and data networking in this text, as well as applications to such diverse areas as chemistry, biology, linguistics, geography, business, and the Internet. These applications are natural and important uses of discrete mathematics and are not contrived. Modeling with discrete mathematics is an ex- tremely important problem-solving skill, which students have the opportunity to develop by constructing their own models in some of the exercises. Changes in the Eighth Edition Although the seventh edition has been an extremely eﬀective text, many instructors have re- quested changes to make the book more useful to them. I have devoted a signiﬁcant amount of time and energy to satisfy their requests and I have worked hard to ﬁnd my own ways to improve the book and to keep it up-to-date. The eighth edition includes changes based on input from more than 20 formal reviewers, feedback from students and instructors, and my insights. The result is a new edition that I ex- pect will be a more eﬀective teaching tool. Numerous changes in the eighth edition have been designed to help students learn the material. Additional explanations and examples have been added to clarify material where students have had diﬃculty. New exercises, both routine and challenging, have been added. Highly relevant applications, including many related to the In- ternet, to computer science, and to mathematical biology, have been added. The companion website has beneﬁted from extensive development; it now provides extensive tools students can use to master key concepts and to explore the world of discrete mathematics. Furthermore, addi- tional eﬀective and comprehensive learning and assessment tools are available, complementing the textbook. I hope that instructors will closely examine this new edition to discover how it might meet their needs. Although it is impractical to list all the changes in this edition, a brief list that highlights some key changes, listed by the beneﬁts they provide, may be useful. Changes in the Eighth Edition This new edition of the book includes many enhancements, updates, additions, and edits, all designed to make the book a more eﬀective teaching tool for a modern discrete mathematics course. Instructors who have used the book previously will notice overall changes that have been made throughout the book, as well as speciﬁc changes. The most notable revisions are described here. Preface ix Overall Changes ▶ Exposition has been improved throughout the book with a focus on providing more clarity to help students read and comprehend concepts. ▶ Many proofs have been enhanced by adding more details and explanations, and by re- minding the reader of the proof methods used. ▶ New examples have been added, often to meet needs identiﬁed by reviewers or to illus- trate new material. Many of these examples are found in the text, but others are available only on the companion website. ▶ Many new exercises, both routine and challenging, address needs identiﬁed by in- structors or cover new material, while others strengthen and broaden existing exercise sets. ▶ More second and third level heads have been used to break sections into smaller co- herent parts, and a new numbering scheme has been used to identify subsections of the book. ▶ The online resources for this book have been greatly expanded, providing extensive sup- port for both instructors and students. These resources are described later in the front matter. Topic Coverage ▶ Logic Several logical puzzles have been introduced. A new example explains how to model the n-queens problem as a satisﬁability problem that is both concise and accessible to students. ▶ Set theory Multisets are now covered in the text. (Previously they were introduced in the exercises.) ▶ Algorithms The string matching problem, an important algorithm for many applica- tions, including spell checking, key-word searching, string-matching, and computational biology, is now discussed. The brute-force algorithm for solving string-matching exer- cises is presented. ▶ Number theory The new edition includes the latest numerical and theoretic discov- eries relating to primes and open conjectures about them. The extended Euclidean algo- rithm, a one-pass algorithm, is now discussed in the text. (Previously it was covered in the exercises.) ▶ Cryptography The concept of homomorphic encryption, and its importance to cloud computing, is now covered. ▶ Mathematical induction The template for proofs by mathematical induction has been expanded. It is now placed in the text before examples of proof by mathematical induction. ▶ Counting methods The coverage of the division rule for counting has been expanded. ▶ Data mining Association rules—key concepts in data mining—are now discussed in the section on n-ary relations. Also, the Jaccard metric, which is used to ﬁnd the distance between two sets and which is used in data mining, is introduced in the exercises. ▶ Graph theory applications A new example illustrates how semantic networks, an important structure in artiﬁcial intelligence, can be modeled using graphs. x Preface ▶ Biographies New biographies of Wiles, Bhaskaracharya, de la Vallée-Poussin, Hadamard, Zhang, and Gentry have been added. Existing biographies have been ex- panded and updated. This adds diversity by including more historically important Eastern mathematicians, major nineteenth and twentieth century researchers, and currently active twenty-ﬁrst century mathematicians and computer scientists. Features of the Book ACCESSIBILITY This text has proven to be easily read and understood by many begin- ning students. There are no mathematical prerequisites beyond college algebra for almost all the contents of the text. Students needing extra help will ﬁnd tools on the companion website for bringing their mathematical maturity up to the level of the text. The few places in the book where calculus is referred to are explicitly noted. Most students should easily understand the pseudocode used in the text to express algorithms, regardless of whether they have formally studied programming languages. There is no formal computer science prerequisite. Each chapter begins at an easily understood and accessible level. Once basic mathematical concepts have been carefully developed, more diﬃcult material and applications to other areas of study are presented. FLEXIBILITY This text has been carefully designed for ﬂexible use. The dependence of chapters on previous material has been minimized. Each chapter is divided into sections of approximately the same length, and each section is divided into subsections that form natural blocks of material for teaching. Instructors can easily pace their lectures using these blocks. WRITING STYLE The writing style in this book is direct and pragmatic. Precise math- ematical language is used without excessive formalism and abstraction. Care has been taken to balance the mix of notation and words in mathematical statements. MATHEMATICAL RIGOR AND PRECISION All deﬁnitions and theorems in this text are stated extremely carefully so that students will appreciate the precision of language and rigor needed in mathematics. Proofs are motivated and developed slowly; their steps are all carefully justiﬁed. The axioms used