Quipper Study Guide: Humanity and Responsibility (PDF)

UNIT # 6: Humanity and Responsibility Table of Contents Introduction 3 Lesson # 1: Choices: Life's Biggest Mystery Starting Out 5 Learn about It!...

UNIT # 6: Humanity and Responsibility Table of Contents Introduction 3 Lesson # 1: Choices: Life's Biggest Mystery Starting Out 5 Learn about It! 5 Check Your Understanding 8 Philosophy Applied 8 Who’s That Philosopher? 9 Lesson # 2: Choices in Real Life Starting Out 10 Learn about It! 10 Check Your Understanding 13 Philosophy Applied 13 Who’s That Philosopher? 14 Lesson # 3: The Ethical Questions (and their Obvious Answers) Starting Out 15 Learn about It! 15 Check Your Understanding 18 Philosophy Applied 18 Who’s That Philosopher? 19 Lesson # 4: The Ethical Questions (and a lot more Questions) Starting Out 20 1  Learn about It! 20 Check Your Understanding 23 Philosophy Applied 23 Who’s That Philosopher? 24 Lesson # 5: The Ethical Questions (and their Applications) Starting Out 25 Learn about It! 25 Check Your Understanding 28 Philosophy Applied 28 Who’s That Philosopher? 29 Be the Philosopher! 30 Philosophy and I: Check and Reflect 31 Wrap Up 31 Bibliography 33 Answers to Check your Understanding 33 Glossary 35 2 GRADE 11/12 | Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person UNIT # 6 Humanity and Responsibility There is a common saying, “No man is an island.” This suggests that a human being cannot survive alone, as an individual. At the start of our lives, when we are born, we already need help from our parents in order to stay alive. This saying also affirms that we can only continuously live with other human beings around us. However, a connection even with just another individual entails responsibility. There will be instances when you cannot just do absolutely everything you want, and you’ll find yourself more and more into these instances as you grow into maturity. You cannot just skip school because you feel like staying in bed the whole day, you cannot just ignore your homework because you’re tired. And it is because you have a responsibility to fulfill – a responsibility that would bring you towards a good life. Philosophers, as they always have been, are baffled with questions that would elicit answers as to how human beings should live – what is the right or wrong action. They have expressed their idea as to what the good life is, how you can build it, and how you should act to reach it. 3  Philosophy in Our World Imagine, one day, you are in school. When you left home, you didn’t have any breakfast, not a crumb. Your first two classes have finished and it’s time for a bit of recess. You’re quite excited because you’re famished and you have now been given some time to grab a bite. All your classmates left the room to either go to the cafeteria or the restroom, and you are about to leave as well when you realized you have forgotten your valuables at home. You are about to follow your friends to the restroom to borrow some cash, which you know you can pay back the next day. As you walked towards the door, you noticed a 500-peso bill on the floor. What would you do, then? Nobody is in the room but you, and nobody will see whatever you choose to do with the bill. This might be a common situation, and the right action may be obvious and simple, no matter how difficult it is to perform. However, if we look at it on a bigger scale, we could reflect on the situation of impoverished children in the streets – should you donate your hard-earned money to them, or spend it to buy a video game you have been saving for for months? In another bigger scale, should the government prioritize the economy or the issues of local governance? The point is, our world is riddled with choices that are not always easy to make. So, how should we make them? Learning Targets In this unit, you should be able to: realize that choices carry responsibilities; understand the consequences and effects of one’s actions; examine and reflect on given situations; and exercise discretion on the implementation of an action. 4  Lesson 1: Choices: Life's Biggest Mystery The question of the good life has always been ever present. It was one of the major topics since the ancient period of Western philosophy. Even in the Orient, the early sages, in their teachings, have written about how one ought to live his life. Thousands of ideologies and religion have also included their own definition of what the good life is in their doctrines. It would seem that every man, in whatever period in history, longs for the good life. However, the path towards the good life is based on a single thing – the choices we make. While there are many similarities on the teachings of different philosophers, beliefs, and doctrines, there is still a missing consensus. Hence, how we ought to make our choices to achieve the good life remains to be one of life’s biggest mysteries. Starting Out What is the good life? Learn about It! In Philosophy, the branch that inquires on how one should live his life is Ethics. The study of Ethics probes into questions of rightness and wrongness or the morality of our actions. It investigates the good life, the virtues that would lead man to the good life, and even the motivations we experience that controls our behavior towards other people and the society. The study of Ethics generally inquiries and searches for a standard of moral principles that would guide man on how he should live his life. This search for guidelines are usually the foundation of the laws being legislated in a certain society – they determine the principles, virtues, and 5 tradition that they hold to be important, and from there creates the standards to which their legal system would be established. The study of Ethics has been one of the major topics of thinkers throughout history. In every period in the history of human civilization, human beings would always find themselves in difficult situations as they continuously strive for progress and development. Because the ancient period started almost everything in the history of the West, the thinkers have no prior knowledge to which they would base their morals on. Hence, they wrote about it themselves. The inclination of the ancient philosophers was towards finding a virtue that they can establish as the goal of life. According to Socrates, “knowledge is virtue”. Someone who truly knows what is right would always behave in accordance to a virtuous action. If one commits wrong actions (e.g. stealing, lying, killing, etc.), it is because he is ignorant of what is right. One may argue that a person may know what is right but not act on it. However, what Socrates meant with truly knowing is also having the will to act on what is virtuous. One may know a virtue in his mind, but if he doesn’t act on it, then it means he lacks the true understanding, the true knowledge of that virtue. Aristotle has also made a big contribution in Ethics through his work, The Nichomachean Ethics. For Aristotle, the main thing man wants to achieve is eudaimonia. This is a Greek word that translates to happiness. Many could argue what the definition of happiness is. It is often understood as an emotion. However, emotions are fleeting. You could feel the emotion of happiness for a whole hour, then its opposite the next hour. But, the Aristotelian definition of eudaimonia is about human well-being – that man lives a satisfactory and flourishing life where he is content and fulfilled. In order to achieve eudaimonia, Aristotle wrote about the Golden Mean – a way of life that is in balance between extremes. That, for example, if one is given a choice between being very rich or very poor, the Golden Mean would encourage us to choose in between: not too rich, but also not very poor. Similarly, in Eastern philosophy, Buddha taught of the Middle Way, which is a path that is balanced between a life of luxury and excessiveness, and a life of poverty. These teachings mainly promote a certain virtue: moderation. This is because choosing the extremes result to certain negative consequences. When one chooses a life of self-indulgence, it would result to selfishness and insatiable desires. When one chooses a life of deficiency, it would result to a poor and difficult life. When one is too fearful, he is a coward. When he is too brave, he becomes impulsive. When one is overconfident, he is proud. When he is too humble, he is shy. Hence, the virtues of courage 6 and