Unit 4 - Period 4 1800-1848 PDF

UNIT 4 - Period 4:1800-1848 Topic 4.1 Contextualizing Period 4 Learning Objective: Explain the context in which the republic developed from 1800 to 1848, I n the first half of the19th century, the young nation expanded economically, politically, and...

UNIT 4 - Period 4:1800-1848 Topic 4.1 Contextualizing Period 4 Learning Objective: Explain the context in which the republic developed from 1800 to 1848, I n the first half of the19th century, the young nation expanded economically, politically, and culturally. Economically this meant taking advantage of new lands, new forms of transportation, and new industries. Politically it meant allowing more people to participate directly in their democracy. Culturally it meant developing distinctively American expressions of literature and art. In 1826, in the midst of the years covered in this period, the young nation of the United States celebrated its 50th birthday with great optimism. The founders of the country were passing on, and a new generation was taldng over leadership. In this period, the leaders dealt with the challenges that accompanied the development of the young nation. Independence had been declared, a Revolutionary War won, a Constitution written and ratified, and a new government established. Between 1800 and 1848, the United States went through rapid demographic, economic, and territorial growth as the new republic worked to define itself. In 1800, the country extended from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mississippi River. By 1848, it controlled territory all the way to the Pacific Ocean. Reforms, Revivals, and Identity In response to this growth, the country reformed several institutions and practices. It expanded participation in political parties. By dropping property ownership as a requirement to vote, nearly all adult White males could cast ballots. By using nominating conventions, more people could help choose party candidates. More public school laws were enacted to educate the children. Reforms were made to prisons and asylums to make them more humane. A religious revival, an awakening, spread across the country. Much of this development of rights and reforms still excluded American Indians, African Americans, and all women. Tlie country developed its own art, literature, and philosophy to reflect a sense of itself as independent from Europe. In this sense, the country developed a national culture. However, different sections of the country also continued to grow more distinctive. Slavery shaped a distinctively southern way of life, while the northeastern states became more focused on commerce and the Midwest region on agriculture. TOPIC 4.1 CONTEXTUALIZING PERIOD 4 163  Markets, Farming, and Manufacturing These changes took place as a market economy emerged. People became less dependent on what they raised or made for themselves and more involved in buying and selling goods. The country benefited from the addition of fertile land farther west and advances in industry and transportation everywhere. Agriculture and manufacturing grew together, with the help of local, state, and federal governments to build roads, canals, and harbors. New technology made both farming and manufacturing more productive. The greater reliance on markets meant that more men worked away from home and women had greater control over homelife. National Strength and Signs of Division In this period, the country grew stronger and larger. Politically, President Andrew Jackson, elected in 1828 and 1832, led efforts to solidify the power of the federal government over states. In general, the United States promoted foreign trade (particularly the export of cotton) but avoided entanglement in European diplomatic affairs and wars. Efforts to improve life succeeded for many but not those enslaved. Landmarks in the institution of slavery came earlier, with the development of the cotton gin in 1793 and the end of the importation of enslaved Africans in 1808. With the territorial and economic growth, conflict with American Indians continued while rising concerns over slavery focused on whether it should be allowed in the newly acquired lands. As this period ended, most people had a positive view of a prosperous country. However, some recognized that the growing regional differences and the question of whether to allow slavery to e^qjand into new states and territories needed to be resolved. ANALYZE THE CONTEXT 1. Explain a historical context for the development of a reform movement during this period. 2. Explain a historical context for the forces that brought about the market revolution that affected all of the people of the young nation. LANDMARK EVENTS: 1800-1848 After a heated In Marburyv. Madison, The United States President Monroe The government election, the the Supreme Court wins respect but warns Europeans to forces American Federalists hand first rvies a law little else in a war stay out of Western Indians to move west over power unconstitutional. with Great Britain. Hemisphere affairs. on the Trail of Tears. peacefully. 