Investigating Science Notes PDF

Module 5 - Scientific Investigations What initiates an investigation? Research the factors that led scientists to investigate the following: Doctors thought it was caused by spicy food, stress, smoking and heavy drinking → increases a...

Module 5 - Scientific Investigations What initiates an investigation? Research the factors that led scientists to investigate the following: Doctors thought it was caused by spicy food, stress, smoking and heavy drinking → increases acidity in the body Peptic ulcers Didn’t think bacteria was the cause as they didn’t believe the bacteria can survive a highly acidic Marshall & Warren environment. Marshall and Warren were looking at biopsies from the patients with severe ulcers and discovered Heliobacter pylori (bacterium) and thought that may be the cause Jan Baptist van Helmont conducted experiments to try to determine where the mass of plants Plant growth from from Von Helmont To put an end into his curiosity about how plants grew from seemingly nothing and propose a scientific solution to it. Microwaves When working with magnetrons, he noticed a chocolate bar in his pocket warming up and Spencer melting. Propose a reason for the scientists undertaking their investigations above by examining the type of data or information that they sought, for example: Peptic Ulcers ○ Warren and Marshall tried to grow the bacterium in the laboratory. It proved to be a difficult task, as all the tissue culture they attempted to grow failed ○ It wasn’t until a culture was left over an Easter long weekend that they were finally able to grow a successful bacterial sample. ○ A laboratory technician would check the sample after two days, see no growth, and, assuming the culture had failed, they would throw the sample out. But the extended shutdown over the Easter long weekend gave the sample five days it needed to start Finding relationships growing. or patterns in identified phenomena ○ Once the culture had grown, it was possible to do extensive experimentation on the bacteria, which showed Marshall and Warren that the bacteria were the likely cause of the ulcers Plant Growth ○ Van Helmont tried to establish relationships between the variables that he was managing ○ At the end of the experiment, he dried the soil and weighed it but did not observe a significant change. However, the tree was 76 kilograms heavier. As he only used the one plant, it was difficult for him to establish any patterns or relationships ○ It is important to point out that van Helmont did not have enough background knowledge, as the process of photosynthesis had not yet been described: therefore, he  did not know that atmospheric gases were playing a key role in the willow tree’s weight gain. ○ While van Helmont did some early work on carbon dioxide, which he called ‘gas sylvestre’, it would be almost a hundred years before the idea of gaseous exchange in Finding relationships plants were discovered. This made it very hard for van Helmont to ascertain the correct or patterns in relationship between the loss of mass in the soil, the addition of water and growth of identified phenomena the plant. Microwaves ○ He and his colleagues began experiments exposing various foods to microwaves, including making the world’s first microwaved popcorn ○ The strength of the magnetron meant that the corn kernels popped almost immediately when exposed to the radiation. The experiment with cooking an egg was less successful when the egg exploded in the face of one of the engineers. Peptic Ulcers ○ By 1985, Marshall and Warren were getting frustrated that no one in the medical community took them seriously. Barry Marshall attempted to prove his hypothesis by infecting himself; he deliberately swallowed some of the tissue culture ○ Within a week he had developed a peptic ulcer, with the symptoms of stomach inflammation and vomiting. He subsequently took a course of antibiotics, which cured Testing the conclusion the ulcer and symptoms of a previous Plant Growth investigation ○ Van Helmont’s experiments were the first of their kind and useful in establishing further areas for botanists to explore, even though his conclusion was wrong and not valid as a scientific experiment ○ In 1727, the botanist Stephan Hales built on van Helmont’s research with the publication of Vegetable Staticks, a book in which he talked about gaseous exchange in plants through transpiration Microwaves ○ Spencer tested conclusions through exposing various foods to microwaves Peptic Ulcers ○ Antibiotic treatment completely removed H pylori bacteria from the body ○ No further treatment was required ○ Significantly cheaper ○ Can be detected easily by breath test Utilising scientific ○ No hospital stay knowledge and Plant Growth understanding to ○ In 1727, the botanist Stephens Hales built on Helmont’s work in his book ‘Vegetables make more accurate Staticks’ in which he discussed about gaseous exchange in plants through transpiration predictions and ○ Researchers determined that soil was very significant to the growth of plants: develop new Included elements sulphur,nitrogen and potassium were essential for the technologies healthy growth Modern idea of fertilisers being used in Agriculture:Compounds Such as phosphates and nitrates could also help plants grow when added to soil Microwaves ○ He created small metallic box into which electromagnetic radiation could be directed ○ Took about 20 years for an appliance similar to modern microwave to go on sale - late 1960’s Determine the hypotheses that were tested in each of the scientific investigations above Peptic ulcers If H. Pylori is found in the stomach then it could be the cause of peptic ulcers because the bacterium Marshall & Warren damages the stomach lining Plant growth If plants absorb water then they grow because they need to gain mass from somewhere Von Helmont Microwaves If microwaves are able to cause substances to melt then they can be used to cook food because the Spencer small amount of radioactivity produces heat Describe where deviations from the traditional and linear models of scientific methodology were necessary in order to test each hypothesis in the investigations above Peptic ulcers This experiment deviates from the traditional model as it was done by using human trials more Marshall & Warren specifically when Marshall tested his hypothesis on himself. Van Helmont used a very similar methodology that we currently practise in the modern world. However Plant growth we are unaware about if he used a controlled environment, soil, container or water. This type of Von Helmont methodology deviates from traditional models as he used one tree (sample) to test his hypothesis. Percy Spencer accidentally observed the basis of his investigation. It isn’t like traditional forms of Microwaves investigations as he didn’t follow a process or procedure he searched for patterns with different types Spencer of food. What type of methodology best suits a scientific investigation? Using examples, evaluate the objectives and data collected in an investigation by a recognised scientist or team of scientists Marshall and Warren Objective and peptic ulcers ○ To determine a link between H. Pylori & peptic ulcers Data Collected ○ Primary data collection by experimentation: tissue cultures from biopsies before & after antibiotic treatment Examining tissue cultures was an effective way to collect primary data, & was used to establish a causal link between the bacterium & the development of peptic ulcers Eratosthenes and Objective Earth’s circumference ○ To determine the circumference of Earth. Data Collected ○ The angles of shadows in wells This was directly observed by Eratosthenes & the many repetitions & averages he took made this a valid measurement. ○ The distance between Syene & Alexandria The distance was known by the travellers who often travelled the busy trade route. Doppler and the Objective Doppler effect ○ To explain the apparent change in the spectral lines of the binary star system. Data Collected ○ Primary data; spectral lines. These lines are the evidence to determine the same properties of stars from earth.  Qualitative data - was determined as he used his hearing & sound to measure. No quantitative data was measured Back then they didn’t have many resources available to do quantitative measurements. They were dependent on their outnumbered ability to record data. Priestley’s Objective experiments with ○ To determine the properties of the gas oxygen Data Collected ○ Primary Data by experimentation: direct observations of the effect on mice (was important in undertaking the composition & motion of the stars being studied. Priestly inhaling the gas himself Priestly noticed that he felt lighter in his chest when he breathed it). Each observation led to understanding of the physiological aspects of oxygen. Evaluate the methodology of the scientific investigations above by: Peptic ulcers ○ Primary investigation - involved taking multiple biopsy samples, culturing the sample & testing the samples. Earth’s circumference Justifying the method ○ Fieldwork - Eratosthenes used some 1st hand techniques in his measurements & chosen based on the secondhand sources. He used a combination of primary data (The angles he had subject of the investigation and the recorded) with secondary sources (The accepted distances between the 2 cities) context The Doppler effect ○ Fieldwork - he came up with the conclusion by looking at spectral images. (Done by looking at hundreds of plates & noting the often - subtle changes ○ Used firsthand data that he collected & analysed himself Experiments with oxygen ○ Primary investigations - trying to determine some of the properties of air. Evaluating the relevance of the investigation by considering the peer-reviewed literature in the area of study Justifying the Peptic ulcers suitability of the type ○ Many ethical issues arose, particularly when Marshall tested his hypothesis on himself of data that is to be ○ Even though they confirmed the link between the H. Pylori bacterium & chronic peptic collected ulcers. Many of their peers took a long time to accept their research. Earth’s circumference ○ Primary and secondary data The Doppler effect ○ Primary data Experiments with oxygen ○ Joseph Priestley research involved using animals. Many mice were used to show the existence of ‘dephlogisticated air’. ○ If Priestly conducted this experiment today, he would be under immense pressure to ensure no undue harm came to the animals. However, during Priestly time it was acceptable to use animals in research & scientists rarely considered any harmful effects on their test subjects. How is the integrity of a scientific investigation judged? Evaluate the design of the student investigation by Speed on distance travelled Independent Explaining the choice ○ Speed of independent, Dependant dependent and ○ Distance controlled variables Controlled with reference to the research question ○ Surface material ○ Surface elevation was consistent ○ Weather Explaining the sample A small sample size on one individual was used which was appropriate as the principle is selection and sample applicable for anyone sizes used for gathering data Justifying the suitability Materials used were low cost, low risk and easy to use. However they could have been more of materials used based accurate on their relevance to the research question, availability, cost, risk and familiarity of