John T. Hansen - Netterâ__s Anatomy Coloring Book (2014, Saunders) - libgen.li.pdf

      This page intentionally left blank       Netter’s Anatomy Coloring Book 2nd Edition John T. Hansen, PhD Professor of Neurobiology and Anatomy Associate Dean for Admissions University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry Rochester, New York ARTISTS Art based on the works o...

      This page intentionally left blank       Netter’s Anatomy Coloring Book 2nd Edition John T. Hansen, PhD Professor of Neurobiology and Anatomy Associate Dean for Admissions University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry Rochester, New York ARTISTS Art based on the works of the Frank H. Netter, MD, collection www.netterimages.com Modified for coloring by Carlos A.G. Machado, MD and Dragonfly Media Group 1600 John F. Kennedy Blvd. Ste 1800 Philadelphia, PA 19103-2899 NETTER’S ANATOMY COLORING BOOK, SECOND EDITION ISBN: 978-0-323-18798-5 Copyright © 2014 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be produced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Permissions for Netter Art figures may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Health Science Licensing Department in Philadelphia PA, USA: phone 1-800-523-1649, ext. 3276 or (215) 239-3276; or email [email protected]. Notice Neither the Publisher nor the Editor assumes any responsibility for any loss or injury and/or damage to persons or property arising out of or related to any use of the material contained in this book. It is the responsibility of the treating practitioner, relying on independent expertise and knowledge of the patient, to determine the best treatment and method of application for the patient. The Publisher ISBN: 978-0-323-18798-5 Senior Content Strategist: Elyse O’Grady Senior Content Development Specialist: Marybeth Thiel Publishing Services Manager: Patricia Tannian Senior Project Manager: John Casey Senior Book Designer: Lou Forgione Printed in United States of America Last digit is the print number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 For Amy, daughter, wife, mother, and physician, who colored her way through medical school and made me a believer... For Sean, son, husband, father, and engineer, who colored outside the lines and showed me his creativity... And, for Paula, wife, mother, grandmother, teacher, and soul mate, who understood the value of coloring and always gave us encouragement. About the Artists Frank H. Netter, MD Frank H. Netter was born in 1906, in New York City. He stud- The Netter illustrations are appreciated not only for their ied art at the Art Student’s League and the National Academy of aesthetic qualities, but, more important, for their intellectual con- Design before entering medical school at New York University, tent. As Dr. Netter wrote in 1949, “…clarification of a subject is where he received his MD degree in 1931. During his student years, the aim and goal of illustration. No matter how beautifully painted, Dr. Netter’s notebook sketches attracted the attention of the how delicately and subtly rendered a subject may be, it is of little medical faculty and other physicians, allowing him to augment his value as a medical illustration if it does not serve to make clear income by illustrating articles and textbooks. He continued illus- some medical point.” Dr. Netter’s planning, conception, point of trating as a sideline after establishing a surgical practice in 1933, view, and approach are what inform his paintings and what makes but he ultimately opted to give up his practice in favor of a full-time them so intellectually valuable. commitment to art. After service in the United States Army dur- Frank H. Netter, MD, physician and artist, died in 1991. ing World War II, Dr. Netter began his long collaboration with the Learn more about the physician-artist whose work has inspired CIBA Pharmaceutical Company (now Novartis Pharmaceuticals). the Netter Reference collection: This 45-year partnership resulted in the production of the extraor- http://www.netterimages.com/artist/netter.htm dinary collection of medical art so familiar to physicians and other Carlos A.G. Machado, MD medical professionals worldwide. Carlos Machado was chosen by Novartis to be Dr. Netter’s suc- In 2005, Elsevier, Inc. purchased the Netter Collection and all cessor. He continues to be the main artist who contributes to the publications from Icon Learning Systems. There are now over Netter collection of medical illustrations. 50 publications featuring the art of Dr. Netter available through Self-taught in medical illustration, cardiologist Carlos Machado Elsevier, Inc. (in the US: www.us.elsevierhealth.com/Netter; out- has contributed meticulous updates to some of Dr. Netter’s origi- side the US: www.elsevierhealth.com). nal plates and has created many paintings of his own in the style Dr. Netter’s works are among the finest examples of the use of Netter as an extension of the Netter collection. Dr. Machado’s of illustration in the teaching of medical concepts. The 13-book photorealistic expertise and his keen insight into the physician/ Netter Collection of Medical Illustrations, which includes the patient relationship inform his vivid and unforgettable visual style. greater part of the more than 20,000 paintings created by Dr. Netter, His dedication to researching each topic and subject he paints became and remains one of the most famous medical works ever places him among the premier medical illustrators at work today. published. The Netter Atlas of Human Anatomy, first published in Learn more about his background and see more of his art at: 1989, presents the anatomical paintings from the Netter Collec- http://www.netterimages.com/artist/machado.htm tion. Now translated into 16 languages, it is the anatomy atlas of choice among medical and health professions students the world over. vi Netter’s Anatomy Coloring Book PREFACE: HOW TO USE THIS BOOK Human anatomy is a fascinating and complex subject, and one ­Anatomy—the sources of the original full-color, fully labeled that is interesting to virtually every one of us. Learning anatomy ­illustrations—for your further review and reference. In each color- does not have to be difficult and can actually be enjoyable. ing book plate, the most important structures are emphasized. The Exploring human anatomy in a simple, systematic, and fun way is coloring exercises, labels, text, bullet points of essential material, what the Netter’s Anatomy Coloring Book is all about. This coloring and tables are provided to help you understand why the carefully book is for students of all ages; curiosity is the only prerequisite! chosen views of the human body are important both anatomically The images in Netter’s Anatomy Coloring Book are based and functionally. I intentionally did not over-label each image on the famous beautifully rendered medical illustrations of hu- because I want you to focus on the most important aspects of the man anatomy by Frank H. Netter, MD, as compiled in his Atlas anatomy; however, this is your coloring book! Feel free to color of Human Anatomy. This anatomy atlas is the most widely used everything you wish; add your own labels as desired; cover struc- anatomy atlas in the