in proofs and the basic properties that follow from them are explicitly described in an appendix, giving students a clear idea of what they can assume in a proof. Recursive deﬁnitions are explained and used extensively. WORKED EXAMPLES Over 800 examples are used to illustrate concepts, relate dif- ferent topics, and introduce applications. In most examples, a question is ﬁrst posed, then its solution is presented with the appropriate amount of detail. APPLICATIONS The applications included in this text demonstrate the utility of discrete mathematics in the solution of real-world problems. This text includes applications to a wide variety of areas, including computer science, data networking, psychology, chemistry, engineer- ing, linguistics, biology, business, and the Internet. ALGORITHMS Results in discrete mathematics are often expressed in terms of algo- rithms; hence, key algorithms are introduced in most chapters of the book. These algorithms are expressed in words and in an easily understood form of structured pseudocode, which is described and speciﬁed in Appendix 3. The computational complexity of the algorithms in the text is also analyzed at an elementary level. HISTORICAL INFORMATION The background of many topics is succinctly described in the text. Brief biographies of 89 mathematicians and computer scientists are included as Preface xi footnotes. These biographies include information about the lives, careers, and accomplishments of these important contributors to discrete mathematics, and images, when available, are dis- played. In addition, numerous historical footnotes are included that supplement the historical in- formation in the main body of the text. Eﬀorts have been made to keep the book up-to-date by reﬂecting the latest discoveries. KEY TERMS AND RESULTS A list of key terms and results follows each chapter. The key terms include only the most important that students should learn, and not every term deﬁned in the chapter. EXERCISES There are over 4200 exercises in the text, with many diﬀerent types of ques- tions posed. There is an ample supply of straightforward exercises that develop basic skills, a large number of intermediate exercises, and many challenging exercises. Exercises are stated clearly and unambiguously, and all are carefully graded for level of diﬃculty. Exercise sets con- tain special discussions that develop new concepts not covered in the text, enabling students to discover new ideas through their own work. Exercises that are somewhat more diﬃcult than average are marked with a single star, ∗ ; those that are much more challenging are marked with two stars, ∗∗. Exercises whose solutions require calculus are explicitly noted. Exercises that develop results used in the text are clearly identiﬁed with the right pointing hand symbol,. Answers or outlined solutions to all odd- numbered exercises are provided at the back of the text. The solutions include proofs in which most of the steps are clearly spelled out. REVIEW QUESTIONS A set of review questions is provided at the end of each chapter. These questions are designed to help students focus their study on the most important concepts and techniques of that chapter. To answer these questions students need to write long answers, rather than just perform calculations or give short replies. SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISE SETS Each chapter is followed by a rich and varied set of supplementary exercises. These exercises are generally more diﬃcult than those in the exercise sets following the sections. The supplementary exercises reinforce the concepts of the chapter and integrate diﬀerent topics more eﬀectively. COMPUTER PROJECTS Each chapter is followed by a set of computer projects. The approximately 150 computer projects tie together what students may have learned in computing and in discrete mathematics. Computer projects that are more diﬃcult than average, from both a mathematical and a programming point of view, are marked with a star, and those that are extremely challenging are marked with two stars. COMPUTATIONS AND EXPLORATIONS A set of computations and explorations is included at the conclusion of each chapter. These exercises (approximately 120 in total) are de- signed to be completed using existing software tools, such as programs that students or instruc- tors have written or mathematical computation packages such as MapleTM or MathematicaTM. Many of these exercises give students the opportunity to uncover new facts and ideas through computation. (Some of these exercises are discussed in the Exploring Discrete Mathematics companion workbooks available online.) WRITING PROJECTS Each chapter is followed by a set of writing projects. To do these projects students need to consult the mathematical literature. Some of these projects are his- torical in nature and may involve looking up original sources. Others are designed to serve as gateways to new topics and ideas. All are designed to expose students to ideas not covered in depth in the text. These projects tie mathematical concepts together with the writing process and xii Preface help expose students to possible areas for future study. (Suggested references for these projects can be found online or in the printed Student’s Solutions Guide.) APPENDICES There are three appendices to the text. The ﬁrst introduces axioms for real numbers and the positive integers, and illustrates how facts are proved directly from these ax- ioms. The second covers exponential and logarithmic functions, reviewing some basic material used heavily in the course. The third speciﬁes the pseudocode used to describe algorithms in this text. SUGGESTED READINGS A list of suggested readings for the overall book and for each chapter is provided after the appendices. These suggested readings include books at or below the level of this text, more diﬃcult books, expository articles, and articles in which discoveries in discrete mathematics were originally published. Some of these publications are classics, pub- lished many years ago, while others have been published in the last few years. These suggested readings are complemented by the many links to valuable resources available on the web that can be found on the website for this book. How to Use This Book This text has been carefully written and constructed to support discrete mathematics courses at several levels and with diﬀering foci. The following table identiﬁes the core and optional sections. An introductory one-term course in discrete mathematics at the sophomore level can be based on the core sections of the text, with other sections covered at the discretion of the instructor. A two-term introductory course can include all the optional mathematics sections in addition to the core sections. A course with a strong computer science emphasis can be taught by covering some or all of the optional computer science sections. Instructors can ﬁnd sample syllabi for a wide range of discrete mathematics courses and teaching suggestions for using each section of the text can be found in the Instructor’s Resource Guide available on the website for this book. Chapter Core Optional CS Optional Math 1 1.1–1.8 (as needed) 2 2.1–2.4, 2.6 (as needed) 2.5 3 