use Assessing the ethics of Potential ethical issues include the use of humans in the trial and the effect on their physical conducting the health investigation by considering confidentiality, humane treatment and animal welfare Predicting an Can be completed within a couple of hours achievable time frame to conduct the investigation Justifying working Collaboratively was needed to be able to record all elements individually or collaboratively Conduct the planned investigation and collect, record and analyse primary data Draw a conclusion or conclusions, and suggest further investigation or research by: Analysing the results and interpreting the data Explaining the relevance of the findings of the investigation in relation to the inquiry question and hypothesis Justifying the methodology and any changes made to Improve the data collected Describing potential beneficial and harmful consequences when the findings are applied to a real-world scenario Evaluate the validity of the investigation by determining whether the tests measured what they were intended to measure Evaluate the reliability of the investigation by determining: Consistency of the results obtained Measures taken to reduce error What is the structure of an investigative report? Review a published and peer-reviewed scientific report to determine the conventions of writing a report on a practical investigation Conventions include writing in scientific language following the structure below Use a sample of a published and peer-reviewed secondary source to identify: The purpose of the To outline findings, conclusions and recommendations report Measures taken to Information was compared to other valid secondary sources and incomplete data was excluded reduce error The language style Formal scientific language used 1. Abstract – Introduction, inquiry question, background/historical information 2. Aim 3. Hypothesis between independent and dependent variables, cause and effect, why? The presentation and 4. Materials structure of the 5. Risk Assessment – Identify risk, rating, minimisation and management report 6. Procedure, methodology – diagram if necessary 7. Results – data: table, graph 8. Discussion – trends, analysis, accuracy, reliability, validity, safety risk, identify errors and analysis, improvements, explanation of scientific phenomenon 9. Conclusion – describe trend between independent and dependent variable, does it satisfy aim Compare and contrast the structures and functions of a scientific investigation and its written report Prepare a report on the student investigation that was carried out Module 6 - Technologies How does technology enhance and/or limit scientific investigation? Design a practical investigation that uses available technologies to measure both the independent and dependent variables that produce quantitative data to measure the effect of changes of, including but not limited to: In a chemical reaction, substances react with each other, chemical bonds are broken & new substances are formed as products ○ The reaction rate is the speed at which the chemical reaction occurs ○ Temperature affects the reaction rate because it increases the collision between the particles, this is according to the collision theory The theory states: ○ in a chemical reaction, a minimum level of energy is needed to start the particles colliding & consequently produce the chemical products ○ That energy is called activation energy ○ The particles must have enough energy for the collision to take place & successfully produce a reaction ○ The reaction rate depends on the rate (speed) of successful collisions between reactant particles Temperature on ○ The more successful collisions that are, the faster the rate of reaction reaction rate Increasing the temperature in the chemical reaction affects the activation energy because: ○ There is more energy in the chemical system & consequently the particles have more energy ○ There are more collisions between the particles ○ The rate of reaction of reaction increases Catalyst: ○ Chemicals that increase reaction rate by lowering the activation energy Enzymes: ○ Catalysts that assist biotechnical reactions in organisms The reaction rate can be calculated using the equation ○ rate of reaction = the total amount of reactant used or product made divided by the time taken. Results expected from experiment ○ The higher the temperature, causes the reactants to react and produce gas at a faster rate. ○ The lower temperature will take slower to produce gas. Aim ○ To investigate the effect of temperature on the volume of gas Hypothesis ○ Raising air temperature will increase the balloons volume Temperature on volume Gas is a state of matter in which particles move freely. Consequently, gas conforms to the of gas shape of the container or space in which it is held, acquiring a uniform density across that space despite gravitational forces. Gas particles have a high number of collisions and gases can expand indefinitely. Gases can be grouped accordingly to how they behave under different pressures such as compressed, liquefied or dissolved. Temperature and pressure play an important role in compressing gases to make them useful for industrial purposes.  