world and is translated into 16 different lan- tures to quiz yourself; in short, use each image as creatively as guages, and with good reason. The Netter illustrations have with- you wish to enhance your learning experience. In most cases, I let stood the test of time and have illuminated human anatomy for you choose the colors you want but would encourage you to color millions of students around the world. arteries bright red, veins blue, muscles reddish-brown, nerves Why use an anatomy coloring book? The best reason, in my ­yellow, and lymph nodes green, as these are common colors used opinion, is because “active learning” always trumps passive learn- in most color atlases of anatomy. Finally, I think you probably will ing. Seeing, doing, and learning go hand-in-hand; said another find that colored pencils work best; but if crayons, colored pens, way, “eye to hand to mind to memory.” This is how most of us highlighters, or markers are your preferred medium, by all means learn best. Textbooks, flash cards, videos, and anatomy atlases all use them! Most of all, have fun learning anatomy—after all, it is have their place in learning human anatomy, but those elements your anatomy too! that engage us the most and allow us to participate in an active learning experience “cement” the material into our memory. The Netter’s Anatomy Coloring Book approaches human John T. Hansen, PhD anatomy by body system. Footnotes to the illustrated pages ­refer to Dr. Netter’s Atlas of Human Anatomy and Netter’s Clinical Netter’s Anatomy Coloring Book vii This page intentionally left blank        Contents Chapter 1 Orientation and Introduction 1-1 Terminology 3-13 Muscles of the Male Inguinal Region 1-2 Body Planes and Terms of Relationship 3-14 Muscles of the Posterior Abdominal Wall 1-3 Movements 3-15 Muscles of the Pelvis 1-4 The Cell 3-16 Muscles of the Perineum 1-5 Epithelial Tissues 3-17 Posterior Shoulder Muscles 1-6 Connective Tissues 3-18 Anterior Shoulder Muscles 1-7 Skeleton 3-19 Arm Muscles 1-8 Joints 3-20 Pronation and Supination of the Radio-ulnar Joints 1-9 Synovial Joints 3-21 Anterior Forearm Muscles 1-10 Muscle 3-22 Posterior Forearm Muscles 1-11 Nervous System 3-23 Intrinsic Hand Muscles 1-12 Skin (Integument) 3-24 Summary of Upper Limb Muscles 1-13 Body Cavities 3-25 Gluteal Muscles 3-26 Posterior Thigh Muscles Chapter 2 Skeletal System 3-27 Anterior Thigh Muscles 3-28 Medial Thigh Muscles 2-1 Bone Structure and Classification 3-29 Anterior and Lateral Leg Muscles 2-2 External Features of the Skull  3-30 Posterior Leg Muscles 2-3 Internal Features of the Skull  3-31 Intrinsic Foot Muscles 2-4 Mandible and Temporomandibular Joint 3-32 Summary of Lower Limb Muscles 2-5 Vertebral Column 2-6 Cervical and Thoracic Vertebrae 2-7 Lumbar, Sacral, and Coccygeal Vertebrae Chapter 4 Nervous System 2-8 Thoracic Cage 4-1 Neuronal Structure 2-9 Joints and Ligaments of the Spine 4-2 Glial Cells 2-10 Pectoral Girdle and Arm 4-3 Types of Synapses 2-11 Shoulder Joint 4-4 Cerebrum 2-12 Forearm and Elbow Joint 4-5 Cortical Connections 2-13 Wrist and Hand 4-6 Midsagittal and Basal Brain Anatomy 2-14 Wrist and Finger Joints and Movements 4-7 Basal Ganglia 2-15 Pelvic Girdle 4-8 Limbic System 2-16 Hip Joint 4-9 Hippocampus 2-17 Thigh and Leg Bones 4-10 Thalamus 2-18 Knee Joint 4-11 Hypothalamus 2-19 Bones of the Ankle and Foot 4-12 Cerebellum 2-20 Ankle and Foot Joints 4-13 Spinal Cord I Chapter 3 Muscular System 4-14 Spinal Cord II 4-15 Spinal and Peripheral Nerves 3-1 Muscles of Facial Expression 4-16 Dermatomes 3-2 Muscles of Mastication 4-17 Brain Ventricles 3-3 Extrao-cular Muscles 4-18 Subarachnoid Space 3-4 Muscles of the Tongue and Palate 4-19 Sympathetic Division of the ANS 3-5 Muscles of the Pharynx and Swallowing 4-20 Parasympathetic Division of the ANS 3-6 Intrinsic Muscles of the Larynx and Phonation 4-21 Enteric Nervous System 3-7 Muscles of the Neck 4-22 Cranial Nerves 3-8 Prevertebral Muscles 4-23 Visual System I 3-9 Superficial and Intermediate Back Muscles 4-24 Visual System II 3-10 Deep (Intrinsic) Back Muscles 4-25 Auditory and Vestibular Systems I 3-11 Thoracic Wall Muscles 4-26 Auditory and Vestibular Systems II 3-12 Anterior Abdominal Wall Muscles 4-27 Taste and Olfaction Netter’s Anatomy Coloring Book ix Contents 4-28 Cervical Plexus Chapter 8 Gastrointestinal System 4-29 Brachial Plexus 4-30 Lumbar Plexus 8-1 Overview 4-31 Sacral Plexus 8-2 Oral Cavity 8-3 Teeth  Chapter 5 Cardiovascular System 8-4 Pharynx and Esophagus  8-5 Peritoneal Cavity and Mesenteries  5-1 Composition of Blood 8-6 Stomach  5-2 General Organization 8-7 Small Intestine  5-3 Heart I 8-8 Large Intestine 5-4 Heart II 8-9 Liver  5-5 Heart III 8-10 Gallbladder and Exocrine Pancreas  5-6 Heart IV 5-7 Features of Arteries, Capillaries, and Veins Chapter 9 Urinary System 5-8 Head and Neck Arteries 5-9 Head Arteries 9-1 Overview of the Urinary System  5-10 Arteries of the Brain 9-2 Kidney  5-11 Veins of the Head and Neck 9-3 Nephron 5-12 Arteries of the Upper Limb 9-4 Renal Tubular Function 5-13 Arteries of the Lower Limb 9-5 Urinary Bladder and Urethra  5-14 Thoracic and Abdominal Aorta 5-15 Arteries of the Gastrointestinal Tract Chapter 10 Reproductive System 5-16 Arteries of the Pelvis and Perineum 10-1 Overview of the Female Reproductive System  5-17 Veins of the Thorax 10-2 Ovaries and Uterine Tubes 5-18 Veins of the Abdominopelvic Cavity 10-3 Uterus and Vagina  5-19 Portosystemic Anastomoses 10-4 Menstrual Cycle 5-20 Veins of the Upper Limb 10-5 Female Breast  5-21 Veins of the Lower Limb 10-6 Overview of the Male Reproductive System  5-22 Prenatal and Postnatal Circulation 10-7 Testis and Epididymis  10-8 Male Urethra and Penis  Chapter 6 Lymphatic System 6-1 General Organization of the Lymphatic System Chapter 11 Endocrine System 6-2 Innate Immunity 11-1 Overview  6-3 Adaptive Immunity 11-2 Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland  6-4 Thymus and Bone Marrow 11-3 Pituitary Gland 6-5 Spleen 11-4 Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands 6-6 Tonsils, BALT, GALT, and MALT 11-5 Adrenal Glands 6-7 Clinical Aspects of the Lymphatic System 11-6 Pancreas 11-7 Puberty Chapter 7 Respiratory System 11-8 Digestive System Hormones 7-1 Overview 7-2 Nasal Cavity and Nasopharynx 7-3 Paranasal Sinuses 7-4 Oropharynx, Laryngopharynx, and Larynx 7-5 Trachea and Lungs 7-6 Respiratory Mechanisms x Netter’s Anatomy Coloring Book  1 Chapter 1 Orientation and Introduction 1 Terminology Anatomy requires a clinical vocabulary that defines position, Regions of the body are defined by using the original Latin or movements, relationships, and planes of reference. By conven- Greek terms, although current usage in English-speaking countries tion, anatomical descriptions of the human body are based on a uses more familiar terms. Regardless, some of the original terms person standing in the “anatomical position.” This position is are still used and seen in textbooks. The images on Plate 1-1 defined as: show some of the major regions and specific areas of the human Standing erect and facing forward body that are commonly used in anatomy and clinical settings. Arms hanging at the sides, palms facing forward Legs placed together, feet slightly apart and directed forward COLOR