3.1–3.3 (as needed) 4 4.1–4.4 (as needed) 4.5, 4.6 5 5.1–5.3 5.4, 5.5 6 6.1–6.3 6.6 6.4, 6.5 7 7.1 7.4 7.2, 7.3 8 8.1, 8.5 8.3 8.2, 8.4, 8.6 9 9.1, 9.3, 9.5 9.2 9.4, 9.6 10 10.1–10.5 10.6–10.8 11 11.1 11.2, 11.3 11.4, 11.5 12 12.1–12.4 13 13.1–13.5 Instructors using this book can adjust the level of diﬃculty of their course by choosing either to cover or to omit the more challenging examples at the end of sections, as well as the more challenging exercises. The chapter dependency chart shown here displays the strong dependencies. A star indicates that only relevant sections of the chapter are needed for study of a later chapter. Weak dependencies have been ignored. More details can be found in the Instructor’s Resource Guide. Preface xiii Chapter 1 Chapter 2* Chapter 12 Chapter 3* Chapter 9* Chapter 4* Chapter 10* Chapter 13 Chapter 5* Chapter 11 Chapter 6* Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Ancillaries STUDENT’S SOLUTIONS GUIDE This student manual, available separately, contains full solutions to all odd-numbered exercises in the exercise sets. These solutions explain why a particular method is used and why it works. For some exercises, one or two other possible approaches are described to show that a problem can be solved in several diﬀerent ways. Sug- gested references for the writing projects found at the end of each chapter are also included in this volume. Also included are a guide to writing proofs and an extensive description of com- mon mistakes students make in discrete mathematics, plus sample tests and a sample crib sheet for each chapter designed to help students prepare for exams. INSTRUCTOR’S RESOURCE GUIDE This manual, available on the website and in printed form by request for instructors, contains full solutions to even-numbered exercises in the text. Suggestions on how to teach the material in each chapter of the book are provided, including the points to stress in each section and how to put the material into perspective. It also oﬀers sample tests for each chapter and a test bank containing over 1500 exam questions to choose from. Answers to all sample tests and test bank questions are included. Finally, sample syllabi are presented for courses with diﬀering emphases and student ability levels. Acknowledgments I would like to thank the many instructors and students at a variety of schools who have used this book and provided me with their valuable feedback and helpful suggestions. Their input has made this a much better book than it would have been otherwise. I especially want to thank Jerrold Grossman and Dan Jordan for their technical reviews of the eighth edition and their “eagle eyes,” which have helped ensure the accuracy and quality of this book. Both have proof- read every part of the book many times as it has gone through the diﬀerent steps of production and have helped eliminate old errata and prevented the insertion of new errata. Thanks go to Dan Jordan for his work on the student solutions manual and instructor’s resource guide. He has done an admirable job updating these ancillaries. Jerrold Grossman, the author of these ancillaries for the ﬁrst seven editions of the book, has provided valuable assistance to Dan. I would also like to express my gratitude to the many people who have helped create and maintain the online resources for this book. In particular, special thanks go to Dan Jordan and Rochus Boerner for their extensive work improving online questions for the Connect Site, described later in this preface. I thank the reviewers of this eighth and all previous editions. These reviewers have provided much helpful criticism and encouragement to me. I hope this edition lives up to their high expectations. There have been well in excess of 200 reviewers of this book since its ﬁrst edition, with many from countries other than the United States. The most recent reviewers are listed here. xiv Preface Recent Reviewers Barbara Anthony Peter Gillespie Kathleen O’Connor Southwestern University Fayetteville State University Quinsigamond Community College Philip Barry Johannes Hattingh Keith Olson University of Minnesota, Minneapolis Georgia State University Utah Valley University Benkam Bobga James Helmreich Dimitris Papamichail University of North Georgia Marist College The College of New Jersey Miklos Bona Ken Holladay Yongyuth Permpoontanalarp University of Florida University of New Orleans King Mongkut’s University of Technology, Thonburi Steve Brick Jerry Ianni University of South Alabama LaGuardia Community College Galin Piatniskaia University of Missouri, St. Louis Kirby Brown Milagros Izquierdo Queens College Linköping University Shawon Rahman University of Hawaii at Hilo John Carter Ravi Janardan University of Toronto University of Minnesota, Minneapolis Eric Rawdon University of St. Thomas Narendra Chaudhari Norliza Katuk Nanyang Technological University University of Utara Malaysia Stefan Robila Montclair State University Tim Chappell Monika Kiss Penn Valley Community College Saint Leo University Chris Rodger Auburn University Allan Cochran William Klostermeyer University of Arkansas University of North Florida Sukhit Singh Texas State University, San Marcos Daniel Cunningham Przemo Kranz Buﬀalo State College University of Mississippi David Snyder Texas State University, San Marcos H.K. Dai Jaromy Kuhl Oklahoma State University University of West Florida Wasin So San Jose State University George Davis Loredana Lanzani Georgia State University University of Arkansas, Fayetteville Bogdan Suceava California State University, Fullerton Andrzej Derdzinski Frederic Latour The Ohio State University Central Connecticut State University Christopher Swanson Ashland University Ronald Dotzel Steven Leonhardi University of Missouri-St. Louis Winona State University Bon Sy Queens College T.J. Duda Chunlei Liu Columbus State Community College Valdosta State University Fereja Tahir Illinois Central College Bruce Elenbogen Xu Liutong University of Michigan, Dearborn Beijing University of Posts and K.A. Venkatesh Telecommunications Presidency University Norma Elias Purdue University, Vladimir Logvinenko Matthew Walsh Calumet-Hammond De Anza Community College Indiana-Purdue University, Fort Wayne Herbert Enderton Tamsen McGinley University of California, Los Angeles Santa Clara University Sheri Wang University of Phoenix Anthony Evans Ramon A. Mata-Toledo Wright State University James Madison University Gideon Weinstein Western Governors University Kim Factor Tamara Melnik Marquette University Computer Systems Institute David Wilczynski University of Southern California Margaret Fleck Osvaldo Mendez University of Illinois, Champaign University of Texas at El Paso James Wooland Florida State University Melissa Gaddini Darrell Minor Robert Morris University Columbus State Community College Preface xv I also want to thank the many students who have provided suggestions and reported errata. The students in the discrete mathematics courses I have taught at Monmouth University, both undergraduate and graduate computer science students, have helped me improve the book in many ways. There are many people to thank at McGraw-Hill Higher Education, the publisher of this book, as well as people who did the production