Relationship — the relationship between pressure and temperature in gases was it forward by the French scientist Jacque - Alexander - Cesar Charles around 1787 & is known as Charles Law. This can be expressed in mathematical equation: K=V/T ○ K= constant ○ V= volume (mL or L) ○ T= temperature (Kevin) Aim ○ To investigate the effect of speed on distance travelled Hypothesis ○ The faster the ball travels, the more distance travelled Extra notes on speed on distance ○ Speed is a scalar quantity defined as the distance travelled by a moving object over time ○ Therefore, if an object speeds up, more distance is covered over a particular time ○ Conversely, if the object slows down, it covers a smaller distance in that time Speed on distance ○ An object with no movement has zero speed travelled ○ Speed is usually measured as average speed. This is because speed varies over any distance travelled E.g in a trip from home to school, the bus travels at different speeds in relation to traffic lights, stops & the type of road ○ Therefore, the speed can change from 0-40 km/h or from 80km/back to 0 ○ Other factors are taken into account when objects move, such as friction, angle of trajectory if the object is launched, the mass of the object, the forces applied on the object & gravitational pull. S= d/t ○ S=average speed (m/s) ○ D= distance (metres) ○ T=time (seconds) Gas is a state of matter in which particles move freely. Consequently, gas conforms to the shape of the container or space in which it is held, acquiring a uniform density across that space despite gravitational forces Gas particles have a high number of collisions & gases can expand indefinitely. Gases can be grouped according to how they behave under different pressures such as Pressure on volume of compressed, liquified or dissolved. gas Boyle's Law ○ P1V1= P2V2 Conduct the practical investigation to obtain relevant data and evaluate the limitations of the technologies used Analogue ○ Low cost ○ More accurate ○ Uses less bandwidth (frequency width) for communication ○ No need of synchronised communication systems ○ Observational errors ○ In communication, effects of random noise can cause signal loss and distortion Digital ○ More Precise ○ Compatible with other digital systems ○ Immediate (recorded) information ○ Integrated networks (different functions joined together) ○ Sampling error ○ Requires greater bandwidth for communication ○ Communication systems need to be synchronised for digital signals ○ Can be expensive Investigate the range of measuring devices used in the practical investigation and assess the likelihood of random and systematic errors and the devices' degree of accuracy Errors Definitions Example How to reduce the error Gross Caused by mistakes in using A person or operator reading Have other observers double instruments or metres, pressure gage wrote 1.10N check the measurements calculating measurements /m^2 instead of 1.01 N/m^2 and recording data results Systematic Instrumental Occur because of a fault in A data logger is measuring Re-calibrate the instrument the measuring device temperature in the range of 100˚C instead of 30˚C Environmental Occur because of some The humidity levels during Assess environmental external condition (pressure, the measurements has conditions properly before temperature, humidity or changed because of wind using the device magnetic fields) conditions Observational Occur because of incorrect Reading 35 mL from the Have another observer be a or parallax observing or reading of the measuring cylinder instead second reader of errors instruments of 32 mL instruments Random Caused by the sudden Changes in humidity, Reduced by taking the change in experimental unexpected change in average of a large number of conditions temperature or fluctuation readings in voltage Using specific examples, compare the accuracy of analogue and digital technologies in making observations Analogue ○ Isn't just about measuring things or using dials and pointers ○ Simply means that its not digital, the job it does, or the information it handles, doesn’t involve proceeding numbers electronically ○ An old style film camera is sometimes referred to as an example of an analogue technology E.g analogue clock or thermometer ○ Accuracy of analogue: Analogue technologies are less precise than digital technologies as it shows continuous data and can often lead to human error. Digital ○ Instead of storing words, pictures and sounds as representation on things like plastic film or magnetic tape, we first convert the information to numbers (digital) & display or store the numbers instead. E.g data logger or stopwatch ○ Accuracy of digital Digital technologies are more accurate and precise as it shows discrete data. Assess the safety of technologies selected for the practical investigation by using chemical safety data and Work Health and Safety guidelines as appropriate What is an MSDS? ○ Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) is a document that provides health and safety information about products, substances or chemicals that are classified as hazardous substances or dangerous goods. MSDS provides information on: The manufacture or importing supplier The product (E.g its name, ingredients & properties) How the product can affect people's health Precautions for using or storing it safely Who prepares & provides MSDS? ○ Manufacturers & importers of dangerous goods & hazardous substances How have developments in technology led to advances in scientific theories and laws that, in turn, drive the need for further developments in technology? Using examples, assess the impact that developments in technologies have had on the accumulation of evidence for scientific theories, laws and models, including but not limited to: Explanation: ○ The model of the Earth’s geological history is the applied science of creating computer based representations of portions of the Earth’s crust based on geophysical and geological observations made on and below the Earth’s surface Technology used: Computers How was the technology used to further the understanding of the model: ○ There are many different types of models that vary from physical replicas to Computerised computer simulations. By having