the major regions, beginning with the head and working inferiorly to the lower limb, using a different color for each region: n 1. Head (cephalon) n 2. Neck (cervicis) n 3. Thorax (chest) n 4. Abdomen n 5. Pelvis n 6. Upper limb n 7. Lower limb Plate 1-1 See Netter’s Clinical Anatomy, 3rd Edition, Figure 1-1 Orientation and Introduction  Terminology 1 Forehead Cheek (buccal) 1 Otic (ear) Nasus (nose) Oris (mouth) 2 Mentis (chin) Shoulder 3 Mamma Dorsum (back) Axilla (armpit) (breast) Brachium (arm) 4 Trunk Loin Umbilicus Olecranon Antebrachium 6 (back of (forearm) (navel) elbow) 5 Carpus (wrist) Pollex Manus (thumb) (hand) Palm (palmar) Gluteus (buttocks) Digits Groin (fingers) Thigh Pubis 7 Popliteus Patella (kneecap) (back of knee) Calf Crus (leg) Calcaneus (heel of foot) Tarsus (ankle) Pes (foot) Plantus (sole of foot) Digits (toes) Halux (great toe) B. Posterior A. Anterior Netter’s Anatomy Coloring Book Plate 1-1 1 Body Planes and Terms of Relationship Anatomical descriptions are referenced to one of four body planes that pass through the human body in anatomical position. TERM DESCRIPTION The four planes include the following: Anterior (ventral) Nearer the front The median plane, also known as the median sagittal or Posterior (dorsal) Nearer the back midsagittal plane, is a vertical plane that passes through the Superior (cranial) Upward or nearer the head center of the body, dividing it into equal right and left halves. Inferior (caudal) Downward or nearer the feet Sagittal planes, other than the median sagittal plane, are ­vertical planes that are parallel to the median sagittal plane Medial Toward the midline or median plane and are often called parasagittal planes. Lateral Farther from the midline or median plane Frontal planes, also known as the coronal planes, are vertical Proximal Near to a reference point planes that pass through the body and divide it into anterior Distal Away from a reference point (front) and posterior (back) sections. Superficial Closer to the surface Transverse planes, also known as cross sections, horizontal, or Deep Farther from the surface axial planes, are planes that are at right angles to the sagittal and frontal planes and divide the body into superior and Median plane Divides body into equal right and left halves inferior sections. Midsagittal plane Median plane Sagittal plane Divides body into unequal right and left halves Also, when anatomists or physicians refer to right and left, it Frontal (coronal) plane Divides body into equal or unequal anterior and is always the person or patient’s right and left side that we are posterior parts referring to, NOT your right or left side. Transverse plane Divides body into equal or unequal superior and inferior parts (cross sections or axial sections) COLOR the three planes shown on the figure using different colors. n 1. Median plane (median sagittal) n 2. Frontal plane n 3. Transverse plane Plate 1-2 See Netter’s Clinical Anatomy, 3rd Edition, Figure 1-2 Orientation and Introduction  Body Planes and Terms of Relationship 1 A. Body Planes 1 2 B. Terms of Relationship Superior Right Left 3 Cranial Medial Lateral Proximal Dorsal or posterior Proximal Distal Caudal Ventral or anterior Distal Inferior Netter’s Anatomy Coloring Book Plate 1-2 1 Movements Body movements occur at the joints, the points of articulation ­between two or more adjacent skeletal elements. Generally, n   5. Flexion (F) and extension (E) at the elbow when we refer to body movements we are focusing on move- n   6. Flexion (F) and extension (E) at the wrist ments about a joint that occur from the contraction (physical n   7. Pronation (P): rotation of the radius about the ulna shortening) of skeletal muscle. These contractions result in the in the forearm causes the palm to face posteriorly movement of a limb, the bending of the spine, the fine move- (in anatomical position) or inferiorly (if hand held ments of our fingers, or the tensing of our vocal cords for speak- forward with the palm upward) ing (phonation). Of course, many other types of movements also n   7. Supination (S): opposite of pronation; causes the occur throughout the body, but the major movements about the palm to face anteriorly or superiorly joints are highlighted in the following list and illustrated. n   8. Flexion (F) and extension (E) at the knee joint n   9. Circumduction (C): movement in space that COLOR the circle on the images corresponding to the circumscribes a circle or cone about a joint numbered movement in the following list, using a different (circumduction of the lower limb at the hip joint is color for each movement. Note that the letter abbreviation illustrated) of the movement (e.g., F = flexion) is shown in the circle and corresponds to the key in the list below. n 10. Dorsiflexion (DF): lifting the foot at the ankle joint (similar to extension at the wrist, but at the ankle it n   1. Abduction (AB): movement away from a central is referred to as dorsiflexion rather than extension) reference point n 10. Plantarflexion (PF): a downward movement or n   1. Adduction (AD): movement toward a central depression of the foot at the ankle (similar to wrist reference point; the opposite of abduction flexion) n   1. Lateral rotation (L): turning a bone or limb around n 11. Eversion (EV): movement of the sole of the foot its long axis laterally or away from the midline laterally n   1. Medial rotation (M): opposite of lateral rotation; n 11. Inversion (I): movement of the sole of the foot turning medially toward the midline medially n   2. Flexion (F): usually a movement that decreases the n 12. Retraction (R): posterior displacement of a portion joint’s angle of the body without a change in angular movement n   2. Extension (E): usually a movement that increases n 12. Protraction (PT): anterior displacement of a portion the joint’s angle; the opposite of flexion of the body without a change in angular movement n   3. Elevation (EL): lifting superiorly, as in shrugging your shoulders n   3. Depression (D): a movement of a portion of the body inferiorly n   4. Flexion (F) and extension (E) of the spine (as it relates to the spine, flexion decreases the angle between the vertebral bodies and extension increases this angle). When we bend forward we flex our spine, and when we bend backward to arch our back we are extending our spine. Plate 1-3 See Netter’s Clinical Anatomy, 3rd Edition, Figure 1-3 Orientation and Introduction  Movements 1 EL F AB L E D AD M 3 AD F AB M L E 1 2 E S P E F 7 6 F F 5 E 4 F 8 E DF EV I R PT C 10 PF 11 12 9 Netter’s Anatomy Coloring Book Plate 1-3 1 The Cell The cell is the basic unit, structurally and functionally, of all of the body’s tissues. Like people, cells come in many different n   5. Mitochondria: produce ATP via oxidative phosphorylation for energy. Mitochondria possess varieties, but, also like people, almost all cells share many basic an outer membrane and a folded inner membrane. internal structures that we call organelles. Organelles function cooperatively in a variety of ways that allow the cell and tis- n   6. Lysosomes: vesicles containing digestive enzymes sues to perform their unique functions. Depending upon the n   7. Endoplasmic reticulum: membranous network in type