pride, respectively, along with other virtues are a balance between the extremes. Notice that the Middle Way differs from one situation to another. The right amount of food for a petite woman is different from that of a wrestler. The generosity of a millionaire is not the same of a beggar who donates his own food. Thus, we ought to act with prudence when assessing situations – all factors must be taken into account, look at the big picture, and weigh choices carefully. Another system of moral standards that is renowned for thousands of years is Hedonism. From the Greek word, hedone, which translates to delight, Hedonism is a form of ethical philosophy that puts the highest importance to satisfying one’s pleasure – that pleasure is the highest good itself. What is considered good is that action which would bring the greatest amount of pleasure since, for hedonists, it is the goal of life. According to hedonists, life is short and so we must act on situations that would bring us chief happiness and satisfy our desires – that men must be allowed to do everything in their capabilities to live a life that is most pleasurable to them. This system has often received criticisms as it advocates for indulgences with little to no emphasis on rationality, validity, and consequences of an action. While these philosophers differ on the goal of life and how man can achieve it, their common characteristic lies on the idea that whatever man chooses to pursue in his life, it has an effect on him. Therefore, choices requires prudent evaluation of one’s situation. Check Your Understanding Answer the following questions substantially. 1. What did Socrates mean with, “knowledge is virtue”? 7  2. How can the Middle Way / Golden Mean lead man to eudaimonia? 3. Why do Hedonists focus on the attainment of pleasure? Philosophy Applied As a child, it is natural for human beings to have lapses in judgment. Adults who are mature enough can also commit mistakes in terms of their choices, how much more for the youth? Of course, it is no excuse for us to justify our wrong actions, even if we don’t mean them. Most of the time, for many people, what matters is the action and the effects of that action to them, instead of the intention of the actor. Thus, we must be careful of our choices. Have you had an experience of making a mistake, and acted responsibly about it? Perhaps, you’ve broken your mother’s favorite vase, she didn’t talk to you for days until you replaced it using your own savings? Or you could have intentionally made your little brother or sister cry, and so he/she started to drift away from you, so you acted more tenderly towards him/her to win his/her affection back? Whatever the situation is, it is a hard fact that our choices carry certain consequences and effects. Hence, they carry responsibilities and we ought to be more prudent in making them. 8 9  Lesson 2: Choices in Real Life In the daily life of most Filipinos, their choices are based on the religious beliefs they hold. It is true that our beliefs and principles determine our will to make these choices. Thus, it is a matter of significance for us to examine these beliefs, how it relates to our decisions, and how it affects our choices. Because it is from this examination can we truly determine our responsibilities in real life. Starting Out Am I free to make choices in my life? Learn about It! In terms of relationship with nature and God, one of the ethical school of thoughts worth discussing is Stoicism. For the stoics, another version of happiness is ataraxia which means tranquility. This tranquility generally equates to peace of mind that one receives by being in harmony with nature. Stoicism is a belief that God is scattered throughout the world, in the form of nature. This is a belief called pantheism – the view that nature is divine because God or the gods are within it. Stoicism puts emphasis on a life that is in accordance with nature and pursues virtues instead of pleasure. The result of this pursuit of virtues and the harmonious relationship with nature is ataraxia. Part of a life that is in accordance with nature is understanding the natural desires and aversions of man, having the correct beliefs on these desires and aversions, and acting on wise decisions. For the Stoics, although man has many desires, the 10 only important one are virtues. When man desires other things besides virtue, he must be indifferent to these because these other desires have no value by themselves. Thus, the Stoics believe that the only right thing to be desired are virtues, and when one proceeds to a virtuous life, he will attain a peace of mind. This, however, does not mean that man will no longer be affected with problems, vices, or aversions. What this entails is that man will be able to handle bad situations with strength and endurance without losing his composure and peace. With the rise of Christianity in the Medieval Period, ethics that is based on religion has flourished until today. Most people who adhere to a certain religion follow their moral standards on the teachings of that particular belief – this is known as the Divine Command Theory. The Divine Command Theory or DCT posits that there exists a supreme divine being, which is God, who is all-knowing (omniscient), all-powerful (omnipotent), and all-good. God tells his people his commands through written words which are being taught by the clergy. The good life consists of following the absolute commandments of God and letting these commandments guide one’s actions in order to fulfill the God’s will. Man, then, will be rewarded in the afterlife through an eternal union with God himself. In the Old Testament of the Bible, Abraham was told by God to offer his long-awaited son, Isaac, by commanding him to make an altar of sacrifice and kill him. Abraham was about to stab his son when he was stopped by an angel of God. While this is a Bible story that ended well because God recognized Abraham’s faith, it is not exactly applicable today. Today, when a person kills or attempts to kill his own child and reasoned out that God talked to him and commanded him to do so, his sanity would be questioned. How do we know, then, that he is not insane, or that he didn’t just hallucinated the “voice of God”? How do we know that Abraham wasn’t or didn’t? If Isaac was killed, who should be blamed? Ethics that is based on religion also teaches of another possibility than that of God giving his commands to man. This is the idea that God provides us the ability to choose what is morally good or bad for us, at least in some situations. It follows that God provided man with freewill which man can exercise in different situations. Hence, God both tells man his commands (through the revelation of his word), but also gives man reason and freewill (through natural laws) to act whether man would follow his commands or not. The idea of freewill also pose contradictions in a religious belief. Believers hold the idea the God is omnipotent, omniscient, and perfectly good. This, then, follows that God does not only 11 know everything including the future actions one would commit, but also controls the actions of man – that God has foreknowledge and directions of man’s life and activities, and man acts in accordance to God’s directive. Does this mean that everything is determined by God, and that human beings have no freewill? St. Augustine of Hippo, a known compatibilist of freewill and determinism, maintained the idea that God truly knows our future. But, he begs to differ on the idea that God controls all our actions. God may place man in a situation where he would proceed to make a choice and exercise his freewill. Hence, he suggested that there are things that are within man’s control, and one of them is our will. God may see and know the future, but it is upon man to choose his actions based on his own freewill. Augustine, then, concludes that the ability of man to will something does not contradict God’s foreknowledge. And it is on the exercise of freewill, and the actions man take that God judges him. For St. Thomas Aquinas, while God himself is the highest good, man can also pursue the good for himself. Following Aristotle’s teachings, Aquinas recognized that man pursues happiness in this world, as well. But, for him, there are two kinds of happiness: the natural happiness that we can aim for in our life in this world, and the supernatural happiness that we can