1803 1812 1823 1838 c 1800 1825 i 1850 i 1 i I 1803 c 1808 T 1820 1831 1848 T The purchase of Congress Congress A slave revolt Advocates of Louisiana from prohibits the prohibits the led by Nat Turner women’s rights France doubles importation of expansion of is crushed, but It gather In Seneca the country's size, enslaved people. slavery Into the scares slaveowners. Falls, New York. Louisiana Territory. 164 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP’ EDITION  Topic 4.2 The Rise of Political Parties and the Era of Jefferson But every difference of opinion is not a difference of principle. We have called by different names brethren of the same principle. We are all Republicans, we are all Federalists. Thomas Jefferson, First Inaugural Address, 1801 Learning Objective: Explain the causes and effects of policy debates in the early republic, Despite President Washingtons warning against forming political parties, two groups quickly emerged in the new republic. The Federalists, following the visions of Alexander Hamilton, and the Democratic-Republicans, espousing Thomas Jefferson’s views, competed for public approval and control of the government. The Election of 1800 During Adams’s presidency, the Federalists rapidly lost popularity. People disliked the Alien and Sedition Acts. Further, they complained about the new taxes imposed to pay for a possible war against France. Though Adams avoided war, he had persuaded Congress that building up the US. Navy was necessary for the nation’s defense. Establishment of Political Parties The presidential election of 1800 provided the first election with a clear choice between political parties. The Federalist Party stood for a stronger national government and leaned toward Great Britain in European affairs. The Democratic-Republi can Party emphasized the powers reserved to states and leaned toward the French. Both parties supported tariffs on imports as a way to raise revenue. Throughout the 19th century, tariffs would be the largest single source of revenue for the federal government. The debate on tariffs broke down on regional lines. Northern industrialists wanted higher tariffs to protect their companies from foreign competition. Southerners relied on exports of cotton and other crops. They pushed for lower tariffs in order to encourage trade. TOPIC 4.2 THE RISE OF POLITICAL PARTIES AND THE ERA OF JEFFERSON 165  Election Results Determining the winner of the 1800 presidential election was complicated. According to the original Constitution, each member of the Electoral College cast two votes for president. The winner became president, and the second-place finisher became vice president. In 1800, a majority of the presidential electors cast their ballots for two Democratic-Republicans: one for Thomas Jefferson and one for Aaron Burr. The two tied for the presidency. As the Constitution required, the House of Representatives voted to choose the winner, with each state allowed one vote. They debated and voted for days before they finally gave a majority to Jefferson. (Alexander Hamilton had urged his followers to support Jefferson, whom he considered less dangerous and of higher character than Burr.) Democratic-Republican lawmakers elected in 1800 also took control of both the House and the Senate in the elections. So the Federalists had been swept from power in both the executive and legislative branches of the U.S. government. A Peaceful Revolution The passing of power in 1801 from one political party to another was accomplished without violence. This was a rare event for the times and a major indication that the U.S. constitutional system would endure the various strains that were placed upon it. The Federalists quietly accepted their defeat in the election of 1800 and peacefully relinquished control of the federal government to Jefferson’s party, the Democratic-Republicans. The change from Federalist to Democratic-Republican control is known as the Revolution of 1800. Jefferson's Presidency During his first term, Jefferson attempted to win the allegiance and trust of Federalist opponents by maintaining the national bank and debt-repayment plan of Hamilton. In foreign policy, he carried on the neutrality policies of Washington and Adams. At the same time, Jefferson retained the loyalty of Democratic-Republican supporters by adhering to his party’s guiding principle of limited central government. He reduced the size of the military, eliminated a number of federal jobs, repealed the excise taxes—including those on whiskey— and lowered the national debt. However, hoping to avoid internal divisions that distracted Washington, he appointed only Democratic-Republi cans to his cabinet. Compared to Adams’s troubled administration, Jefferson’s first four years in office were relatively free of discord. The Louisiana Purchase The single most important achievement of Jefferson’s first administration was the acquisition by purchase of vast western lands known as the Louisiana Territory. This region encompassed a large tract of western land through which the Mississippi and Missouri rivers flowed, land little explored by Europeans. At the mouth of the Mississippi lay the territory’s most valuable property in terms of commerce—the port of New Orleans. 