of cell, some will contain more of one type or another of the cytoplasm, studded with ribosomes for protein an ­organelle or inclusion (unlike organelles, inclusions are not synthesis (rough ER, 7A) or lacking ribosomes and ­surrounded by a membrane). involved with lipid and steroid synthesis (smooth ER, 7B) n   8. Centrioles: paired bundle-like inclusions essential for chromosome movement in cell division COLOR each of these 13 cellular components, using different colors, noting their morphology and function as you n   9. Nucleolus: condensation of RNA and proteins within the nucleus do so. n 10. Cell nucleus: membrane-surrounded (inner n   1. Peroxisomes: smaller vesicles containing enzymes and outer membranes) structure that contains that degrade hydrogen peroxide and fatty acids chromosomes, enzymes, and RNA. The nuclear n   2. Golgi apparatus: flattened stacks of membranes membrane, or envelope, is perforated by small that modify and package proteins and lipids for nuclear pores. intracellular or extracellular use n 11. Ribosomes: RNA and proteins, both free and n   3. Plasma membrane: the “cell” membrane, composed attached to rough ER. Ribosomes are involved in of a lipid bilayer that functions in protection, protein synthesis by translating the amino acid secretion, uptake, sensitivity, adhesion, and protein coding under the direction of mRNA. support. The plasma membrane also can fuse with a secretory vesicle to release its contents, called n 12. Microfilaments: inclusions that provide strength and support for the cell exocytosis, or take up extracellular substances in a process called pinocytosis. The membrane also may n 13. Microtubules: inclusions that comprise the cytoskeleton and assist in intracellular transport possess specialized receptors along its surface. n   4. Cytoplasm: the aqueous matrix of the cell outside of the nucleus, containing inorganic ions, organic molecules, intermediate metabolites, carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and RNA Plate 1-4 Orientation and Introduction  The Cell 1 3 4 2 5 1 6 13 1 13 7B 12 12 7A 11 8 Cell sliced open 11 on right side to 10 9 view interior 3 Netter’s Anatomy Coloring Book Plate 1-4 1 Epithelial Tissues The epithelial cells form one of the four basic tissue types found in the human body (the other three are connective tissue, muscle COLOR examples of the eight types of epithelia typically tissue, and nervous tissue). The epithelium covers the body seen in tissues and organs: ­surfaces; lines the body cavities, the ducts of organs and glands, n   4. Simple squamous: lines body cavities and the vasculature, and organs; and forms the secretory portions vasculature, offering a barrier to transport or of glands. Adjacent epithelial cells may form tight junctions functioning as an exchange system, often by simple between their cells and provide a barrier function; the cells may diffusion participate in absorption or ­secretion and/or possess the ability n   5. Simple cuboidal: lines ducts of glands and kidney to distend and spread out along an expanded surface (the epi- tubules, offering a passageway with or without the thelium lining of the distended urinary bladder). The epithelium ability for absorption and secretion rests on a basement membrane. n   6. Simple columnar: lines much of the gastrointestinal system, offering a surface for absorption and Epithelium is classified based on the number of cell layers that secretion comprise a tissue and includes: Simple epithelium: one cell layer in thickness n   7. Pseudostratified: trachea, bronchi of the lungs, and Stratified epithelium: two or more cell layers in thickness ductus deferens, offering a passageway with or without barrier or secretory functions Additionally, epithelium is described based on the shape of the n   8. Stratified squamous: the skin, oral cavity, esophagus individual epithelial cells. and vagina, offering a protective surface; the skin may have a protective layer of keratin overlying the epithelium COLOR the three types of epithelium based on cell shape: n   9. Stratified cuboidal: ducts of sweat glands and other n 1. Squamous: thin, flattened cells; the width of each cell large exocrine glands, offering a conduit and/or is greater than its height a barrier to transport n 2. Cuboidal: “cubes” of cells; width, depth, and height of n 10. Stratified columnar: large ducts of exocrine glands, each cell are approximately equal offering a conduit and barrier n 3. Columnar: taller, cylindrical cells; the height of each n 11. Transitional: lines the urinary system, offering cell is greater than its width a conduit and the ability to distend The combination of cell layers and shapes combine to give six ­ ifferent kinds of epithelia, plus two specialized types called d pseudostratified and transitional, for a total of eight types of epithelia. Clinical Note: In adults, the most common types of cancer (neoplasm) originate in epithelial cells, and are called carcinomas. Tumors may be benign or malignant and usually undergo a precancerous change described as dysplasia (abnormal development) or metaplasia (abnormal transformation). Plate 1-5 Orientation and Introduction    Epithelial Tissues 1 3 BM: Basement membrane CT: Connective tissue 2 1 6 BM CT 5 Keratin 4 BM CT 9 BM CT 8 7 CT BM 11 BM CT BM 10 CT Netter’s Anatomy Coloring Book Plate 1-5 1 Connective Tissues Connective tissue comprises a diverse group of specialized cells and tissues. Connective tissues function in: COLOR each of most common cellular elements in Support connective tissue, using a different color for each type, as Transport they appear in the different varieties of connective tissue: Storage n 1. Plasma cells: secrete immunoglobulins and are Immune defense derived from B lymphocytes Thermoregulation n 2. Macrophages: phagocytic cells (engulf pathogens and cell debris) derived from monocytes in the blood Two major groupings of connective tissues are recognized: Connective tissue proper: includes loose and dense n 3. Lymphocytes: the principal cells of the immune system connective tissue (arranged in either an irregular or a regular conformation) n 4. Mast cells: respond early to immune challenges Specialized connective tissue: includes cartilage, bone, and secrete powerful vasoactive and chemotactic ­adipose tissue (fat), hemopoietic tissue, blood, and lymph substances n 5. Adipocytes: store and release triglycerides as needed Connective tissue proper includes a variety of cell types and by the body (fat cells), and produce hormones and fibers enmeshed in a ground substance that comprises an growth factors ­extracellular matrix. Loose connective tissue is found largely ­under epithelia lining both the body’s surface and its ­internal n 6. Fibroblasts: abundant cells that synthesize all the fibrous elements and elaborate the matrix organ systems. Along with the skin, it is often the first line of defense against infection. Dense connective tissue has n 7. Eosinophils: respond to allergens and parasitic infections, and are phagocytes many fibers but few cells and includes tendons, ligaments, the ­submucosa, and reticular layers that offer support. n 8. Myofibroblasts: are capable of contraction and function similar to fibroblasts and smooth