achieve through a reflection on the teachings of God and following it. In order to achieve both the natural and supernatural happiness, Aquinas thought that we would need virtues like faith, justice, wisdom, temperance, charity, etc. These philosophies propose that you have the ability to control your choices, which means you can control your life. Whatever ultimate goal you may have in your life – peace, happiness, or a union with God, it would entirely depend on the choices you make in real life through a pursuit of virtues, and an exercise of free will. 12  Check Your Understanding Match the words or phrases from Column A to the corresponding philosophy or philosopher in Column B. Column A Column B 1. compatibility of freewill and God’s knowledge of the future A. St. Thomas Aquinas 2. peace of mind B. St. Augustine of Hippo 3. supernatural happiness C. Stoicism 4. tranquility 5. natural happiness Philosophy Applied We all have experienced committing mistakes in our lives. As a student, it is possible for us to have committed lying about being sick just to be able to skip school, or we could have tried copying our classmates’ assignment because we have forgotten to do our own, or we could have asked extra money from our parents for a project that didn’t exist. Or, as another example, you saw your best friend bullying another classmate of yours because he/she didn’t lend his/her money, until things escalated that both of them were sent to the disciplinary office, and you were called upon as a witness, what would you do? Would you stick up for your friend or for your other classmate? Would you tell the truth, even if it means ruining your friendship with your best pal? How would you exercise your free choice? No matter the situation, it is a good reminder for us to contemplate that our actions are committed through an exercise of our free choice, and that these are attached to a certain form of responsibility. 13 14  Lesson 3: The Ethical Questions (and their Obvious Answers) In the ancient and medieval period, philosophers are mainly concerned with personal moral standards – how can an individual pursue the good life, what virtues should a person possess and pursue, and so on. However, we are discussing morality not only for our own personal fulfillment, but also for a harmonious relationship with other human beings. This implies we also need to discuss ethical schools of thought that focus on the society. Ethics in the modern period may seem obvious these days because the thinkers here are also considered as founders of most of the principles we follow these days. However, it is worth noting that their philosophies may be more intricate than we allow, as they proceed to implications that may require second thoughts. Starting Out How can I know the right from wrong actions? Learn about It! It is important to mention that the modern period in the history of Philosophy is characterized with enlightenment, rationality, and discoveries. This is the period, after the dark ages, that science has flourished, when great inventions have started. Thinkers are not restrained by dogmatism and tradition. It is characterized with free-thinking, open-mindedness and liberalism. One of the major thinkers in terms of ethical standards in the modern period is the German philosopher, Immanuel Kant. Kant thought that there ought to be a consistent moral theory that cannot stem from external 15 factors, not even God. The moral standard of a person must come from within, as a form of an intrinsic value. This is because, if your moral standards are based on something outside yourself, they may be prone to inconsistencies, once the external factor changes or ceases, so does you morality. Even the Aristotelian version of happiness, which is a flourishing life, is based on factors that are outside our control. This is quite evident in the Philippines. With majority of our population belonging to the lower class, how can we say, then, that these members of the population are living a flourishing life, that they are in eudaimonia? They may be striving for the best life as they can, but there are circumstances that hinders them from achieving it. These circumstances may be lack of education and opportunity, personal and family problems, etc. Kant, because happiness differs and inconsistent, believed that we also cannot use it as the basis of morality. What should we use, then, as a basis of our actions? Kant prescribed duty. Duty or an obligation to act in certain situations is the basis of our moral standards. Duty is not just a preference or a feeling towards things. For example, you are about to go to the most-awaited job interview of your life. You have prepared so much for this interview because you believe that it will change your life. If you miss or fail this interview, you would find no other opportunity. So, on the day itself, you’ve dressed up very well and prepared as much as you can. While on your way, you saw a child crying for help in a nearby dirty pond. The child doesn’t seem to know how to swim, and no one else is around to help him besides you. You know that if you rescue the child, it would jeopardize your interview for that day. What should you do, then? Should you sacrifice the most-awaited career opportunity of your life in order to save the child? Kant would say that yes, you should. In that particular situation, whether the child is related to you or not, you have a moral duty to help him. According to Kant, what is duty for a person who is trapped in a certain situation, must also be the same duty for anyone who would find themselves in similar situation. This duty is founded on rationality or the capability of human 16 beings to think and reason. For Kant, reason is the bedrock of morality from which duty comes from. If one is facing a certain situation, he should perform the most reasonable action for that situation, and it becomes his duty to act reasonably on that situation. From this, Kant formulated the categorical imperative, a maxim or principle of morality. The categorical imperative states: “Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.” The categorical imperative means that when you are deciding of an action, you ought to think of the most rational action that reasonable people would exercise if they are in your circumstances. And once you have determined it, you have the duty to act on it. It is from this deliberation that one can know what the right from wrong. For another philosopher, the British empiricist, David Hume, human beings determine their morality not solely on reason but on sentiments. Hume, as an empiricist, described his observation among human beings that our moral actions are also based on our feelings or sentiment, and not just on our reason – that we consider our actions based on sympathy. For example, people donate some coins to beggars because of their sentiment of “pity” towards them, and not really because they thought that it’s the most reasonable thing to do for the beggars. So, their moral action is motivated by sympathy, and this allows man to act on altruistic terms which guides his moral principles. Utilitarianism, another philosophical school of thought, which is a form of Consequentialism, focuses on the consequences of an action. It generally advocates for the maximization of goodness for as much people as possible. We know that both good and bad things are inevitable. However, in some areas where we could have control over our choices, Utilitarians would promote the one that would bring the most good to most number of people. Its main proponent, Jeremy Bentham, recognized that both pleasure and pain can be found in the world. In terms of moral actions, Bentham thought that the best actions would be the one that promotes pleasure net of the pain. For example, you may be familiar with the story of the man who is a train railway track operator. His job is to pull the lever in his station every time a train is going to pass by so the tracks would shift towards its correct path instead of the cliff 17 end which would result to an accident. One day, the man brought his toddler son to his station, and while he is busy with his other duties, he didn’t notice that his son went off to the tracks. He only became aware of it when a train is about to pass by. Now, the man faces a great dilemma: if he stays in his station to pull the lever, the train would kill his son. If he leaves his station to save his son, the train would proceed to the hanging end of the tracks and kill its passengers. Using the utilitarian perspective of maximizing what is good for most number of people, it would support for the choice that the man should sacrifice his son. Although there is pain, but the number of people who would be in pain is considerably small than when he chooses the other option. Hence, the classic Utilitarianism of Bentham means that there should be a greater good for a greater number of people. We have now proceeded to more serious ethical problems and questions, and while their answers may seem obvious, it is not always easy to carry out. Check Your Understanding Answer the following questions substantially. 