a computerised version it provides more accuracy simulations and models about the topic being discussed with accurate and trustworthy measurements and of the Earth’s geological data. It removes any human errors that could affect the final product, however there history could be some systematic error present when looking at technological models. Advantages: ○ Helped us understand ○ Removes any human errors that could affect the final product ○ A computerised version provides more accuracy about the topic being discussed with accurate and trustworthy measurements and data. Disadvantages ○ There could be some systematic errors present when looking at technological models. Explanation: ○ Franklin's X-Ray Crystallography. Regular substances like crystals diffract X-rays in characteristic patterns according to their physical structure. The X-ray crystallography at right ("Photo 51") shows an exceptionally clear diffraction pattern of a crystallised DNA molecule. Technology used: ○ X-ray diffraction → using the technique by Rosalind Franklin called ‘X-ray crystallography’ X-ray diffraction and the How was the technology used to further the understanding of the model: discovery of the ○ The use of technology for the discovery of the structure of DNA, allows individuals structure of and scientists to understand the structure of DNA, with a detailed and accurate deoxyribonucleic acid perspective with reliable information (DNA) Advantages ○ It is much more accurate for measuring large crystalline structures rather than small ones. ○ Onsite analysis ○ Cost effective with a low-cost of ownership Disadvantages ○ Small structures that are present only in trace amounts will often go undetected by XRD readings, which can result in skewed results. ○ Size limits → more accurate for larger rather than small crystalline structures.  Technology to detect radioactivity ○ Geiger counter. A Geiger counter is an instrument used for detecting and measuring ionising radiation. It detects ionising radiation such as alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays using the ionisation effect produced in a Geiger–Müller tube, which gives its name to the instrument. Technology to detect radioactivity and the Radioactivity → development of Atomic Theory development of atomic ○ Further experiments by other scientists showed that when the beam from a theory radioactive ore was passed through a strong magnetic field, there were three kinds of radiation emitted. These rays were named alpha, beta, and gamma by Ernest Rutherford. Alpha radiation is a stream of positive particles composed of two protons and two neutrons (helium nuclei), beta radiation is a stream of particles with negative charges now known as electrons, and gamma radiation is part of the electromagnetic spectrum. ○ Based on the evidence of experiments in the latter part of the 19th century, it became apparent that the atom was not a solid sphere, and was far more complex than originally thought by the early Greek philosophers and John Dalton. A new model of the atom would have to be developed to incorporate these new findings. What is the Higgs Boson? ○ the Higgs Boson is a type of particle which is a part of what’s called The standard model of particle physics. This is a set of rules that lays out our understanding of the The Hadron collider and fundamental building discovery of the Higgs boson blocks of the universe. ○ The Higgs Boson was discovered at the CERN Large Hadron Collider (LHC) ○ The Higgs Boson was detected by studying collisions of particles at different energies ○ The Large Hadron Collider is one of the latest technologies used in quantum physics to collect evidence about subatomic particles. Using examples, assess the impact that developments in scientific theories, laws and models have had on the development of new technologies, including but not limited to: There are two types of lenses; ○ Convex = Convex lenses are lenses that curve outwards, they converge parallel light rays to a focal point. ○ Concave = Concave lenses are thinner in the middle and thicker at their edges. Concave lenses diverge parallel light rays away from each other. The laws of refraction Difference between a mirror and a lens? and reflection on the ○ Lenses have two focal points, one on either side of the lens. A concave mirror development of converges light to a focal point. For lenses, light converges to a point for a convex microscopes and lens. A convex mirror diverges light, as does a concave lens. telescopes When light goes from less dense to more dense medium it travels towards the normal. When the light travels from more dense to a less dense medium, it travels away from the normal ○ Lenses are used in microscopes ○ Lenses can make things look bigger ○ Mirrors reflect light - light can't go through ○ Lenses reflect light - light can go through  ○ Modern reflecting telescopes can make use of both phenomena. A laser can be shone through the atmosphere. The atmosphere refracts the laser beam. The distortion this produces can be monitored and used to correct for atmospheric distortion of light entering the telescope. This can be done by rapidly changing the shape of the telescope’s mirrors. Light entering the telescope strikes the mirrors, and the adaptive optics cause the reflected light to be focused on the detector. Microscopes ○ Optical microscopes make objects appear larger because their convex lenses refract light rays so that they converge (or come together) and essentially trick your eyes into seeing something differently than it really is. When light bounces off an object and travels to your eyes, those light rays travel parallel to each other. When they pass through a magnifying glass, the convex lens