muscle The fibrous elements in connective tissue include: cells Collagen fibers: numerous in connective tissues; offer flexibility n 9. Neutrophils: respond to injury and immune and strength challenges, and are capable of phagocytosis Elastic fibers: interwoven fibers that offer flexibility and retain their shape if stretched Reticular fibers: thinner collagen fibers that provide strength but are the least common of the fibrous elements Clinical Note: Tumors of the connective tissues are called sarcomas. Although there are over 25 different types of collagen, types I through IV are the most common. Type I accounts for 90% of the body’s collagen and is common in the skin, muscle tendons, ligaments, and bone. Type II collagen is found in cartilage. Type III collagen is found in loose connective tissue and forms a loose reticular meshwork or supportive scaffold for the tissues and organs. Type IV collagen is found in the basement membrane supporting the epithelium. Plate 1-6 Orientation and Introduction  Connective Tissues 1 Collagen fibers Reticular fibers 1 Ground substance Blood 2 vessel 6 3 7 8 4 4 2 Red blood cells in capillary 5 3 Elastic fibers 9 A. Connective tissue proper Chondrocytes 6 (cartilage cells) 5 B. Adipose C. Tendon D. Cartilage Netter’s Anatomy Coloring Book Plate 1-6 1 Skeleton The human skeleton is divided into two descriptive regions: axial bones possess a central cavity that contains bone marrow, a and appendicular. collection of hemopoietic (blood-forming) cells. Most individual bones can be classified into one of five shapes. COLOR each skeleton region a different color to differentiate them from one another: COLOR using a different color for each shape, the five n 1. Axial skeleton: the bones of the skull, vertebral different types of bones: column (spine), ribs, and sternum (they form the “axis” or central line of the body) n 3. Flat bone n 4. Irregular bone n 2. Appendicular skeleton: the bones of the limbs, including the pectoral (shoulder) and pelvic girdles n 5. Short bone (they comprise the upper and lower limbs that attach n 6. Long bone to the axial skeleton) n 7. Sesamoid bone The axial skeleton includes 80 bones: Functions of the skeletal system and bones include: The skull and associated bones (auditory ossicles and hyoid Support bone) account for 29 bones Protecting vital tissues or organs The thoracic cage (sternum and ribs) accounts for 25 bones Providing a mechanism, along with muscles, for movement The vertebral column accounts for 26 bones Storing calcium Providing a supply of blood cells The appendicular skeleton includes 134 bones: The pectoral girdle (paired clavicles and scapulae) accounts for Most articular surfaces of bone are covered by hyaline cartilage, 4 bones the most common type of cartilage. A second type of cartilage The upper limbs account for 64 bones is fibrocartilage and it is found where more support is needed The pelvic girdle (coxal or hip bone) accounts for 2 bones (meniscus of the knee joint, intervertebral discs between the The lower limbs account for 64 bones bodies of the vertebrae). The third type of cartilage is elastic cartilage and it is found where flexibility is needed (auricle of The skeletal system is composed of a living, dynamic, rigid the ear, epiglottis). ­connective tissue that forms the bones and cartilages of the human skeleton. Although we say the skeleton has 214 bones (including 8 sesamoid bones of the hands and feet), Clinical Note: this ­number may actually vary somewhat. Cartilage is attached Osteoporosis (porous bone) is the most common bone disease to some bones, especially where flexibility is important, and results from an imbalance in bone resorption and formation, and covers many of the articular (joint) surfaces of bones. which places the bones at great risk for fracture. Approximately About 99% of the body’s calcium is stored in bones, and many 10 million Americans (80% of them women) have osteoporosis. Plate 1-7 See Netter’s Clinical Anatomy, 3rd Edition, Figure 1-6 Orientation and Introduction  Skeleton 1 3 Parietal bone (skull) 1 6 4 Humerus (arm bone) Vertebra 2 5 7 Patella (kneecap) Wrist bones (carpals) Netter’s Anatomy Coloring Book Plate 1-7 1 Joints Joints are articulations between bones. Three types of joints are Generally, the more movement that occurs at a joint, the more identified in humans: vulnerable that joint is to injury or dislocation. Joints that allow Fibrous (synarthroses): bones joined by fibrous connective little or no movement offer greater support and strength. tissue (examples include sutures of some skull bones, fibrous connections between some long bones, and gomphoses Clinical Note: [teeth in the jaw]) Osteoarthritis is characterized by the progressive loss of articular Cartilaginous (amphiarthroses): bones joined by either carti- cartilage and failure of repair. It can affect any synovial joint but lage or cartilage and fibrous tissue; include primary (epiphysial most often involves the foot, hip, spine, and hand. Once the plates of growing bones) and secondary types (intervertebral articular cartilage is degraded and lost, the exposed bony sur- disc between adjacent vertebra of the spine) faces, called the subchondral (beneath the cartilage) bone, rub Synovial (diarthroses): bones joined by a joint cavity filled against one another, undergo some remodeling, and often cause with synovial fluid, surrounded by a capsule, with articular significant pain. cartilage covering the opposed surfaces COLOR the following features of each of the three major types of joints: n 1. Suture: a type of fibrous joint that allows little movement n 2. Interosseous membrane: also a type of fibrous joint that permits some movement n 3. Epiphysial plate: a cartilaginous joint that is immovable n 4. Intervertebral disc: a cartilaginous joint that permits some movement n 5. Synovial joint: the most common type of joint, which permits a range of movements (color the fibrous capsule, synovial membrane, articular cartilage, and synovial joint cavity each a different color) Plate 1-8 See Netter’s Clinical Anatomy, 3rd Edition, Figure 1-8 Orientation and Introduction  Joints 1 Coronal suture Ulna 1 Radius Compact bone 2 A. Synarthrosis (skull) Diploë Compact bone B. Fibrous Head of femur C. Syndesmosis 3 Body of vertebra Femur 4 D. Primary cartilaginous Fibrous capsule 5 Synovial membrane F. Secondary cartilaginous Joint cavity Articular cartilage E. Synovial joint Netter’s Anatomy Coloring Book Plate 1-8 1 Synovial Joints Generally, synovial joints offer considerable movement. They Within the synovial joint cavity a small amount of synovial fluid, are classified according to their shape and the type of move- a filtrate of blood flowing in the capillaries of the synovial ment that they permit (uniaxial, biaxial, or multiaxial; movements ­membrane, lubricates the joint. This fluid has the consistency in one, two, or multiple planes, respectively). The six types of of albumen (egg white). synovial joints include: Hinge (ginglymus): uniaxial joints that permit flexion and As muscles pass over a joint, their tendons may be cushioned ­extension, similar to the elbow joint by a fibrous sac called a bursa, which is lined by a synovial Pivot (trachoid): uniaxial