166 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP‘ EDITION  Tlie Louisiana Territory had once been claimed by France, which then lost its claim to Spain. But in 1800, the French military and political leader Napoleon Bonaparte secretly forced Spain to give the Louisiana Territory back to France. Napoleon hoped to restore the French empire in the Americas. By 1803, however, Napoleon had lost interest in this plan for two reasons: He wanted to concentrate French resources on fighting Great Britain A rebellion led by Toussaint Louverture against French rule on the island of Santo Domingo had resulted in heavy French losses. U.S. Interest in the Mississippi River During Jelferson’s presidency, the western frontier extended beyond Ohio and Kentucky into the Indiana Territory. Settlers in this region depended for their economic existence on transporting goods on rivers that flowed westward into the Mississippi and southward as far as New Orleans. They were greatly alarmed therefore when, in 1802, Spanish offlcials, who were still in charge of New Orleans, closed the port to Americans. They revoked the right of deposit granted in the Pinckney Treaty of 1795, which had allowed American farmers tax-free use of the port. People on the frontier clamored for government action. In addition to being concerned about the economic impact of the closing of New Orleans, President Jefferson was troubled by its consequences on foreign policy. He feared that so long as a foreign power controlled the river at New Orleans, the United States risked entanglement in European affairs. Negotiations Jefferson sent ministers to France with instructions to offer up to $10 million for both New Orleans and a strip of land extending from that port eastward to Florida. If the American ministers failed in their negotiations with the French, they were instructed to begin discussions with Britain for a U.S.-Britain alliance. Napoleon’s ministers, seeking funds for a war against Britain, offered to sell not only New Orleans but also the entire Louisiana Territory for $15 million. The opportunity to purchase so much land surprised American ministers. They quiddy went beyond their instructions and accepted the French offer. Constitutional Predicament Jefferson and most Americans strongly approved of the Louisiana Purchase. Nevertheless, a constitutional problem troubled the president. Jefferson was committed to a strict interpretation of the Constitution and rejected Hamilton’s argument that certain powers were implied. No clause in the Constitution explicitly stated that a president could purchase foreign land. In this case, Jefferson determined to set aside his idealism for the country’s good. He submitted the purchase agreement to the Senate, arguing that lands could be added to the United States as an application of the president’s power to make treaties. Federalist senators criticized the treaty. However, casting aside the Federalist attacks, the Democratic-Republican majority in the Senate quickly ratified the purchase. TOPIC 4.2 THE RISE OF POLITICAL PARTIES AND THE ERA OF JEFFERSON 167  THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE, 1803 Consequences The Louisiana Purchase more than doubled the size of the United States, removed a European presence from the nations borders, and extended the western frontier to lands beyond the Mississippi. Furthermore, the acquisition of millions of acres of land strengthened Jefferson’s hopes that his country’s future would be based on an agrarian society of independent farmers rather than Hamilton’s vision of an urban and industrial society. In political terms, the Louisiana Purchase increased Jefferson’s popularity and showed the Federalists to be a weak, sectionalist (New England-based) party that could do little more than complain about Democratic-Republican policies. Lewis and Clark Expedition Even before Louisiana was purchased, Jefferson had persuaded Congress to fund a scientific exploration of the trans-Mississippi West to be led by Captain Meriwether Lewis and Lieutenant William Clark. The Louisiana Purchase greatly increased the importance of the expedition. Lewis and Clark set out from St. Louis in 1804, crossed the Rockies, reached the Oregon coast on the Pacific Ocean, and then turned back and completed the return journey in 1806. The benefits of the expedition were many: greater geographic and scientific knowledge of the region, stronger U.S. 168 UNITED STATES HISTORY; AP' EDITION claims to the Oregon Territory, better relations with American Indians, and more accurate maps and land routes for fur trappers and future settlers. Judicial Impeachments Jefferson tried various methods for overturning past Federalist measures and appointments. Soon after entering office, he suspended the Alien and Sedition Acts and released those jailed under them. The Federalist appointments to the courts previously made by Washington and Adams were not subject to recall or removal except by impeachment. Federalist judges therefore continued in office, much to the annoyance of the Democratic-Republican president, Jefferson. Hoping to remove partisan Federalist judges, Jefferson supported a campaign of impeachment. Tlie judge of one federal district was found to be mentally unbalanced. The House voted for his impeachment, and the Senate then voted to remove him. The House also impeached a Supreme Court justice, Samuel Chase, but the Senate acquitted him after finding no evidence of “high crimes.” Except for these two cases, the impeachment campaign was largely a failure, as almost all the Federalist judges remained in office. Even so, the threat of impeachment caused the judges to be more cautious and less partisan in their decisions. Jefferson's Reelection In 1804, Jefferson won reelection by an overwhelming margin, receiving all but 14 of the 176 electoral votes. His second term was marked by growing difficulties. He faced a plot by his former vice president, Aaron Burr. The Democratic-Republican Party split, with a faction (the “Quids”) accusing him of abandoning the party’s principles. Foreign troubles came from the Napoleonic wars in Europe. Aaron Burr A Democratic-Republican caucus (a closed meeting) in 1804 decided not to nominate Aaron Burr for a second term as vice president. Burr then embarked on a series of ventures, one of which threatened to break up the Union and another of which resulted in the death of Alexander Hamilton. Federalist Conspiracy Secretly forming a political pact with some radical New England Federalists, Burr planned to win the governorship of New York in 1804, unite that state with the New England states, and then lead this group of states to secede from the nation. Most Federalists followed Alexander Hamilton in opposing Burr, who was defeated in the New York election. The conspiracy then disintegrated. Duel with Hamilton Angered by an insulting remark attributed to Hamilton, Burr challenged the Federalist leader to a duel and fatally shot him. Hamilton’s death in 1804 deprived the Federalists of their last great leader and earned Burr the enmity of many. TOPIC 4,2 THE RISE OF POLITICAL PARTIES AND THE ERA OF JEFFERSON 169  Trial for Treason By 1806, Burrs intrigues had turned westward with a plan to take Mexico from Spain and possibly unite it with Louisiana under his rule. Learning of the conspiracy, Jefferson ordered Burrs arrest and trial for treason. Presiding at the trial was Chief Justice of the Supreme Court John Marshall, a long-time adversary of Jefferson. A jury acquitted Burr, basing its decision on Marshall’s narrow definition of treason and the lack of witnesses to any “overt act” by Burr. John Marshall's Supreme Court and Federal Power One Federalist official continued to have major influence throughout the years of Democratic-Republican ascendancy: John Marshall. His decisions consistently favored the central government and the rights of property against the advocates of states’ rights. John Marshall Ironically, the Federalist judge who caused Jefferson the most grief was one of his own cousins from Virginia, John Marshall. Marshall had been appointed chief justice of the Supreme Court during the final months of the presidency of John Adams. He held his post for 34 years, during which time he exerted as strong an influence on the Supreme Court as Washington had exerted on the presidency. Even when justices appointed by Democratic-Repub lican presidents formed a majority on the Court, they often sided with Marshall because they were persuaded that the US. Constitution had created a federal government with strong and flexible powers. Source: Getty Images In 1955, John Marshall became one of the first Supreme Court justices to appear on a postage stamp. It came at a time when the Supreme Court was asserting the power of the federal courts to protect individual liberties, particularly against racial discrimination and unconstitutional criminal proceedings {see Topics 8.6 and 8.11). 