bends the parallel rays so that they converge and create a virtual image on your eyes' retinas. ○ In the majority of light microscopes, the image is viewed directly through binocular eyepieces that act as a secondary lens in the form of a magnifying glass to observe the projected image. Radioactivity and Radioactivity is the emission of electromagnetic radiation or particles caused by the splitting radioactive decay on apart of unstable atomic nuclei to form a new, more stable nucleus. What is emitted when a the development of nucleus splits is called radiation – and it comes in the form of particles (alpha and beta radiotherapy and radiation) and waves (gamma rays). nuclear bombs Gieger counter ○ The German physicist Hans Wilhelm Geiger is best known as the inventor of the Geiger counter to measure radiation. In 1908, Geiger introduced the first successful detector of individual alpha particles. Later versions of this counter were able to count beta particles and other ionising radiation. The introduction in July 1928 of the Geiger-Müller counter marked the introduction of modern electrical devices into radiation research. ○ In 1899, Ernst Rutherford was studying the properties of radioactivity, specifically the absorption of radioactivity by thin sheets of metal foil and found two components: alpha (α) radiation, which is absorbed by a few thousandths of a centimetre of metal foil, and beta (β) radiation, which can pass through 100 times as much foil before it was absorbed. Later, he began studying the particles emitted by uranium metal and its compounds. Before he could study the effect of -particles on matter, Rutherford had to develop a way of counting individual particles.  ○ Knowing that alpha particles can travel through very thin solids, Rutherford and Geiger developed a method of detecting the particles using gold foil and a screen: After passing through the foil, the particles hit the screen, producing on impact barely detectable flashes of light. The scientists (Geiger especially) spent innumerable hours counting these flashes in a dark room. The discovery of the Structure of DNA originally found by Rosalind Franklin through X-ray crystallography structure of DNA and DNA model was then able to be created by James Warson and Francis Crick, helped build the the development of biotechnologies to basis for understanding hereditary and molecular biology genetically Helped create biotechnologies such as CRISPR- Cas9 which enables precis and targeted gene modify organisms editing in a wide range of organisms ○ Raises ethical concerns Newton's laws of motion ○ 1, A body at rest will remain at rest, and a body in motion will remain in motion unless acted upon by an external force ○ 2, the force acting on an object is equal to the mass of that object times its acceleration, F=ma ○ 3, For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction Keep buildings Taller buildings: Tuned mass dampers (massive The net force acting on an from shaking swinging balls) object is equal to the object's from side to Shorter buildings: Isolate the building from the mass multiplied by its side as much ground using ‘shock absorbers’ (system of acceleration. as possible rubber and lead) (current) Vibrating Large mass and springs underground to absorb for every action, there is an Newton’s laws and the Barrier (future) earthquake energy (super shock absorber) equal and opposite reaction technology required to Experimental, but models suggest it could build buildings capable reduce the amount of acceleration a building is of withstanding subjected to by almost 90% earthquakes Strengthening new materials such as carbon The net force acting on an the building nanotubes object is equal to the object's cement shapes and patterns mass multiplied by its (architectures) to carefully direct acceleration. 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 pressure ( 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 ) that could induce cracks Earthquake A series of concentric plastic rings built into for every action, there is an invisibility the foundation of the building, each ring has equal and opposite reaction cloaks its own specific stiffness and elasticity to absorb a certain frequency of wave. When an earthquake hits the rings deform and deflect some of the energy along themselves. Investigate scientists’ increasing awareness of the value of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples’ knowledge and understanding of the medicinal and material uses of plants and, in partnership with communities, investigate the potential for ethical development of new drug treatments and synthetic chemicals through the bile harvesting of plants from Country and Place The use of plants for materials and medicinal purposes is as old as humankind Aboriginals and Torres Strait islander peoples have a broad knowledge of how to use plants for medicinal and material purposes Contemporary scientists have an increased awareness of these traits, and is helping towards pharmacists and physicians to respond to the challenges that have emerged, E.g antibiotic resistance However a lot of information and culture from aboriginal peoples has been lost over the years and there are no written records, besides the traditions passed down through verbal communication, songs, dances, and ritual ceremonies that are becoming rare. Native plants as medicine ○ Native pants were used to construct shelters, make clothing ropes and baskets, ad in art (plants & bark as canvases). ○ The plants were used resistant to wear & today we cans still see & appreciate the constrictions, tools, utensils & pieces of art. ○ Aboriginal people were innovative in using weaving as a technique to make utensils & bags. Native plants and medicine ○ Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people often predict their good health ○ All of those bush medicines are collected and prepared from well-known local plants to cure ailments. ○ Some of these medicinal plants are commercially available, E.g tree tea oil & eucalyptus oil ○ Are widely used as medicines to treat & reduce the effect of illnesses by many Aboriginal Native plant common name Scientific name Plant part used Medicinal uses Cheese fruit Morinda citrifolia Raw fruit Colds, coughs, flu Ironbark Eucalyptus sideroxylon Bark Wash sores and skin infections Tea tree Melaleuca sp. Boiled leaves Antiseptic There is a lot of crossover in the type of plants used by communities across regions and the availability of the plants depending on seasonal fluctuations and environmental conditions. The wide range of uses creates a challenge for modern medicine and pharmacologists in narrowing down the research for a particular medical plant used to treat a specific illness For example, in some Indigenous communities, the ‘lolly bush’ (Clerodendrum floribundum) leaves are crushed and boiled and the infusion obtained is used as an antiseptic lotion to cure sore, itchy and scaly skin, while other Aboriginal groups drank the infusion as a tea to relieve headaches and severe cases of diarrhoea. Bio-harvesting native plants from country to place ○ To be considered for medicinal purposes, plants must have a substance that is biologically active. The pharmaceutical industry calls this the active ingredient. —> (substance/s present in a plant that is biologically active and it can be extracted for medical purposes. ○ Australian native plants are hardy plants due to the dry conditions and extreme heat in many areas. As a result, it can be difficult and sometimes expensive to extract the active ingredients from Australian plants, and therefore many native Australian plants are not used in the modern pharmaceutical industry. As Aboriginal people know how to prepare the plants to expose those active ingredients, their infusions and ointments are effective in helping to treat or avoid illnesses and infections ○ Modern medicine has researched many native Australian plants that contain active ingredients, such as the northern blackwattle (Acaciaauriculiformis). This plant has alkaloids that inhibit the growth of infectious bacteria such asStaphylococcusaureus,Streptococcuspyogenesand Escherichia coli. The research on the active ingredient of the northern black wattle was based on the traditional use of the plant leaves as antiseptic. ○ Bio-harvesting is a term used to define the activities involved in collecting living organisms from the natural environment to be used as food or for medicinal purposes. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people have used bio-harvesting to provide for their needs for hundreds of years. ○ Modern medicine is aware of the benefits of many Australian native plants used by Aboriginal communities. However, the bio-harvesting from Country to place to produce medicinal drugs has ethical implications for local Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Communities. Many Countries to Place areas are sacred or have a significant meaning for the ethical implications for local Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities, and the knowledge about the use of native plants as traditional medicines is considered to be Indigenous cultural and intellectual property. ○ Due to the nature of the Australian climate and soil composition, many plants are slow to grow and tricky to pollinate, or they are found in small patches of remote areas. Unsustainable bio-harvesting of native plants affects the biodiversity and ecological balance of natural native plants affects the biodiversity and ecological balance of natural native Australian environments. Therefore, before starting the collection from Country to Place, pharmaceutical companies need to consult with the local land council, local elders and a Indigenous communities to understand the spiritual and biological value of the area, and reach a consensus as to how the stakeholders will benefit from the bio-harvesting in an ethical way. Module 7 - Fact or Fallacy? How can a claim be tested? Plan and conduct an investigation based on testing a claim, and consider: Validity of the If it measures what is intended experimental design Reliability of the data Repetition of experiments and able to replicated by others obtained Accuracy of the Accuracy refers to the closeness of a measured value to a standard or known value / procedure, including expected value random and systematic (Error table in Mod 6) error Using examples, evaluate the impact that sample selection and sample sizes can have on the results of an investigation Sample selection — is a target for a sample; E.g gender, ethnicity, age Methods ○ Random ○ Convenience ○ Stratified ○ Cluster ○ Systematic Sample size — measures the number of individual samples measured or observations used in a survey or experiential. E.g 100 samples = 100 is your sample size Compare emotive advertising with evidence-based claims, including but not limited to: Emotive Advertising = ads that provoke and create an emotional response from consumers. ○ Emotions targeted = sadness, empathy, worry, happiness, anger Evidence - based = uses persuasion to improve the effectiveness of advertising through the use of evidence ○ Data / statistics Efficacy = the ability to produce a desired or intended result Health claims on food Usually evidence based packaging Claims about the Usually emotive advertising efficacy of a product What factors can affect the way data can be interpreted, analysed and understood? Using examples, justify the use of placebos, double-blind trials and control groups in order to draw valid conclusions Placebo Effect ○ Missing the active ingredient ○ Is the positive effect on a person's health experienced after taking a placebo. It is triggered by the benefit of the treatment and their expectation of feeling better, rather than the specific form the placebo takes. E.g reduced anxiety - taking the placebo & expecting to feel better may soothe the autonomic nervous system & reduce the levels of stress chemicals; such as adrenaline.  