joints that permit rotation, similar ­membrane (synovium) and contains a small amount of synovial to the joint between the atlas and axis (first two cervical fluid. These fluid-filled “bags” cushion the tendon as it slides ­vertebrae) of the neck that pivots from side to side as if over the bone and acts like a ball bearing to reduce some of shaking your head to signify “no” the friction. Humans have over 150 bursae in different locations Saddle: biaxial joint for flexion, extension, abduction, adduc- in the subcutaneous tissues associated with muscle tendons, tion, and circumduction, similar to the joint at the base of the bones, and joints at sites where cushioning helps to protect the thumb (carpometacarpal joint) tendon. Condyloid (ellipsoid): biaxial joint for flexion, extension, abduc- tion, adduction, and circumduction, similar to the finger joints Clinical Note: Plane (gliding): joint for a simple gliding movement, similar Movement at the joint can lead to inflammation of the tendons to the joint at the shoulder between the clavicle and scapula surrounding the joint and secondary inflammation of the bursa (acromioclavicular joint) (bursitis) that cushions the joint and tendon. This inflammation Ball-and-socket (spheroid): multiaxial joint for flexion, is painful and can lead to a significant increase in the amount of ­extension, abduction, adduction, medial and lateral rotation, synovial fluid in the bursa. and circumduction, similar to the hip joint COLOR the distal bone of each joint, as it usually undergoes the greatest amount of movement when that synovial joint moves: n 1. Ulna of the elbow’s hinge joint n 2. Axis of the atlanto-axial pivot joint n 3. Metacarpal of the thumb’s saddle joint n 4. Tibia of the knee’s condyloid joint n 5. Femur of the hip’s ball-and-socket joint: acetabulum of the pelvis forms the “socket” of this joint n 6. Scapula of the acromioclavicular plane joint at the shoulder: plane joint between the acromion of the scapula and clavicle Plate 1-9 See Netter’s Clinical Anatomy, 3rd Edition, Figure 1-9 Orientation and Introduction  Synovial Joints 1 Dens Humerus Atlas 2 1 A. Hinge B. Pivot 3 Femur 4 Trapezium C. Saddle D. Condyloid Acetabulum Acromion Clavicle 5 6 E. Ball-and-socket F. Plane Netter’s Anatomy Coloring Book Plate 1-9 1 Muscle Muscle cells (fibers) produce contractions (shorten in length) Skeletal muscle moves bones at their joints and possesses that result in movements, maintain posture, produce changes in an origin (the muscle’s fixed or proximal attachment) and an shape, or move fluids through hollow tissues or organs. There ­insertion (the muscle’s moveable or distal attachment). At are three different types of muscle: the gross level, the shape of the muscle allows anatomists to Skeletal: striated fibers that are attached to bone and are ­classify them. responsible for movement of the skeleton at its joints Cardiac: striated fibers that make up the walls of the heart Smooth: unstriated fibers that line various organs, attach to COLOR each of the five different conformations that hair follicles, and line blood vessels characterize the gross appearance of skeletal muscle. n 5. Fusiform: thick in the center and tapered at the ends Muscle contractions occur in response to nerve stimulation at neuromuscular junctions, to paracrine stimulation (by localized n 6. Quadrate: four-sided muscle release of various stimulating agents) in the local environment n 7. Flat: parallel fibers of the muscle, and to endocrine (via hormones) stimulation n 8. Circular: form sphincters that close off tubes (see Plate 11-1). n 9. Pennate: feathered in appearance (unipennate, bipennate, or multipennate forms) Skeletal muscle is divided into bundles or fascicles. These fascicles are composed of fibers. The fibers are composed of myofibrils, and myofibrils contain myofilaments. Cardiac muscle has similarly arranged myofilaments as skeletal muscle but also possesses other structural features that distinguish it from skeletal muscle. Moreover, cardiac COLOR the elements of skeletal muscle, using a different muscle has unique contraction properties, including an intrinsic color for each element: rhythmic contraction and specialized conduction features that n 1. Muscle fascicles: which are surrounded by a coordinate its contraction. connective tissue sheath known as the perimysium; epimysium is the connective tissue sheath that Smooth muscle usually occurs in bundles or sheets of elon- surrounds multiple fascicles to form a complete gated cells with a fusiform or tapered appearance. Smooth muscle “belly” muscle is specialized for slow, prolonged contraction, and it also can contract in a wavelike fashion known as peristalsis. n 2. Muscle fibers: which are composed of a muscle cell that is a syncytium because it is multinucleated (the In general, skeletal muscle does not undergo mitosis and muscle fibers are surrounded by the endomysium) responds to an increase demand by hypertrophy (increasing n 3. Muscle myofibrils: which are longitudinally oriented size but not numbers of cells). Cardiac muscle normally does and extend the full length of the muscle fiber cell not undergo mitosis and responds to an increased demand by n 4. Muscle myofilaments: which are the individual myosin hypertrophy. Smooth muscle can undergo mitosis and responds (thick filaments) and actin (thin filaments) filaments to an increased demand by hypertrophy and hyperplasia that slide over one another during muscle contraction ­(increase in cell number). It also has the ability to regenerate. Plate 1-10 See Netter’s Clinical Anatomy, 3rd Edition, Figure 1-10 Orientation and Introduction  Muscle 1 B. Structure of Skeletal Muscle Nuclei Bone Basement Muscle mebrane Tendon Sarcolemma Sarcoplasm Muscle belly 2 Tendon Bone Endomysium 3 1 Perimysium Epimysium 4 A. Arm muscle (fusiform) D. Skeletal Muscle Shapes Orbicularis oris Biceps Deltoid brachii External oblique Flexor 5 6 7 8 pollicis longus Pronator quadratus Rectus femoris 9 C. Examples of different muscle shapes Netter’s Anatomy Coloring Book Plate 1-10 1 Nervous System The nervous system integrates and regulates many body Peripheral nerves arise from the spinal cord and form networks ­activities, sometimes at discrete locations (specific targets) of nerves; each network is called a plexus. The 31 pairs of spinal and sometimes more globally. The nervous system usually nerves contribute to four major nerve plexuses. acts quite rapidly and can also modulate effects of the endocrine and ­immune systems. COLOR the four major nerve plexuses formed by the spinal The nervous system comprises two structural divisions: nerves, using a different color for each plexus: Central nervous system (CNS) (brain and spinal cord) n 5. Cervical plexus: largely innervates muscles of the Peripheral nervous system (PNS) (somatic, autonomic, and neck enteric nerves in the periphery) n 6. Brachial plexus: largely innervates muscles of the shoulder and upper limb The brain includes the: Cerebral cortex: highest center for sensory and motor n 7. Lumbar plexus: largely innervates muscles of the ­processing anterior and medial thigh Diencephalon: includes the thalamus (relay and processing) n 8. Lumbosacral plexus: largely innervates