1. According to Kant, where does duty come from? 2. Does Hume’s sentimentalism have a point? Why or why not? 3. How does Utilitarianism answer ethical questions? 18  Philosophy Applied One thing remains in terms of making choices on morality, though: When one makes a decision, there is a corresponding sacrifice in order to obtain it, which is a part of the consequence of being able to make a choice. The next time you feel like skipping class, do you think it would be reasonable for you to do so? How about your duty as a student? Is it your sentiment? Will it be good for the people who will be affected? That may be a minor dilemma, and the answers that the discussed philosophers offer can be applied to more serious ones, like choosing a course for college. Using the Utilitarian approach, you may decide based on which course would be best not only for you but also for the people around you, say your family. Or would you rather follow your sentiment to make a decision about your future? How about your duties and what does reason dictate as to which field should you enter? Whatever choice you make, there will something you will have to give up. If you choose to be Utilitarian and follow what your family wants for you, you’d be giving up what you truly want, if you follow your sentiment, you’d be giving up your family’s happiness. The point being, choices carry consequences, sacrifices, and responsibilities. Hence, they are worth a second-thought. 19 20  Lesson 4: The Ethical Questions (and a lot more Questions) Discussions in Ethics may seem to be never-ending because the issues it tackles in our lives are also continuously evolving. The society itself is progressing, and so our moral standards should also be flexible. Some years ago, punishment for misbehaving children like spanking or verbal reprimands are acceptable. These days, it is considered as a form of abuse, in some places. This shows that our morality is also in a state of flux which produces more and more questions for us to discuss. In this lesson, we will follow up another version of a previously-discussed ethical system, and more systems that are better suited to the situation of the world today. Starting Out How do my actions towards others make a reflection of myself? Learn about It! The Utilitarianism of Jeremy Bentham may seem obvious and common especially in a society that always chooses what’s good for as many people as possible. However, it also produces more questions like, “What does pleasure really mean?”, “Are there different kinds of pleasures?”, “Should the majority always decide?”, “What if the decision that is good for many people is not the right thing to do?”. There is another version of Utilitarianism that can address these questions. It is formed by the philosopher John Stuart Mill. Mill agreed with Bentham that pleasure, indeed, must be maximized. However, he 21 disagreed with the method of how it should be maximized, as well as with the definition of ‘pleasure’. While Bentham was concerned with the quantity of pleasure, Mill’s concern was of the quality. For Mill, pleasure differs in terms of hierarchy – there are higher forms of pleasure (which are higher in quality), while there also lower forms of pleasure (which are lower in quality). The pleasure of a person who studied classical music and his refined sensitivity to notes and tones is of a higher quality than a person who is easily satisfied with any kind of music. This suggests that Mill distinguished that the intellectual pleasures are higher than those of sensual pleasures. For example, the pleasure we get from being able to solve a difficult mathematical problem is of higher quality than satisfying our craving for French fries. This is because the ability to solve a difficult math problem lasts longer than the satisfaction we get from food. Because of this, Mill thought that the utility we get from higher pleasures should be given a priority when we are making decisions, which would then result to a quality decision. The French philosopher and novelist, Albert Camus, formed an existential philosophy with similarities to that of Jean-Paul Sartre (Unit 2, Lesson 2). Camus’ difference was his discussion of the absurdity of life as shown in his essay, The Myth of Sisyphus. In it, Camus described Sisyphus as a man who was condemned by the gods to roll a boulder up to a hill, only to have it roll back down as soon as it reaches the peak. Sisyphus keeps going back down to push the boulder again and again and again. Camus intended it as a metaphor for the way people live. Like Sisyphus, each of us has our own boulders or problems we carry in life. Once we solve one problem, there goes another, and we keep on living and solving problems for the rest of our lives. However, the heroism of Sisyphus, according to Camus, lies on his bearing that he is happy. Even if he is cursed by the gods to do the same task over and over again for all eternity, Sisyphus was in charge of his own happiness, and that is what he chose: to be happy. 22 While the discussion of Camus’s Existentialism mainly focuses on the meaning of life, it is worth noting here that Sisyphus, even if he was condemned to do the same action for the rest of his life, he was still free to choose whether he would be happy or to just give up. From this, we can concluded that, in our moral actions and pursuit of the good life, we still have choices, freedom, and responsibilities. Jean-Paul Sartre, another existentialist, thought that “man is condemned to be free”. He wrote of how human beings are thrown into the world, and is free to make his own choices, and act in accordance to which would bring meaning to his life. According to Sartre, we are who we create ourselves to be, and everything that has happened to us, we only have ourselves to blame. He opposed the idea of putting the blame on the society, on God or fate, because he believed that human beings are the ones responsible for themselves. If man hates his current situation, he has no one else to blame because it was choices and actions who put himself on that situation. This idea puts us in a position of responsibility – that we cannot just point the finger to other people because we are the ones who committed a certain action. For example, you went out at night because you had to buy a certain medicine for your headache at the drugstore across the street. While you were crossing, you have been hit by a bicycle. You were not badly-injured, just a scrape on the knee and elbow. Now, even if you crossed the road as safely as you can, and the bicycle was speeding, Sartre would argue that you have also done it to yourself, because it was your choice and action to leave from home at night and cross the street – you were the one who put yourself in the street, because had you not, you wouldn’t be hit by a bicycle. This also goes on a bigger scale. If people voted for a certain candidate, it can be argued that they are responsible for their choice. If the candidate proves to be a disappointment, the people are responsible because it was their choice to put him in a position of power. Hence, when Sartre said that “man is condemned to be free”, he meant that the freedom that goes with our existence comes with a burden of being responsible for our actions, and that our freedom to make choices and act on these choices provide meaning in our life, which is a reflection of who we are. 23  Check Your Understanding Answer the following questions substantially. 1. How did Bentham’s ethical theory produce more questions? 2. What is the ethical implication of Sisyphus’ struggle? 