work at Aptara. I would also like to thank the original editor at Random House, Wayne Yuhasz, whose insights and skills helped ensure the book’s success, as well as all the many other previous editors of this book. I want to express my deep appreciation to Nora Devlin, the Product Developer who has gone far beyond her assigned duties to support the author. She has displayed many skills and virtues working to solve a wide variety of problems that have arisen in the development of this new edition. I am also grateful to Peggy Selle, the Content Product Manager, who managed the produc- tion process. She has kept the production on track and has helped resolve many issues that have arise during this process. Thanks go to Sarita Yadav, Senior Product Manager of Aptara, and her colleagues at Aptara, who worked diligently to ensure the production quality of this edition. I also want to express my appreciation to the many others in the Science, Engineering, and Mathematics (SEM) Division of McGraw-Hill Higher Education for their valuable support for this new edition and the associated media content, including ▶ Mike Ryan, VP, Portfolio & Learning Content, Higher Education ▶ Kathleen McMahon, Managing Director, Mathematics & Physical Sciences ▶ Caroline Celano, Director, Mathematics ▶ Alison Frederick, Marketing Manager ▶ Robin Reed, Lead Product Developer ▶ Sandy Ludovissey, Buyer ▶ Egzon Shaqiri, Designer ▶ Tammy Juran, Assessment Content Project Manager ▶ Cynthia Northrup, Director of Digital Content ▶ Ruth Czarnecki-Lichstein, Business Product Manager ▶ Megan Platt, Editorial Coordinator ▶ Lora Neyens and Jolynn Kilburg, Program Managers ▶ Lorraine Buczek, Content Licensing Specialist Kenneth H. Rosen Online Resources E xtensive eﬀort has been devoted to producing valuable web resources for this book. In- structors should make a special eﬀort to explore these resources to identify those they feel will help their students learn and explore discrete mathematics. These resources are available in the Online Learning Center, which is available to all students and instructors, and the Connect Site, designed for interactive instruction, which instructors can choose to use. To use Connect, students purchase online access for a speciﬁc time period. 0.1 The Online Learning Center The Online Learning Center (OLC), accessible at www.mhhe.com/rosen, includes an Informa- tion Center, a Student Site, and an Instructor Site. Key features of each area are described here. 0.1.1 The Information Center The Information Center contains basic information about the book including the expanded table of contents (including subsection heads), the preface, descriptions of the ancillaries, and a sam- ple chapter. It also provides a link that can be used to submit errata reports and other feedback about the book. 0.1.2 Student Site The Student Site contains a wealth of resources available for student use, including the follow- ing, tied into the text wherever the special icons displayed below are found in the text: Extra ▶ Extra Examples You can ﬁnd a large number of additional examples on the site, cov- Examples ering all chapters of the book. These examples are concentrated in areas where students often ask for additional material. Although most of these examples amplify the basic concepts, more-challenging examples can also be found here. Many new extra examples have been recently added for the eighth edition. Each icon in the book corresponds to one or more extra examples on the website. Demo ▶ Interactive Demonstration Applets These applets enable you to interactively explore how important algorithms work, and are tied directly to material in the text with linkages to examples and exercises. Additional resources are provided on how to use and apply these applets. Assessment ▶ Self Assessments These interactive guides help you assess your understanding of 14 key concepts, providing a question bank where each question includes a brief tutorial followed by a multiple-choice question. If you select an incorrect answer, advice is pro- vided to help you understand your error. Using these Self Assessments, you should be able to diagnose your problems and ﬁnd appropriate help. Links ▶ Web Resources Guide This guide provides annotated links to hundreds of external websites containing relevant material such as historical and biographical information, puzzles and problems, discussions, applets, programs, and more. These links are keyed to the text by page number. xvi Online Resources xvii Additional resources in the Student Site include: ▶ Exploring Discrete Mathematics This ancillary provides help for using a computer alge- bra system to do a wide range of computations in discrete mathematics. Each chapter provides a description of relevant functions in the computer algebra system and how they are used, pro- grams to carry out computations in discrete mathematics, examples, and exercises that can be worked using this computer algebra system. Two versions, Exploring Discrete Mathematics with MapleTM and Exploring Discrete Mathematics with MathematicaTM , are available. ▶ Applications of Discrete Mathematics This ancillary contains 24 chapters—each with its own set of exercises—presenting a wide variety of interesting and important applications covering three general areas in discrete mathematics: discrete structures, combinatorics, and graph theory. These applications are ideal for supplementing the text or for independent study. ▶ A Guide to Proof-Writing This guide provides additional help for writing proofs, a skill that many students ﬁnd diﬃcult to master. By reading this guide at the beginning of the course and periodically thereafter when proof writing is required, you will be rewarded as your proof-writing ability grows. (Also available in the Student’s Solutions Guide.) ▶ Common Mistakes in Discrete Mathematics This guide includes a detailed list of com- mon misconceptions that students of discrete mathematics often have and the kinds of errors they tend to make. You are encouraged to review this list from time to time to help avoid these common traps. (Also available in the Student’s Solutions Guide.) ▶ Advice on Writing Projects This guide oﬀers helpful hints and suggestions for the Writing Projects in the text, including an extensive bibliography of helpful books and articles for research, discussion of various resources available in print and online, tips on doing library research, and suggestions on how to write well. (Also available in the Student’s Solutions Guide.) 0.1.3 Instructor Site This part of the website provides access to all of the resources on the Student Site, as well as these resources for instructors: ▶ Suggested Syllabi Detailed course outlines are shown, oﬀering suggestions for courses with diﬀerent emphases and diﬀerent student backgrounds and ability levels. ▶ Teaching Suggestions This guide contains detailed teaching suggestions for instruc- tors, including chapter overviews for the entire text, detailed remarks on each section, and comments on the exercise sets. ▶ Printable Tests Printable tests are oﬀered in TeX and Word format for every chapter, and can be customized by instructors. ▶ PowerPoint Lecture Slides and PowerPoint Figures and Tables An extensive col- lection of PowerPoint lecture notes for all chapters of the text are provided for instructor use. In addition, images of all ﬁgures and tables from the text are provided as PowerPoint slides. 