muscles of and hypothalamus (emotions, autonomic control, and hormone the buttock, pelvis, perineum, and lower limb production) Cerebellum: coordinates smooth motor activities and ­processes muscle position Brainstem (midbrain, pons, and medulla): conveys motor and sensory information and mediates important autonomic ­functions COLOR the subdivisions of the cerebral cortex, using a different color for each lobe: n 1. Cortex, frontal lobe: processes motor, visual, speech, and personality modalities n 2. Cortex, parietal lobe: processes sensory information n 3. Cortex, temporal lobe: processes language, auditory, and memory modalities n 4. Cortex, occipital lobe: processes vision Plate 1-11 See Netter’s Clinical Anatomy, 3rd Edition, Figures 1-17 and 1-22 Orientation and Introduction  Nervous System 1 2 Central nervous system (CNS) 1 Brain 4 Spinal cord 3 Peripheral nervous B. Brain system (PNS) C1 vertebra (atlas) C7 vertebra 5 1st rib 6 T12 vertebra 7 L5 vertebra Sacrum 8 (cut away) Coccyx A. Central and peripheral nervous systems C. Spinal cord and spinal nerves Netter’s Anatomy Coloring Book Plate 1-11 1 Skin (Integument) The skin is the largest organ in the body, accounting for about than the papillary layer. Deep within the dermis and subcutaneous 15% to 20% of the total body mass. The skin consists of two tissue lie atriovenous shunts that participate in thermoregulation layers: epidermis and dermis. along with the sweat glands. COLOR the brackets that delineate the two layers of the COLOR the epidermal skin appendages found in the dermal skin, using two different colors: layer: n 1. Epidermis: an outer protective layer consisting of a n 7. Sebaceous glands keratinized stratified squamous epithelium derived n 8. Hair follicles from embryonic ectoderm n 9. Sweat glands (several types) n 2. Dermis: a dense connective tissue layer that gives skin most of its thickness and support and is derived Additionally, the dermis contains capillaries, specialized from embryonic mesoderm ­receptors and nerves, pigment cells, immune cells, and smooth muscle (arrector pili muscles attached to the hair follicles). The outer epidermal layer itself consists of four layers. Also, if you wish, color the small arteries and veins red and blue, respectively, and a nerve fiber yellow. Note that from this point COLOR the four layers of the epidermis, listed below from forward, arteries will always be colored red, veins blue, and outermost to innermost, using different colors than previously nerves yellow. used: Beneath the dermis lies a loose connective tissue layer, the n 3. Stratum corneum: an anuclear cell layer that is thick ­hypodermis or subcutaneous tissue (superficial fascia), of and contains flattened cells filled almost entirely with keratin filaments variable thickness that often contains a significant amount of adipose (fat) cells. n 4. Stratum granulosum: a layer one to three cells thick whose cells contain keratohyalin granules containing Skin functions include: a protein that will aggregate the keratin filaments of Protection, via both mechanical abrasion and immune the next layer ­responses n 5. Stratum spinosum: several cell layers thick and Temperature regulation, via vasodilatation or vasoconstriction, composed of cells with cytoplasmic processes, which and by sweat gland activity (water evaporation as a cooling they lose as they ascend toward the surface of the mechanism) skin Sensation, via touch (mechanoreceptors such as pacinian and n 6. Stratum basale: a single germinal cell layer that is Meissner’s corpuscles), pain (nociceptors), and temperature mitotically active and provides cells for the layers receptors (thermoreceptors) superficial to it Endocrine, via secretion of hormones, cytokines, and growth factors Exocrine, via secretion of sweat from sweat glands and oily The epidermis is renewed by cells from the basal layer that rise sebum from sebaceous glands up through the skin to the surface. Clinical Note: The dermis is divided into a papillary and reticular layer and Psoriasis is a chronic inflammatory skin disorder that affects contains epidermal skin appendages. Dermal papillae extend up approximately 1% to 3% of the population and is characterized into the underside of the epidermis and increase the surface area by defined red plaques, capped with a surface scale of desqua- for the attachment of the epidermis to the underlying dermal layer. mated epidermis. The reticular dermis lies deeper and is thicker and less cellular Plate 1-12 See Netter’s Clinical Anatomy, 3rd Edition, Figure 1-4 Orientation and Introduction  Skin (Integument) 1 Hair shaft Capillary loops of Arrector pili muscles dermal papillae 1 Superficial plexus 7 Sweat gland ducts 2 8 9 Dermal papilla (of papillary Arteriovenous layer) shunts 3 4 Subcutaneous 5 tissue Motor Deep dermal (autonomic) nerve plexus nerve 6 Cutaneous nerve Subcutaneous Subcutaneous artery vein Papillary A. Skin and appendages dermis Reticular dermis Blood vessels Sensory nerve B. Epidermis and dermis Netter’s Anatomy Coloring Book Plate 1-12 1 Body Cavities Organ systems and other visceral structures are often segre- gated into body cavities. These cavities can protect the viscera COLOR the two pleural cavities and the serous membrane and also may allow for some expansion and contraction in size. lining these cavities: Two major collections of body cavities are recognized: n 3. Parietal pleura: lines the thoracic walls and abuts the mediastinum medially Dorsal cavities: include the brain, surrounded by the meninges and bony cranium, and the spinal cord, surrounded by the n 4. Visceral pleura: encases the lungs themselves and reflects off of the lung surface to be continuous with same meninges as the brain and also surrounded by the the parietal pleura vertebral column Ventral cavities: include the thoracic and abdominopelvic n 5. Heart and its surrounding pericardium (5A) cavities, separated from each other by the abdominal diaphragm (skeletal muscle important in respiration) The abdominopelvic cavity also is lined by a serous membrane, The CNS (brain and spinal cord) is surrounded by three called the peritoneum, which likewise has a parietal and visceral ­ embranes (see Plate 4-18): m layer. Pia mater: a delicate, transparent inner layer that intimately covers the brain and spinal cord Arachnoid mater: a fine, weblike membrane beneath the outer COLOR the abdominopelvic cavity and its peritoneal dura mater membranes (see Plate 8-5): Dura mater: a thick, tough outermost layer that is vascularized n 6. Parietal peritoneum: lining the body walls and richly innervated by sensory nerve fibers n 7. Visceral peritoneum: reflects off of the body walls and covers the abdominal visceral (organs) structures COLOR the brain and spinal cord, using a different color for each and for their coverings: Clinical Note: n 1. Brain and its dural lining (1A) Each of these spaces—the pleural, pericardial, and peritoneal— n 2. Spinal cord and its dural lining (2A) are considered “potential” spaces, because between the parietal and visceral layers we usually find only a small amount of serous lubricating fluid that keeps the surfaces of the organs moist and The thoracic cavity contains two pleural cavities (right