170 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP‘ EDITION Influential Cases Several of Marshalls decisions became landmarks that defined the relationship between the central government and the states. First and foremost of these was Marbury v. Madison (1803), which established the principle of judicial review. Marbury v. Madison (1803) The first major case decided by Marshall put him in direct conflict with President Jefferson. Just before leaving office, President John Adams made several “midnight appointments” of Federalists as judges. However, their commissions were not formally delivered before Jefferson took office. Jefferson wanted to block these appointments, so he ordered the new secretary of state, James Madison, not to deliver the commissions. One of the Adams appointees, William Marbury, sued for his commission. The case of Marbury v. Madison went to the Supreme Court in 1803. Marshall ruled that Marbury had a right to his commission according to the Judiciary Act passed by Congress in 1789. However, Marshall said the Judiciary Act of 1789 had given to the Court greater power than the Constitution allowed. Therefore, the law was unconstitutional and Marbury would not receive his commission. In effect, Marshall sacrificed what would have been a small Federalist gain (the appointment of Marbury) for a much larger, long-term judicial victory. By ruling a law of Congress to be unconstitutional, Marshall established the doctrine of judicial review. From this point on, the Supreme Court would exercise the power to decide whether an act of Congress or of the president was allowed by the Constitution. The Supreme Court could now overrule actions of the other two branches of the federal government. Fletcher v. Peck (1810) In a case involving land fraud in Georgia, Marshall concluded that a state could not pass legislation invalidating a contract. This was the first time that the Supreme Court declared a state law to be unconstitutional and invalid. (In Marbury v. Madison, the Court ruled a federal law unconstitutional.) Martin v. Hunter's Lease (1816) The Supreme Court established that it had jurisdiction over state courts in cases involving constitutional rights. Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819) This case involved a law of New Hampshire that changed Dartmouth College from a privately chartered college into a public institution. The Marshall Court struck down the state law as unconstitutional, arguing that a contract for a private corporation could not be altered by the state. McCulloch V. Maryland (1819) Maryland attempted to tax the Second Bank of the United States, which was located in Maryland. Marshall ruled that a state could not tax a federal institution because “the power to tax is the power to destroy” and federal laws are supreme over state laws. In addition, Marshall settled the long-running debate over constitutionality of the national bank. Using a loose interpretation of the Constitution, Marshall ruled that, even though no clause in the Constitution specifically mentions a national bank, the Constitution gave the federal government the implied power to create one. TOPIC 4.2 THE RISE OF POLITICAL PARTIES AND THE ERA OF JEFFERSON 171  Cohens v. Virginia (1821) A pair of brothers named Cohen were convicted in Virginia of illegally selling tickets for a lottery authorized by Congress for Washington, D.C. While Marshall and the Court upheld the conviction, they established the principle that the Supreme Court could review a state courts decision involving any of the powers of the federal government. Gibbons v. Ogden (1821) Could the state of New York grant a monopoly to a steamboat company if that action conflicted with a charter authorized by Congress? In ruling that the New York monopoly was unconstitutional, Marshall established the federal government’s broad control of interstate commerce. Madison's Presidency Jefferson believed strongly in the precedent set by Washington of voluntarily retiring from the presidency after a second term. For his party’s nomination for president, he supported his close friend, Secretary of State James Madison. The Election of 1808 Ever since leading the effort to write and ratify the Constitution, Madison was widely viewed as a brilliant thinker. He had worked tirelessly with Jefferson in developing the Democratic-Republican Party. On the other hand, he was a weak public speaker, possessed a stubborn temperament, and lacked Jefferson’s political skills. With Jefferson’s backing, Madison was nominated for president by a caucus of congressional Democratic-Republicans. Other factions of the Democratic-Republican Party nominated two other candidates. Even so, Madison was able to win a majority of electoral votes and to defeat both his Democratic-Republican opponents and the Federalist candidate, Charles Pinckney. REFLECT ON THE LEARNING OBJECTIVE 1. Explain what caused the major political disputes and the consequences of them during the early years of the new nation. KEY TERMS BY THEME Decisions (NAT, POL) Supreme Court (PCE) McCulloch V. Maryland Thomas Jefferson strict interpretation Dartmouth College v. Louisiana Purchase John Marshall Woodward Aaron