0.1.4 Connect A comprehensive online learning package has been developed in conjunction with the text. A high-level description of this site will be provided here. Interested instructors and students can ﬁnd out more about Connect from McGraw-Hill Higher Education. When instructors choose to use this option, students in their classes must obtain access to Connect for this text, either by purchasing a copy of the textbook that also includes access privileges or by purchasing access only with the option of buying a loose-leaf version of the textbook. xviii Online Resources Instructors who adopt Connect have access to a full-featured course management system. Course management capabilities are provided that allow instructors to create assignments, au- tomatically assign and grade homework, quiz, and test questions from a bank of questions tied directly to the text, create and edit their own questions, manage course announcements and due dates, and track student progress. Instructors can create their own assignments using Connect. They select the particular ex- ercises from each section of the book that they want to assign. They can also assign chapters from the SmartBook version of the text, which provides an adaptive learning environment. Stu- dents have access to the interactive version of the textbook, the online homework exercises, and SmartBook. Interactive Textbook Students have access to an easy-to-use interactive version of the textbook when they use Connect. The interactive site provides the full content of the text, as well as the many extra resources that enrich the book. The resources include extra examples, interactive demonstrations, and self-assessments. Homework and Learning Management Solution An extensive learning management solution has been developed that instructors can use to construct homework assignments. Approximately 800 online questions are available, including questions from every section of the text. These questions are tied to the most commonly assigned exercises in the book. These online questions have been constructed to support the same objectives as the corre- sponding written homework questions. This challenge has been met by stretching the capabili- ties of diﬀerent question types supported by the Connect platform. SmartBook Connect also provides another extended online version of the text in the McGraw- Hill SmartBook platform. The SmartBook version of the text includes a set of objectives for each chapter of the text. A collection of questions, called probes, is provided to assess student un- derstanding of each objective. Students are directed to the appropriate part of the text to review the material needed for each of these objectives. SmartBook provides an adaptive learning en- vironment; it selects probes for students based on their performance answering earlier probes. Instructors can assign SmartBook as assignments or can have their students use SmartBook as a learning tool. To the Student W hat is discrete mathematics? Discrete mathematics is the part of mathematics devoted to the study of discrete objects. (Here discrete means consisting of distinct or uncon- nected elements.) The kinds of problems solved using discrete mathematics include: ▶ How many ways are there to choose a valid password on a computer system? ▶ What is the probability of winning a lottery? ▶ Is there a link between two computers in a network? ▶ How can I identify spam e-mail messages? ▶ How can I encrypt a message so that no unintended recipient can read it? ▶ What is the shortest path between two cities using a transportation system? ▶ How can a list of integers be sorted so that the integers are in increasing order? ▶ How many steps are required to do such a sorting? ▶ How can it be proved that a sorting algorithm correctly sorts a list? ▶ How can a circuit that adds two integers be designed? ▶ How many valid Internet addresses are there? You will learn the discrete structures and techniques needed to solve problems such as these. More generally, discrete mathematics is used whenever objects are counted, when relation- ships between ﬁnite (or countable) sets are studied, and when processes involving a ﬁnite num- ber of steps are analyzed. A key reason for the growth in the importance of discrete mathematics is that information is stored and manipulated by computing machines in a discrete fashion. WHY STUDY DISCRETE MATHEMATICS? There are several important reasons for studying discrete mathematics. First, through this course you can develop your mathematical maturity: that is, your ability to understand and create mathematical arguments. You will not get very far in your studies in the mathematical sciences without these skills. Second, discrete mathematics is the gateway to more advanced courses in all parts of the mathematical sciences. Discrete mathematics provides the mathematical foundations for many computer science courses, including data structures, algorithms, database theory, automata the- ory, formal languages, compiler theory, computer security, and operating systems. Students ﬁnd these courses much more diﬃcult when they have not had the appropriate mathematical foun- dations from discrete mathematics. One student sent me an e-mail message saying that she used the contents of this book in every computer science course she took! Math courses based on the material studied in discrete mathematics include logic, set theory, number theory, linear algebra, abstract algebra, combinatorics, graph theory, and probability theory (the discrete part of the subject). Also, discrete mathematics contains the necessary mathematical background for solv- ing problems in operations research (including discrete optimization), chemistry, engineering, biology, and so on. In the text, we will study applications to some of these areas. Many students ﬁnd their introductory discrete mathematics course to be signiﬁcantly more challenging than courses they have previously taken. One reason for this is that one of the pri- mary goals of this course is to teach mathematical reasoning and problem solving, rather than a discrete set of skills. The exercises in this book are designed to reﬂect this goal. Although there are plenty of exercises in this text similar to those addressed in the examples, a large percentage xix xx To the Student of the exercises require original thought. This is intentional. The material discussed in the text provides the tools needed to solve these exercises, but your job is to successfully apply these tools using your own creativity. One of the primary goals of this course is to learn how to attack problems that may be somewhat diﬀerent from any you may have previously seen. Unfortu- nately, learning how to solve only particular types of exercises is not suﬃcient for success in developing the problem-solving skills needed in subsequent courses and professional work. This text addresses many diﬀerent topics, but discrete mathematics is an extremely diverse and large area of study. One of my goals as an