and left; slick. This lubrication reduces friction from movements, such as see Plate 7-5) and a single midline space called the mediastinum during respiration, the heartbeat, or peristalsis. However, during (middle space). The heart and structures lying posterior to it, inflammation or because of trauma, fluids can collect in these ­including the descending thoracic aorta and esophagus, lie spaces (pus or blood) and restrict movement of the viscera. In within the ­thoracic cavity. The heart itself resides in its sac, that case, these potential spaces become real spaces and may called the pericardial sac (see Plate 5-3), which also has a necessitate the removal of the offending fluid, to prevent compro- parietal and visceral layer. mise of organ function or exacerbation of an ongoing infection. Plate 1-13 See Netter’s Clinical Anatomy, 3rd Edition, Figure 1-31 Orientation and Introduction  Body Cavities 1 Parietal 1 pericardium 1 Visceral pericardium 1A Pleural cavity Pericardial 2 Pericardial cavity cavity Heart 2 Diaphragm 2A B. 6 1 Cross section 1A Diaphragm 2 Spinal cord in spinal cavity Mediastinum A. Dorsal and ventral cavities Esophagus Lung Lung Stomach Large intestine 7 Small intestine 2A 6 3 4 5 5A C. Dorsal and abdominopelvic cavities Netter’s Anatomy Coloring Book Plate 1-13 REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Write the correct term of relationship for each of the following: A. Nearer to the head: _________________________________________________________________________________________________ B. Closer to the surface: _______________________________________________________________________________________________ C. Divides body into equal right and left halves: ___________________________________________________________________________ 2. Which term below best describes the position of the hand when the palm is facing toward the ground? A. Abduction B. Extension C. Plantar flexion D. Pronation 3. A. Which intracellular organelle produces ATP? ___________________________________________________________________________ B. Which intracellular organelle has pores in its membrane? ________________________________________________________________ C. Which intracellular organelle is a condensation of RNA? _________________________________________________________________ 4. List the three types of epithelium based on cell shape. _____________________________________________________________________ 5. List the three types of joints found in humans. _____________________________________________________________________________ 6. List the three types of muscle found in humans. ___________________________________________________________________________ 7. What two structures comprise the central nervous system in humans? _______________________________________________________ 8. The spinal cord is covered by: (A) Pia mater, (B) Arachnoid mater, and (C) Dura mater. Using a red pencil, circle the covering that lies closest to the spinal cord. With a blue pencil, circle the layer that is richly innervated and vascularized. With a green pencil, circle the layer that lies between the other two layers. ANSWER KEY 1A. Superior (cranial) 1B. Superficial 1C. Median plane 2D. Pronation 3A. Mitochondria 3B. Nucleus 3C. Nucleolus 4. Squamous, cuboidal, columnar 5. Fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial 6. Skeletal, cardiac, smooth 7. Brain and spinal cord 8. Red: Pia mater Blue: Dura mater Green: Arachnoid mater  2 Chapter 2 Skeletal System 2 Bone Structure and Classification Bone is a specialized form of connective tissue, consisting of Thus it is a dynamic process just like any other living tissue in cells and matrix. The matrix is mineralized with calcium phos- the body. Three major types of cells participate in this process: phate (hydroxyapatite crystals), giving it a hard texture and serv- Osteoblasts: cells that form new bone by laying down osteoid ing as a significant reservoir for calcium. Bone is classified as: Osteocytes: mature bone cells, formerly osteoblasts, that Compact: dense bone that forms the outer layer of a bone become surrounded by bone matrix and are responsible for Spongy: cancellous bone that contains a meshwork of thin maintaining the bone matrix ­trabeculae or spicules of bone tissue, and is found in the Osteoclasts: large cells that enzymatically dissolve bone ma- epiphyses of and metaphyses of long bones trix and are commonly found at sites of active bone remodeling A typical long bone has the following structural elements: Diaphysis: the shaft of the bone COLOR the following features of compact bone: Epiphysis: two expanded ends of the bone that are covered n 9. Osteon by articular cartilage n 10. Vein (color blue) Metaphysis: lies between the diaphysis and epiphysis, and is a conical region adjacent to the area where active bone growth n 11. Artery (color red) will occur n 12. Lamellae of bone matrix: with osteocytes embedded Marrow cavity: the central portion of the shaft of many bones, within the lamellae it contains stem cells that produce blood cells n 13. Osteocytes COLOR each of the following features of a long bone, using An osteon (haversian system) is the cyclindrical unit of bone a different color for each feature: and consists of a central canal (haversian canal), which contains the neurovascular bundle supplying the osteon. This canal is n 1. Epiphysis (highlight the bracket) surrounded by concentric lamellae of bone matrix and radially n 2. Metaphysis (highlight the bracket) oriented small canaliculi that contain the processes of osteo- n 3. Diaphysis (highlight the bracket) cytes, which are the bone cells. Compact bone is organized into n 4. Articular cartilage (hyaline cartilage) these haversian systems, but spongy bone is trabecular and its arrangement is not nearly as concentric or uniformly organized n 5. Spongy bone (see left side of image B). n 6. Periosteum: a thin fibrous connective tissue sheath or capsule that surrounds the shaft of a bone but is not found on the articular surfaces, which are covered by Clinical Note: articular cartilage Rickets is a disease process in which calcium deficiency during n 7. Marrow cavity active growth leads to matrix formation that is not normally min- eralized with calcium. It can occur from a lack of dietary calcium, n 8. Compact bone vitamin D deficiency, or both, because vitamin D is necessary for the normal absorption of calcium by the small ­intestine. Bone formation occurs largely by the deposition of matrix (osteoid) that later becomes calcified, and by resorption of bone. Plate 2-1 Skeletal System  Bone Structure and Classification 2 4 1 5 2 6 7 9 Artery in 10 11 central canal 8 6 3 Central venous sinus Trabeculae of spongy bone 13 12 6 2 B. Fine structure of bone 1 4 A. Features of a long bone Netter’s Anatomy Coloring Book Plate 2-1 2 External Features of the Skull The skull is divided into the neurocranium or calvaria (contains the brain and its meningeal coverings) and the viscerocranium COLOR the bones of the facial skeleton (all paired bones (facial skeleton). The skull is composed of 22 bones (exclud- except the vomer and mandible), using different colors or ing the middle ear ossicles), with 8 forming the cranium and