3. For Sartre, how does freedom imply responsibility? Philosophy Applied One of the weaknesses of a teenager in high school is the need of a sense of belongingness. We get the fear of missing out, of not being “in”, of not being able to follow the trend. Because we think these things mean having many friends, and we equate having many friends to happiness. So, some people who are in this stage in their lives, sometimes, succumb to peer pressure. What if your friends wanted to skip school and go drinking, instead? How would you handle the situation? Would you join them or say no? Or maybe you’d encourage them not to do it? Or would you tell your teachers? These choices, however, would result to certain effects for which you are responsible of. If you join your friends, miss school, and get caught, you don’t necessarily have to blame them. You are allowed to say they’ve persuaded you, but ultimately, the choice to join them was entirely yours. Hence, it was you who was responsible for it. If you say no to your friends, and they drift away from you and let you out of their circle, it was also your choice and responsibility. One thing is clear: being in that situation, you still have choices, you have the freedom to act on this choices, and the responsibilities that come with it. 24 25  Lesson 5: The Ethical Questions (and their Applications) Ethics is the branch of Philosophy that can be easily found in human life. It is because people who live in a society must conform to the moral standards set by that society. Our relationship not only with a fellow human being, but also with nature and the environment, implies a certain form of morality. With all the discussed philosophers and ethical schools of thought in the previous chapter, how can we, then, apply it all in our own endeavors? This lesson would discuss some moral issues that are often argued about throughout the world. Starting Out How can my moral standards affect my life? Learn about It! The discussed ethical theories have implications on our lives. There are situations that require an insight not only from a single theory, but may also include others. And these can be applied on areas that are as extensive as medicine, law, business, education, and so on. With the advancements in medicine and its technology, more and more questions are being opened. For example, on the issue of abortion. Although still illegal in the Philippines, it is legal in some places around the world. Before the invention of ultrasound, MRIs, X-rays, and other machines that could peek inside the human body, pregnant women have no other option but to carry their child in their wombs even without knowing its condition. As we know, not all pregnancies result to sunshine. Some children are born with abnormalities whether mental or physical. But, these day, with amniocentesis, fetoscopy, and other 26 procedures for prenatal diagnosis that would allow parents to know the condition of their child, they can now be given a choice whether to continue the pregnancy or abort it. This means the given the facts about the fetus, parents now have a freedom to choose and act on which they could apply the moral standards they hold. Another example is the infamous Nuremberg trials. During the Holocaust on the Second World War (WWII), millions of Jews were brought to concentration camps and were killed by Nazis and their soldiers. When the Allied Forces won the war, they brought the surviving soldiers to court to determine their guilt for a crime against humanity. The soldiers generally held the idea that they were at war, and were only following the orders given to them. If we are going to take this into the context of the Philippines, we have soldiers who are in Mindanao, fighting a war (although not as extensive as WWII) against rebels. When soldiers kill during a war, do we condemn them for performing their duties during a battle? Do we take them to court and charge them with murder? It would seem that killing during a war is not viewed as immoral as when it is peacetime. This is the same position the Nazi soldiers contested. If you were a judge in the trial, how would you decide? Of course, being a judge would mean rigorous research and using a bird’s-eye view kind of perspective because carrying lives on your hands is a heavy task. Below are also some specific situations which would make us think further about our moral decisions, our freedom to choose, and our responsibilities. 1. You are an Ethics Committee Leader in a hospital. You have a patient named Mary who was born sickly. She has a weak body and is in and out of the hospital throughout her life. She is now 26 years old with nephrotic syndrome. Her kidneys are severely damaged, and she could only live through dialysis every two to three days. When you interviewed her, she’s informed you she wants to sign a Do-Not-Resuscitate (DNR) form, despite the objection of her family. The DNR form means that in case she falls really ill and is unconscious, the hospital staff should not do anything to revive her. A few minutes after you left her room to get the form, she collapsed and her situation became an emergency. What would you do? Would you allow the hospital staff to revive her since she still haven’t signed the form? Or would you stop 27 them and respect her wishes? 2. You have a friend named Edith who has been wrongly accused of cheating by another classmate of yours named Sybil. Things escalated that Edith’s parents were asked to go to the school, and she got detention. One day, your whole class was in the laboratory, when you realized you forgot your book in the classroom. When you are about to go in, you saw Edith put a wallet in Sybil’s bag. Almost behind you was another classmate of yours, Cora, who also went back to the room to get her wallet. However, when she searched her bag, she couldn’t find it. Cora reported the loss as soon as possible to your teacher, and a search occurred. The wallet was found on Sybil’s belongings and she was called to the disciplinary office. She maintains she’s innocent as she was just in the laboratory. Both you and Edith were also called to ask if you have witnessed anything in the room while everyone’s away. How would you answer? Would you tell the truth and turn against your friend? Or would you keep silent and let Sybil be punished for something she didn’t do just as what she has done to Edith? 3. You and your wife just got married a few months ago, and after five weeks of being married, she told you she’s pregnant. You were at the height of your happiness and everything is going well. One day, the two of you went to the mall to shop for some baby paraphernalia. As you drive home, there is a steep cliff, and when you are about to go down, your car is sliding and the break malfunctioned. You only have two choices: to steer right to hit a post, but your wife will most likely be injured or even die. Or steer left, but hit a group of people outside a church wherein there’s a man, a child, an elderly, and another pregnant woman. Which direction would you choose to steer your car towards? These situations may have limited choices, but that is how we will find ourselves in real life. Studies on ethics and morality could already stop if we have an unlimited number of choices. Our concept of free action doesn’t mean being absolutely free, but being free to act on the choices laid in front of us. While all these situations and dilemmas require a deep-thought, it is evident that our moral standards create an impact not only on our lives, but also on the society we live in. Hence, they are worth a certain amount of contemplation and consideration. 28  Check Your Understanding Answer the following questions substantially. 1. What is the point that the soldiers are contesting in the Nuremberg trials? 2. How does advancements in technology affect the moral standards of human beings today? 3. Why doesn’t freedom of action imply absolute freedom? Philosophy Applied Many students of Philosophy tend to think that learning different ethical schools of thought means choosing one that stands out and follow it for the rest of their lives. However, the discussions on the good life, virtues, freedom, and right and wrong, does not suggest anything of the sort. Although the ethical schools may differ in ends and methods, but they are bound by the same thing: that before making a choice and exercising our freedom, we must think first in a bigger perspective. As the saying goes, “there are two sides of the coin”. However, you will come across situations that do not have only two sides, some have ten perspectives, some have a hundred. In other words, you cannot make a sound moral decision with your limited perspective. Hence, we ought to try to see things in a different light in order to create good ethical standards. This is the main responsibility we have as students who are learning about ethics and morality. 