author is to help you develop the skills needed to master the additional material you will need in your own future pursuits. Finally, discrete mathematics is an excellent environment in which to learn how to read and write mathematical proofs. In addition to explicit material on proofs in Chapter 1 and Chapter 5, this textbook contains throughout many proofs of theorems and many exercises asking the stu- dent to prove statements. This not only deepens one’s understanding of the subject matter but is also valuable preparation for more advanced courses in mathematics and theoretical computer science. THE EXERCISES I would like to oﬀer some advice about how you can best learn discrete mathematics (and other subjects in the mathematical and computing sciences). You will learn the most by actively working exercises. I suggest that you solve as many as you possibly can. After working the exercises your instructor has assigned, I encourage you to solve additional exercises such as those in the exercise sets following each section of the text and in the supple- mentary exercises at the end of each chapter. (Note the key explaining the markings preceding exercises.) Key to the Exercises no marking A routine exercise ∗ A diﬃcult exercise ∗∗ An extremely challenging exercise An exercise containing a result used in the book (Table 1 on the following page shows where these exercises are used.) (Requires calculus) An exercise whose solution requires the use of limits or concepts from diﬀerential or integral calculus The best approach is to try exercises yourself before you consult the answer section at the end of this book. Note that the odd-numbered exercise answers provided in the text are answers only and not full solutions; in particular, the reasoning required to obtain answers is omitted in these answers. The Student’s Solutions Guide, available separately, provides complete, worked solutions to all odd-numbered exercises in this text. When you hit an impasse trying to solve an odd-numbered exercise, I suggest you consult the Student’s Solutions Guide and look for some guidance as to how to solve the problem. The more work you do yourself rather than passively reading or copying solutions, the more you will learn. The answers and solutions to the even- numbered exercises are intentionally not available from the publisher; ask your instructor if you have trouble with these. WEB RESOURCES All users of the book are able to access the online resources acces- sible via the Online Learning Center (OLC) for the book. You will ﬁnd many Extra Exam- ples designed to clarify key concepts, Self Assessments for gauging how well you understand core topics, Interactive Demonstrations that explore key algorithms and other concepts, a Web Resources Guide containing an extensive selection of links to external sites relevant to the world of discrete mathematics, extra explanations and practice to help you master core con- cepts, added instruction on writing proofs and on avoiding common mistakes in discrete mathe- matics, in-depth discussions of important applications, and guidance on utilizing MapleTM and To the Student xxi TABLE 1 Hand-Icon Exercises and Where They Are Used Section Exercise Section Where Used Pages Where Used 1.1 42 1.3 33 1.1 43 1.3 33 1.3 11 1.6 76 1.3 12 1.6 74, 76 1.3 19 1.6 76 1.3 34 1.6 76, 78 1.3 46 12.2 856 1.7 18 1.7 86 2.3 74 2.3 144 2.3 81 2.5 170 2.5 15 2.5 174 2.5 16 2.5 173 3.1 45 3.1 197 3.2 74 11.2 797 4.3 37 4.1 253 4.4 2 4.6 318 4.4 44 7.2 489 6.4 21 7.2 491 6.4 25 7.4 480 7.2 15 7.2 491 9.1 26 9.4 629 10.4 59 11.1 782 11.1 15 11.1 786 11.1 30 11.1 791 11.1 48 11.2 798 12.1 12 12.3 861 A.2 4 8.3 531 MathematicaTM software to explore the computational aspects of discrete mathematics. Places in the text where these additional online resources are available are identiﬁed in the margins by special icons. For more details on these and other online resources, see the description of the companion website immediately preceding this “To the Student” message. THE VALUE OF THIS BOOK My intention is to make your substantial investment in this text an excellent value. The book, the associated ancillaries, and companion website have taken many years of eﬀort to develop and reﬁne. I am conﬁdent that most of you will ﬁnd that the text and associated materials will help you master discrete mathematics, just as so many previous students have. Even though it is likely that you will not cover some chapters in your current course, you should ﬁnd it helpful—as many other students have—to read the relevant sections of the book as you take additional courses. Most of you will return to this book as a useful tool throughout your future studies, especially for those of you who continue in computer science, mathematics, and engineering. I have designed this book to be a gateway for future studies and explorations, and to be comprehensive reference, and I wish you luck as you begin your journey. Kenneth H. Rosen C H A P T E R The Foundations: 1 Logic and Proofs 1.1 Propositional Logic 1.2 Applications of T he rules of logic specify the meaning of mathematical statements. For instance, these rules help us understand and reason with statements such as “There exists an integer that is not the sum of two squares” and “For every positive integer n, the sum of the posi- Propositional tive integers not exceeding n is n(n + 1)∕2.” Logic is the basis of all mathematical reasoning, Logic and of all automated reasoning. It has practical applications to the design of computing ma- chines, to the speciﬁcation of systems, to artiﬁcial intelligence, to computer programming, to 1.3 Propositional programming languages, and to other areas of computer science, as well as to many other ﬁelds Equivalences of study. 1.4 Predicates and To understand mathematics, we must understand what makes up a correct mathematical Quantiﬁers argument, that is, a proof. Once we prove a mathematical statement is true, we call it a theorem. A collection of theorems on a topic organize what we know about this topic. To learn a math- 1.5 Nested ematical topic, a person needs to actively construct mathematical arguments on this topic, and Quantiﬁers not just read exposition. Moreover, knowing the proof of a theorem often makes it possible to 1.6 Rules of modify the result to ﬁt new situations. Inference Everyone knows that proofs are important throughout mathematics, but many people ﬁnd it surprising how important proofs are in computer science. In fact, proofs are used to verify 1.7 Introduction to that computer programs produce the correct output for all possible input values, to show that Proofs algorithms always produce the correct result, to establish the security of a system, and to create 1.8 Proof Methods artiﬁcial intelligence. Furthermore, automated reasoning systems have been created to allow and Strategy computers to construct their own proofs. In this chapter, we will explain what makes up a correct mathematical argument and intro- duce tools to construct these arguments. We will develop an arsenal of diﬀerent proof methods that will enable us to prove many diﬀerent types of results. After introducing many diﬀerent methods of proof, we will introduce several strategies for constructing proofs. We will intro- duce the notion of a conjecture and explain the process of developing mathematics by studying conjectures. 