Burr judicial review Gibbons v. Ogden Exploration (GEO) Marbury v. Madison implied powers Lewis and Clark Fletcher v. Peck 172 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP* EDITION MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1-3 refer to the following excerpt. “All, too, will bear in mind this sacred principle, that though the will of the majority is in all cases to prevail, that will to be rightful must be reasonable; that the minority possess their equal rights, which equal law must protect, and to violate would be oppression.... We have called by different names brethren of the same principle. We are all Republicans, we are all Federalists. If there be any among us who would wish to dissolve this Union or to change its republican form, let them stand undisturbed as monuments of the safety with which error of opinion may be tolerated where reason is left free to combat it.... Equal and exact justice to all men, of whatever state or persuasion, religious or political; peace, commerce, and honest friendship with all nations, entangling alliances with none.” Thomas Jefferson, First Inaugural Address, 1801 1. Which of the following describes a policy of Jefferson’s that reflects the attitude toward Federalists expressed in this speech? (A) He adopted a Federalist plan for increasing the size of the military. (B) He appealed to Federalists by increasing taxes to pay for new roads. (C) He attempted to gain the trust of Federalists by continuing the national bank. (D) He showed that party was unimportant by appointing some Federalists to his cabinet. 2. Jefferson’s statement that “we are all Republicans, we are all Federalists’ is most directly refuted by his actions to (A) continue the neutrality policies of Adams (B) keep economic institutions established by Hamilton (C) attempt to impeach federal judges (D) purchase the Louisiana Territory 3. Jefferson’s call to avoid entangling alliances is similar to advice found in (A) the Declaration of Independence (B) The Federalist Papers (C) the Kentucky Resolutions (D) Washington’s Farewell Address TOPIC 4.2 THE RISE OF POLITICAL PARTIES AND THE ERA OF JEFFERSON 173 SHORT-ANSWER QUESTION Use complete sentences; an outline or bulleted list alone is not acceptable. 1. “The issue, then, is not whether Jefferson’s policies toward Louisiana were right or wrong but rather how he managed to implement decisions that defied in so many ways his long-standing commitment to limitations on executive power and the near-sacred character of republican principles Jefferson was not simply seized by power-hungry impulses once he assumed the presidency, since in a broad range of other policy areas he exhibited considerable discipline over the executive branch and habitual deference to the Congress;... he did not suddenly discover a pragmatic streak in his political philosophy,... he clung tenaciously to Jeffersonian principles despite massive evidence that they were at odds with reality.... The answer would seem to be the special, indeed almost mystical place the West had in his thinking.... For Jefferson more than any other major figure in the revolutionary generation, the West was America’s future.” Joseph J. Ellis, historian, American Sphinx, 1997 “The story of the Louisiana Purchase is one of strength, of Jefferson’s adaptability and, most important, his determination to secure the territory from France,... A slower or less courageous politician might have bungled the acquisition; an overly idealistic one might have lost it by insisting on strict constitutional scruples The philosophical Jefferson had believed an amendment necessary. The political Jefferson, however, was not going to allow theory to get in the way of reality.... [He] expanded the powers of the executive in ways that would have likely driven Jefferson to distraction had another man been president. Much of his political life, though, had been devoted to the study and the wise exercise of power. He did what had to be done to preserve the possibility of republicanism and progress. Things were neat only in theory. And despite his love of ideas and image of himself, Thomas Jefferson was as much a man of action as he was of theory.” Jon Meacham, historian, Thomas Jefferson: The Art of Power, 2012 Using the excerpts, answer (a), (b), and (c). (a) Briefly explain ONE major difference between Ellis’s and Meacham’s historical interpretations of how Thomas Jefferson came to approve the Louisiana Purchase. (b) Briefly explain how ONE historical event or development in the period 1787 to 1803 that is not explicitly mentioned in the excerpts could be used to support Ellis’s interpretation. (c) Briefly explain how ONE historical event or development in the period 1787 to 1803 that is not explicitly mentioned in the excerpts could be used to support Meacham’s interpretation. 174 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP' EDITION