29 30  Be the Philosopher! Suggested Learning Tasks Task: Create a short story wherein the main character would find him/herself in situations of moral dilemmas. Mention the choices he/she has, the action he/she has performed, and the consequences that came with his decisions. At the end of the story, write which ethical philosophies he acted in accordance with, and how these philosophies are evident in his decision. Criteria Beginning Developing Accomplished Score (0-12 points) (13-16 points) (17-20 points) Content The story The story The story contains contains contains only minor sufficient many and minimal situations complex situations that need situations that need ethical that need ethical judgment ethical judgment. with judgment easy-to-solve with grave dilemmas. and difficult consequence s. Organization The story is The story is The story can difficult to comfortable be read, and to read, and well-understo contains contains od, and many errors. minimal contains only errors. a very few errors. Creativity The story is The story is The story is not engaging sufficiently very engaging 31  and easy to engaging with and has plot predict. some twists. predictable situations Total Score: Philosophy & I: Check and Reflect Mark the appropriate boxes that define your understanding of the lessons. I think I need more I have a minimal I am confident that I Skills understanding of it. can do this with ease. time and assistance. I can define the terms and ideas used in the lessons. I can use the ideas to evaluate situations of moral ambiguities. I can apply the discussed philosophies in exercising moral decisions. 32  Wrap Up Ancient period ethics revolved on finding a virtue and methods that would lead man to his ultimate goal - the good life. Below is a table for the philosopher and the corresponding action / characteristics that would bring him to the good life. Philosopher The Way to Good Life Socrates knowledge Aristotle / Buddha Golden Mean / Middle Way Hedonists pleasure Stoics pursuit of virtues Religion, on the other hand, looked at God as the ultimate goal, and that following his commandments (Divine Command Theory), and acting on our free will (natural law) to seek His ways, is the answer to the questions of morality. The contradiction between freewill, and God’s foreknowledge of our actions and the evil acts in the world posed a problem for a religious perspective. However, St. Augustine pointed out that although God does know the future of man, he does not control his free will, and is still responsible for his actions. Immanuel Kant prescribed the use of reason and the imposition of duty on man when facing moral decisions. He formed the categorical imperative which is a maxim human beings can practice to guide his morality. David Hume, however, described his observations that man does not necessarily use his reason in making moral decisions, he is instead driven by his sentiment. Jeremy Bentham’s utility principle advocates for the consideration of the happiness for the majority of people affected. However, John Stuart Mill’s promotes a greater quality of happiness than the number of people. The Existentialists philosophers recognized that life has brought man into a certain situation on which he has the freedom to act on the choices provided for him. His freedom to choose and act, although not absolute, carries a degree of responsibility which he should accept. The application of ethical standards is not an easy task since making a choice implies sacrifice. Thus, when making moral decisions, one must have a solid moral standard and an open mind to other perspectives. 33  Bibliography Bourgeois, P.L. 2001. Philosophy at the Boundary of Reason: Ethics and Postmodernity. New York: State University of New York Press Clark, K.J. and Poortenga, A. 2003. The Story of Ethics. New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall, Inc. Feinberg, J. and Landau, R.S. 1999. Reason and Responsibility: Readings in Some Basic Problems of Philosophy, 10th ed. California: Wadsworth Publishing Company Gould, James A. and Mulvaney, Robert J. 2007. Classic Philosophical Questions, 12th ed. New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall, Inc. Grayling, A.C. 2003. What is Good?: The Search for the Best Way to Live. Great Britain: Orion Publishing Glossary 1. absurd - having no rational sense; meaningless 2. amniocentesis - a medical procedure to detect a malformation of the fetus inside the uterus 3. ataraxia - tranquility; peace 4. ethics - a branch of Philosophy that studies the the rightness and wrongness of a conduct 5. eudaimonia - happiness; fulfillment 6. fetoscopy - a medical procedure that uses a scope to visualize a fetus of a pregnant woman 7. Holocaust - the genocide of millions of Jews by the Nazis during World War II 8. nephrotic - of relating to kidneys 9. pantheism - a belief that equates God to nature and the universe 10.rationality - the state of being reasonable 11.virtue - a positive quality that is highly commendable 34  Answers to Check Your Understanding Lesson 1: Choices: Life’s Biggest Mystery 1. What did Socrates mean with, “knowledge is virtue”? For Socrates, man behaves in a virtuous manner because he has true knowledge of what is good. Men who act on evil ways are ignorant of what goodness truly means. 2. How can the Middle Way / Golden Mean lead man to eudaimonia? Accordingly, the Middle Way is a balance between extremes. Extremes do not constitute good behavior in a situation. Having excess or being deficient does not bring good results. But acting on the Golden Mean brings balance which results to eudaimonia. 3. Why do Hedonists focus on the attainment of pleasure? For Hedonists, life is hard, brutish, and short. Hence, in order to make the most of it, one should focus on bringing pleasure into his life as much as he can. Lesson 2: Choices in Real Life 1. B 2. C 3. A 4. C 5. A Lesson 3: The Ethical Questions (and their Obvious Answers) 1. According to Kant, where does duty come from? Kant wrote that duty comes from reason. According to him, reason is the most sound basis of a moral decision. Hence whatever reason dictates, it is the duty of man to follow it. 2. Does Hume's sentimentalism have a point? Why or why not? 35 Yes. Hume's sentimentalism is a description of human behavior. Human beings tend to act on their emotions and feeling of sympathy rather than their rationality. Man do good things because he sympathizes with the object of his sentiment. 3. How does Utilitarianism answer ethical questions? Utilitarianism focuses on the utility or the result and consequence of a certain action. If the results yield a good result and provides happiness to as many people as it can, then it is the moral choice, for Utilitarians. Lesson 4: The Ethical Questions (and a lot more Questions) 1. How did Bentham’s ethical theory produce more questions? Bentham's concept of pleasure and happiness was questioned by his follower, J.S. Mill. It produced questions as to what kind of happiness should be prioritized in decision-making. Even though Bentham's central idea is on the quantity of happiness, Mill thought that the quality of happiness must also be taken into account. 2. What is the ethical implication of Sisyphus’ struggle? The Myth of Sisyphus is a metaphor for the human condition - that we are placed in a situation by fate or God or gods, but we are still in charge of our own happiness and life. Like Sisyphus, we have our own struggles in life, but we can still choose to be happy. 3. For Sartre, how does freedom imply responsibility? For Sartre, even if man is trapped in certain situations with limited choices, he still has free action on these choices. This entails responsibility, as whatever he chooses would have an effect on his life. Thus, his freedom means he still has control on his life, and however he wishes to control it has a corresponding consequence and responsibility. Lesson 5: The Ethical Questions (and their Applications) 1. What is the point that the soldiers are contesting in the Nuremberg trials? During a war, a soldier cannot just abandon his position and disobey orders. And it is during a war that killing is morally permissible. The soldiers were contesting that they were only following orders, and it was their duty to obey the orders handed unto them. 2. How does advancements in technology affect the moral standards of human beings today? 