1.1 Propositional Logic 1.1.1 Introduction The rules of logic give precise meaning to mathematical statements. These rules are used to dis- tinguish between valid and invalid mathematical arguments. Because a major goal of this book is to teach the reader how to understand and how to construct correct mathematical arguments, we begin our study of discrete mathematics with an introduction to logic. Besides the importance of logic in understanding mathematical reasoning, logic has numer- ous applications to computer science. These rules are used in the design of computer circuits, the construction of computer programs, the veriﬁcation of the correctness of programs, and in many other ways. Furthermore, software systems have been developed for constructing some, but not all, types of proofs automatically. We will discuss these applications of logic in this and later chapters. 1 2 1 / The Foundations: Logic and Proofs 1.1.2 Propositions Our discussion begins with an introduction to the basic building blocks of logic—propositions. A proposition is a declarative sentence (that is, a sentence that declares a fact) that is either true or false, but not both. EXAMPLE 1 All the following declarative sentences are propositions. Extra 1. Washington, D.C., is the capital of the United States of America. Examples 2. Toronto is the capital of Canada. 3. 1 + 1 = 2. 4. 2 + 2 = 3. Propositions 1 and 3 are true, whereas 2 and 4 are false. ◂ Some sentences that are not propositions are given in Example 2. EXAMPLE 2 Consider the following sentences. 1. What time is it? 2. Read this carefully. 3. x + 1 = 2. 4. x + y = z. Sentences 1 and 2 are not propositions because they are not declarative sentences. Sentences 3 and 4 are not propositions because they are neither true nor false. Note that each of sentences 3 and 4 can be turned into a proposition if we assign values to the variables. We will also discuss other ways to turn sentences such as these into propositions in Section 1.4. ◂ We use letters to denote propositional variables (or sentential variables), that is, variables that represent propositions, just as letters are used to denote numerical variables. The conven- tional letters used for propositional variables are p, q, r, s, …. The truth value of a proposition Links ARISTOTLE (384 B.C.E.–322 B.C.E.) Aristotle was born in Stagirus (Stagira) in northern Greece. His father was the personal physician of the King of Macedonia. Because his father died when Aristotle was young, Aristotle could not follow the custom of following his father’s profession. Aristotle became an orphan at a young age when his mother also died. His guardian who raised him taught him poetry, rhetoric, and Greek. At the age of 17, his guardian sent him to Athens to further his education. Aristotle joined Plato’s Academy, where for 20 years he attended Plato’s lectures, later presenting his own lectures on rhetoric. When Plato died in 347 B.C.E., Aristotle was not chosen to succeed him because his views diﬀered too much from those of Plato. Instead, Aristotle joined the court of King Hermeas where he remained for three years, and married the niece Source: National Library of of the King. When the Persians defeated Hermeas, Aristotle moved to Mytilene and, at the invitation of King Medicine Philip of Macedonia, he tutored Alexander, Philip’s son, who later became Alexander the Great. Aristotle tutored Alexander for ﬁve years and after the death of King Philip, he returned to Athens and set up his own school, called the Lyceum. Aristotle’s followers were called the peripatetics, which means “to walk about,” because Aristotle often walked around as he discussed philosophical questions. Aristotle taught at the Lyceum for 13 years where he lectured to his advanced students in the morning and gave popular lectures to a broad audience in the evening. When Alexander the Great died in 323 B.C.E., a backlash against anything related to Alexander led to trumped-up charges of impiety against Aristotle. Aristotle ﬂed to Chalcis to avoid prosecution. He only lived one year in Chalcis, dying of a stomach ailment in 322 B.C.E. Aristotle wrote three types of works: those written for a popular audience, compilations of scientiﬁc facts, and systematic treatises. The systematic treatises included works on logic, philosophy, psychology, physics, and natural history. Aristotle’s writings were preserved by a student and were hidden in a vault where a wealthy book collector discovered them about 200 years later. They were taken to Rome, where they were studied by scholars and issued in new editions, preserving them for posterity. 1.1 Propositional Logic 3 is true, denoted by T, if it is a true proposition, and the truth value of a proposition is false, de- noted by F, if it is a false proposition. Propositions that cannot be expressed in terms of simpler propositions are called atomic propositions. The area of logic that deals with propositions is called the propositional calculus or propo- sitional logic. It was ﬁrst developed systematically by the Greek philosopher Aristotle more than 2300 years ago. Links We now turn our attention to methods for producing new propositions from those that we already have. These methods were discussed by the English mathematician George Boole in 1854 in his book The Laws of Thought. Many mathematical statements are constructed by com- bining one or more propositions. New propositions, called compound propositions, are formed from existing propositions using logical operators. Deﬁnition 1 Let p be a proposition. The negation of p, denoted by ¬p (also denoted by p), is the statement “It is not the case that p.” The proposition ¬p is read “not p.” The truth value of the negation of p, ¬p, is the opposite of the truth value of p. Remark: The notation for the negation operator is not standardized. Although ¬p and p are the most common notations used in mathematics to express the negation of p, other notations you might see are ∼p, −p, p′ , Np, and !p. EXAMPLE 3 Find the negation of the proposition “Michael’s PC runs Linux” Extra Examples and express this in simple English. Solution: The negation is “It is not the case that Michael’s PC runs Linux.” This negation can be more simply expressed as “Michael’s PC does not run Linux.” ◂ EXAMPLE 4 Find the negation of the proposition “Vandana’s smartphone has at least 32 GB of memory” and express this in simple English. Solution: The negation is “It is not the case that Vandana’s smartphone has at least 32 GB of memory.” This negation can also be expressed as “Vandana’s smartphone does not have at least 32 GB of memory” or even more simply as “Vandana’s smartphone has less than 32 GB of memory.” ◂ 4 1 / The Foundations: Logic and Proofs Table 1 displays the truth table for the negation of a proposition p. This table has a row for TABLE 1 The Truth Table for each of the two possible truth values of p. Each row shows the truth value of ¬p corresponding the Negation of a to the truth value of p for this row. Proposition. The negation of a proposition can also be considered the result of the operation of the