36 Technological advancements has opened up possibilities and choices for human beings today. This includes moral choices, because the new capabilities of man allow him to use it, and so his decisions are surpassing limitations. 3. Why doesn’t freedom of action imply absolute freedom? Absolute freedom means being able to do whatever one wants. Even with the great technologies today, there are still things man isn't capable of. Hence, his freedom is also limited. Another is living within a society. Even if man has free action, he may not necessarily exercise it as it could tramp on the rights and freedom of other people who live in the society he belongs. 37 QUIZZES LESSON 1: Choices: Life’s Biggest Mystery *PART 1: I. Knowledge [Items 1-3. Simple recall of information presented] 1. Question Fill in the blank Ans Explanation _____is the branch of Ethics In Philosophy, the branch that Philosophy that inquires on inquires on how one should live his how one should live his life. life is Ethics. 2. Question Fill in the blank Ans Explanation Eudaimonia is a Greek word happiness For Aristotle, the main thing man wants for_____. to achieve is eudaimonia. This is a Greek word that translates to happiness. 3. Question Fill in the blank Ans Explanation Hedonism came from the hedone Another system of moral standards that is Greek word _____. renowned for thousands of years is Hedonism. From the Greek word, hedone, which translates to delight. II. Process [Items 4-6. Comprehension] 4. Question Single Choice Explanation According to ancient A. vices Ancient philosophers believed that philosophers, what should be virtues would lead man to the good B. treasures pursued in life? life, thus prescribed to follow them. C. victories D. virtues X 5. Question Single Choice Explanation For Socrates, why does man A. because he Socrates believed that knowledge have wrongdoings? is not happy equates to virtues. Hence, 38  B. because he non-virtuous acts are a result of has an man’s ignorance. inclination to evil C. because he is too proud D. because he X is ignorant 6. Question Single Choice Explanation What did Aristotle truly mean A. it's a form of Although eudaimonia translates to with eudaimonia? pleasure ‘happiness’, Aristotle’s definition is that of a rich and flourishing life. B. it's an emotion C. it's a X fulfilling life D. it's a method Part III: Application and HOTS questions 7. Question Categorizing Ans. Explanation Between the three choices, confident mod Being proud is the excess of categorize as to which is erate confidence, being shy is the excess, deficient, or moderate. deficiency of confidence, while proud exce confidence itself if a virtue. ss shy defic ient 8. Question Categorizing Ans. Explanation Between the three choices, angry exce Being angry is the excess of an categorize as to which is ss emotion, being silent is the excess, deficient, or moderate. deficiency of expressing an emotion silent defic while prudence itself if a virtue. ient prudent mod erate 39 9. Question Categorizing Ans. Explanation Between the three choices, selfish exce Being selfish is the result of too categorize as to which is ss much love for oneself, being excess, deficient, or moderate. selfless is the deficiency of love for loving mod oneself, while love itself is a virtue. erate selfless defic ient 10. Question Categorizing Ans. Explanation Between the three choices, intelligent exce Being intelligent is the excess of categorize as to which is ss wisdom, being foolish is the excess, deficient, or moderate. deficiency of wisdom, while wisdom foolish defic itself if a virtue. ient wise mod erate LESSON 2: Choices in Real Life *PART 1: I. Knowledge [Items 1-3. Simple recall of information presented] 1. Question Fill in the blank An Explanation s Ataraxia translates to _____. tranquility It is the term the Stoics use to refer to a state of a peaceful mind. 2. Question Fill in the blank Explanation The view that nature is divine pantheism Pantheistic religions has the belief is called _____. that God is within nature. 3. Question Fill in the blank Explanation Stoicism advocates for a nature Stoicism is pantheistic in a way. harmonious relationship with Hence it is concerned with a _____. balanced relationship with nature and the universe. 40 II. Process [Items 4-7. Comprehension 4. Question Single Choice Ans. Explanation What is the A. omnipotent Being omniscient means being characteristic of all-knowing, including knowledge of the B. omniscient X God that the future. Divine Command C. perfectly Theory posits as good being fore D. perfectly pure knowledgeable? 5. Question Single Choice Ans. Explanation In the Old A. to toy with According to the teachings in the Old Testament, why him Testament, God was testing Abraham’s did God command faith and obedience. B. to test his X Abraham to kill his faith own son? C. to take back what he has given D. to punish him 6. Question Single Choice Ans. Explanation What did Abraham A. his freewill Since Abraham was obedient, he followed follow when he God’s commandment to offer his son. B. the dictate of offered his son to his pleasure God? C. God's X commandment D. the natural law 7. Question Single Choice Ans. Explanation Why does the A. because they For many thinkers, the idea of free will is foreknowledge of are the contradicting the idea that God has God pose an initial consequence of knowledge and control on the future. each other 41 problem with the B. because they idea of freewill? do not need each other C. because they supplement each other D. because they X contradict each other Part III: Application and HOTS questions 8. Question Single Choice Ans Explanation. What is the opposite A. determinism X Freewill often hit the path against of having free will? determinism as their implications are B. free action different. C. compatibility D. understanding 9. Question Single Choice Explanation According to St. A. through a For St. Thomas Aquinas, to reach both natural and Thomas Aquinas, how contemplation supernatural happiness, one must pursue virtues of can natural happiness of one's life faith, charity, temperance, justice, etc. be achieved? B. through a X pursuit of virtues C. through an indulgence of pleasure D. through a unity with nature 10. Question Single Choice Explanation 42 Choose the best A. freedom of Having free will carries responsibilities as it answer: What does action could have effects on one’s life and their having a freewill choices. B. autonomy imply? C. independent life D. responsibility X LESSON 3: The Ethical Questions (and their Obvious Answers) *PART 1: I. Knowledge [Items 1-3. Simple recall of information presented] 1. Question Fill in the blank An Explanation s The main characteristic Kant consistency Kant wanted an ethical theory that can be considered in his moral theory applied in all circumstances by all people. is _____. 2. Question Fill in the blank Explanation The main proponent of Jeremy Bentham Jeremy Bentham is known as the Father Utilitarianism is_____. of Utilitarianism. 3. Question Fill in the blank Explanation Complete the categorical universal law The categorical imperative prompts imperative: Act only according its follower to think of actions that to that maxim by which you would be done by other people can at the same time will that who are in the same circumstances. it should become a _____. Hence, it should be a universal law – a law that applies to all. II. Process [Items 4-7. Comprehension 4. Question Single Choice Ans. Explanation 43 Which of the A. conservative The modern period is the age of following is a development and progress especially B. progressive X characteristic of during the Enlightenment. the modern C. dogmatic period? D. narrow-minded 5. Question Single Choice Ans. Explanation According to Kant, A. senses For Kant, when one follows reason and what is the source duty, he/she will not make immoral B. reason X of morality? decisions. C. perception D. empathy 6. Question Fill in the blank Ans. Explanation According to sentiment Hume observed the human beings mainly Hume, humans' use their sentiments and emotions rather moral action are than reason in making moral decisions. driven by _____ more than reason. 