negation operator on a proposition. The negation operator constructs a new proposition from p ¬p a single existing proposition. We will now introduce the logical operators that are used to form T F new propositions from two or more existing propositions. These logical operators are also called F T connectives. Deﬁnition 2 Let p and q be propositions. The conjunction of p and q, denoted by p ∧ q, is the proposition “p and q.” The conjunction p ∧ q is true when both p and q are true and is false otherwise. Table 2 displays the truth table of p ∧ q. This table has a row for each of the four possible combinations of truth values of p and q. The four rows correspond to the pairs of truth values TT, TF, FT, and FF, where the ﬁrst truth value in the pair is the truth value of p and the second truth value is the truth value of q. Note that in logic the word “but” sometimes is used instead of “and” in a conjunction. For example, the statement “The sun is shining, but it is raining” is another way of saying “The sun is shining and it is raining.” (In natural language, there is a subtle diﬀerence in meaning between “and” and “but”; we will not be concerned with this nuance here.) EXAMPLE 5 Find the conjunction of the propositions p and q where p is the proposition “Rebecca’s PC has more than 16 GB free hard disk space” and q is the proposition “The processor in Rebecca’s PC runs faster than 1 GHz.” Solution: The conjunction of these propositions, p ∧ q, is the proposition “Rebecca’s PC has more than 16 GB free hard disk space, and the processor in Rebecca’s PC runs faster than 1 GHz.” This conjunction can be expressed more simply as “Rebecca’s PC has more than 16 GB free hard disk space, and its processor runs faster than 1 GHz.” For this conjunction to be true, both conditions given must be true. It is false when one or both of these conditions are false. ◂ Deﬁnition 3 Let p and q be propositions. The disjunction of p and q, denoted by p ∨ q, is the proposition “p or q.” The disjunction p ∨ q is false when both p and q are false and is true otherwise. Table 3 displays the truth table for p ∨ q. TABLE 2 The Truth Table for TABLE 3 The Truth Table for the Conjunction of Two the Disjunction of Two Propositions. Propositions. p q p∧q p q p∨q T T T T T T T F F T F T F T F F T T F F F F F F 1.1 Propositional Logic 5 The use of the connective or in a disjunction corresponds to one of the two ways the word or is used in English, namely, as an inclusive or. A disjunction is true when at least one of the two propositions is true. That is, p ∨ q is true when both p and q are true or when exactly one of p and q is true. EXAMPLE 6 Translate the statement “Students who have taken calculus or introductory computer science can take this class” in a statement in propositional logic using the propositions p: “A student who has taken calculus can take this class” and q: “A student who has taken introductory computer science can take this class.” Solution: We assume that this statement means that students who have taken both calculus and introductory computer science can take the class, as well as the students who have taken only one of the two subjects. Hence, this statement can be expressed as p ∨ q, the inclusive or, or disjunction, of p and q. ◂ EXAMPLE 7 What is the disjunction of the propositions p and q, where p and q are the same propositions as Extra in Example 5? Examples Solution: The disjunction of p and q, p ∨ q, is the proposition “Rebecca’s PC has at least 16 GB free hard disk space, or the processor in Rebecca’s PC runs faster than 1 GHz.” This proposition is true when Rebecca’s PC has at least 16 GB free hard disk space, when the PC’s processor runs faster than 1 GHz, and when both conditions are true. It is false when both of these conditions are false, that is, when Rebecca’s PC has less than 16 GB free hard disk space and the processor in her PC runs at 1 GHz or slower. ◂ Besides its use in disjunctions, the connective or is also used to express an exclusive or. Unlike the disjunction of two propositions p and q, the exclusive or of these two propositions is true when exactly one of p and q is true; it is false when both p and q are true (and when both are false). Deﬁnition 4 Let p and q be propositions. The exclusive or of p and q, denoted by p ⊕ q (or p XOR q), is the proposition that is true when exactly one of p and q is true and is false otherwise. Links GEORGE BOOLE (1815–1864) George Boole, the son of a cobbler, was born in Lincoln, England, in November 1815. Because of his family’s diﬃcult ﬁnancial situation, Boole struggled to educate himself while supporting his family. Nevertheless, he became one of the most important mathematicians of the 1800s. Al- though he considered a career as a clergyman, he decided instead to go into teaching, and soon afterward opened a school of his own. In his preparation for teaching mathematics, Boole—unsatisﬁed with textbooks of his day—decided to read the works of the great mathematicians. While reading papers of the great French mathematician Lagrange, Boole made discoveries in the calculus of variations, the branch of analysis dealing with ﬁnding curves and surfaces by optimizing certain parameters. Source: Library of Congress In 1848 Boole published The Mathematical Analysis of Logic, the ﬁrst of his contributions to Washington, D.C. 20540 symbolic logic. In 1849 he was appointed professor of mathematics at Queen’s College in Cork, USA [LC-USZ62-61664] Ireland. In 1854 he published The Laws of Thought, his most famous work. In this book, Boole introduced what is now called Boolean algebra in his honor. Boole wrote textbooks on diﬀerential equations and on diﬀerence equations that were used in Great Britain until the end of the nineteenth century. Boole married in 1855; his wife was the niece of the professor of Greek at Queen’s College. In 1864 Boole died from pneumonia, which he contracted as a result of keeping a lecture engagement even though he was soaking wet from a rainstorm. 6 1 / The Foundations: Logic and Proofs The truth table for the exclusive or of two propositions is displayed in Table 4. EXAMPLE 8 Let p and q be the propositions that state “A student can have a salad with dinner” and “A student can have soup with dinner,” respectively. What is p ⊕ q, the exclusive or of p and q? Solution: The exclusive or of p and q is the statement that is true when exactly one of p and q is true. That is, p ⊕ q is the statement “A student can have soup or salad, but not both, with dinner.” Note that this is often stated as “A student can have soup or a salad with dinner,” without explicitly stating that taking both is not permitted. ◂ EXAMPLE 9 Express the statement “I will use all my savings to travel to Europe or to buy an electric car” in propositional logic using the statement p: “I will use all my savings to travel to Europe” and the statement q: “I will use all my savings to buy an electric car.” Solution: To translate this statement, we ﬁrst note that the or in this statement must be an ex- clusive or because this student can either use all his or her savings to travel to Europe or use all these savings to buy an electric car, but cannot both

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