7. Question Single Choice Ans. Explanation Which of the A. it is not According to Kant, duty is not based on following is a rational feelings or preferences, but on rationality. characteristic of B. it is a feeling one's duty? C. it is irrational D. it is not a X feeling Part III: Application and HOTS questions 8. Question Single Choice Ans Explanation. Consider this A. sentiment X Take note of the part “she loves children situation: Maya is a and feels she has to help them”. Thus, her B. reason volunteer at a local motivation is her sentiment. orphanage. She C. utility 44 does this because she loves children and feels she has to help them. Which of the following is the best motivation she has? 9. Question Single Choice Explanation Consider this situation: A. sentiment Maya used her reason as to which way she can Maya is a volunteer at help within her community. Her motivation is not B. reason X a local orphanage. She directly on her sentiment, but on her rationality. does this because she C. utility thinks this is the best way she can help with her community. Which of the following is the best motivation she has? 10. Question Single Choice Explanation Consider this A. sentiment Maya gets an affirmation and provides situation: Maya is a happiness for her family (a greater number B. reason volunteer at a local of people because it’s not just for herself) orphanage. She C. utility X which are both a result of her action. does this because her family encourages her and they are happy that she's helping in the community. Which of the following is the best motivation she has? LESSON 4: The Ethical Questions (and a lot more Questions) *PART 1: I. Knowledge [Items 1-3. Simple recall of information presented] 45 1. Question Fill in the blank An Explanation s J.S. Mill's concern is the _____ quality While Bentham’s Utilitarianism of pleasure. focused on the quantity of pleasure, Mill’s was on the quality. 2. Question Fill in the blank Explanation Camus used the metaphor of Myth Camus’ essay was entitled, The Myth of The _____ of Sisyphus to Sisyphus. describe the human condition. 3. Question Fill in the blank An Explanation s. According to Sartre, "man is free Sartre wrote of how human beings are condemned to be _____" thrown into the world, and is free to make his own choices, and act in accordance to which would bring meaning to his life. II. Process [Items 4-7. Comprehension 4. Question Single Choice Ans. Explanation For Sartre, what A. responsibility X For Sartre, having freedom means being does freedom able to act on your own accord based on B. bliss carry with? the choices laid out in front of you. You are C. guilt the one who made the choice. Therefore, D. choices you also carry the responsibility for it. 5. Question Single Choice Ans. Explanation Which is a A. carefree Camus thought that life is absurd because characteristic of no matter how we try to find meaning in B. difficult life, according to life’s struggles, it would always find a way Camus? C. absurd X to be show us that it has no meaning. D. sensible 6. Question Single Choice Ans. Explanation 46 When the gods A. his own X Even if he was condemned to do the same condemned happiness thing for all eternity, Sisyphus was still in Sisyphus to the charge of his own happiness. B. the boulder same routine, what was Sisyphus C. his task to responsible of? keep pushing D. the hill 7. Question Single Choice Ans. Explanation According to A. his society The Existentialists rejected the idea that Existentialist, who there is an external factor who is in charge B. his religion is responsible for of man’s life. It’s just him. whatever happens C. his family to man? D. himself X Part III: Application and HOTS questions 8. Question Single Choice Ans Explanation. What does Sisyphus' A. the problems X In the myth, the rock that Sisyphus must boulder symbolize? of man unceasingly push symbolize the struggles and problems of the human conditions. B. the society of man C. the pleasures of man D. the virtues of man 9. Question Single Choice Explanation Which of the following A. the pleasure For Mill, pleasures that are rewarding for the is a higher pleasure? from having sex intellect are the higher pleasures. Since the other two are sensual pleasures, then the pleasure from B. the pleasure being able to play an instrument is an intellectual from eating food pleasure which is higher. C. the pleasure X from playing an instrument 47 10. Question Single Choice Explanation Which of the A. the pleasure For Mill, pleasures that are rewarding only for the following is a lower from playing an senses are the lower pleasures. Since the other two pleasure? instrument are intellectual pleasures, then the pleasure from leading a luxurious life is a sensual pleasure which B. the pleasure X is lower. from having a luxurious life C. the pleasure from a philosophical reflection LESSON 5: The Ethical Questions (and their Applications) *PART 1: I. Knowledge [Items 1-3. Simple recall of information presented] 1. Question Fill in the blank An Explanation s One of the main areas ethics medicine / law / These fields carry certain ethical can be applied on is _____. business / education standards in their industries. 2. Question Fill in the blank Explanation The acronym DNR stands for Do Not Resuscitate This is a form patients sign expressing _____. their wish to not be revived upon falling into a state of emergency. 3. Question Fill in the blank An Explanation s. The Holocaust happened Second From 1939-1945, the second world war during the _____ World War. was when Nazis committed a genocide on Jews which is now known as the Holocaust. 48 II. Process [Items 4-7. Comprehension 4. Question Single Choice Ans. Explanation What is the moral A. more options X Technological accomplishments provides implication of more options and choices in terms of our B. more technological morality because it opens us up for more inventions advancements? possibilities. C. more studies D. more discoveries 5. Question Single Choice Ans. Explanation Who won the A. Nazis The Allied Forces won and brought the Second World remaining soldiers into trial. B. Axis Powers War? C. Allied Forces X D. Jews 6. Question Single Choice Ans. Explanation In situation #1 in A. Existentialism Although it can be seen on the light of Lesson 5, if the other theories, the most evident is B. Aristotelian Ethics Committee Utilitarianism as the family of the patient eudaimonia Leader allowed the would be happy if the patient is revived. hospital staff to C. Utilitarianism X revive the patient, D. Humean which ethical Sentimentalism system was evident in his decision? 7. Question Single Choice Ans. Explanation In situation #3 in A. Existentialism Since the husband chose to spare the Lesson 5, if the other people, this decision could be seen a B. Aristotelian husband chose to Utilitarian in nature. eudaimonia steer right which would result to C. Utilitarianism X possible death of D. Humean his wife and Sentimentalism sparing the group 49 of people, which ethical system was evident in his decision? Part III: Application and HOTS questions 8. Question Single Choice Ans Explanation. In situation #2 of A. Utilitarianism The student chose to tell the truth, which is Lesson 5, if the the most reasonable action on this B. Humean student chose to tell situation. Hence, it is a decision that Sentimentalism the truth and give showed Kantian concept of duty. her friend away, C. Kantian X which ethical concept of duty system was evident D. Stoic Ataraxia in her decision? 9. Question Single Choice Explanation In a situation when A. Existentialism Since the parent's decision is based on their parents discovered that emotions and wishes, this is a case that showed B. Aristotelian their child will be born Humean sentimentalism eudaimonia with abnormalities, and chose to proceed with C. Utilitarianism the pregnancy because D. Humean X they really want to Sentimentalism have a child, which ethical system was evident in their decision? 10. Question Single Choice Explanation If the judges in the A. Aquinas' X One of the virtues Aquinas prescribed was justice. Nuremberg trial pursuit of Hence, the decision showed a pursuit of this virtue. found the soldiers virtues guilty and punished B. Stoic Ataraxia them, which ethical system was evident C. Utilitarianism in their decision? D. Aristotelian eudaimonia 50 51