Double blind trials ○ Trial where neither the researcher or the patients know what they are getting E.g the computer gives each patient a code number, and the code numbers are then allocated to the treatment groups. Control groups ○ Those in a control group get the standardised treatment for the condition. If there is no standardised treatment, those in the control group might get a placebo that might look the same, but has no active ingredient E.g in an experiment in which blood pressure medication is tested, one group is given the blood, the blood pressure medication while the control group is given a placebo pill Evaluate the impact of societal and economic influences on the collection and interpretation of data, including but not limited to: Societal influences ○ As a society we are becoming increasingly aware of the variations in climate and the effect of climate change thus it is becoming more of an influence to collect data Predicting variations in E.g. school strike for climate, companies goals to net zero carbon emissions climate Economic influences ○ Fossil fuel companies do not want to lose money thus affect the interpretation of data Why/how does wealth affect health conditions? ○ Health is a major health determinants as the higher income & social status an individual has - the higher the link to “better health” ○ The concept of health services are also strongly linked to the ‘wealth’ of people ○ Individual access or no access to health services, which help prevent & treat disease can also influence ‘Health’. Why the type of health remedies sought by individuals may differ Suggesting remedies for ○ Where we live health conditions ○ The state of our environment ○ Genetics ○ Our income all constitute to why individuals remedies may differ ○ Types of remedies sought by individuals with high SES ○ Go to a well renowned shop or company’s ○ Medical advice from professionals ○ Access to better medical treatment Types of remedies sought by individuals with low SES ○ Home remedies Social influences may affect data collected ○ Treatments vary ○ Harder to document Economic influences may affect data collected ○ A person who is well - off is able to have a wide range of medicine to use, they can also access good health & care.  Manipulation of data is the process of changing data to make it easier to read if it is organised OR manipulating the data to show a specific result. ○ Data manipulated without deliberate action: A mistake or error that the workers overlooked (systematic error) ○ Data manipulated through deliberate action: When companies only select information that only suits their need by deliberately moving or changing data that implies a different answer They might be worried about the liability of a country Manipulating statistical Reasons why data is manipulated deliberately: data ○ To make it easier to read for individuals ○ Making it easier to process ○ Making it harder for others to plagiarism / copyright Social impacts: ○ People are misled with information that may potentially be harmful to them. ○ Harmful to the public but beneficial to the business. Economic impacts: ○ People can lose a lot of money. ○ Creates a placebo effect. ○ Some firms may gain out of it, whilst others may lose. What type of evidence is needed to draw valid conclusions? Evaluate how evidence of a correlation can be misinterpreted as causation, including but not limited to: Is a phenomenon in which individuals alter their behaviour in response to being observed. ○ E.g workers participating in a study might, e.g// temporarily become more productive as a result of being observed Negative uses = ○ May not be an accurate representation ○ Create a certain level of stress, anxiety The Hawthorne effect ○ It is not intended to be a permanent change, as people are scared Effect uses = ○ Used to describe a change in behaviour of an individual given their awareness of being observed E.g when the principal is present, the students act more behaved compared to if a casual teacher is present ○ Improve productivity ○ More motivated ○ More organised & efficient Hormone replacement therapy, also known as menopausal hormone therapy or postmenopausal hormone therapy, is a form of hormone therapy used to treat symptoms 1991 study that linked associated with female menopause hormone replacement Claim = claimed to limit the chances of coronary heart disease, after they went through HRT therapy to coronary Findings of the study that revealed the placebo effect of the HRT heart disease ○ Showed that women using this saw no progress ○ The study was not valid - shown by the investigation / data ○ However, the women thought that, it would reduce the chances of coronary heart disease ○ HRT actually caused breast cancer & CHD, so women stopped taking it  Classical music - specifically Mozart - decreases incidents of anxiety & depression. Also, demonstrated an improvement in communication skills & increase in creativity in his young subjects. How did he justify his claim? ○ Mozart justified his claim by closely examining, observing and experimenting on the behaviour of rats. ○ As rats raised on listening to Mozart are able to run mazes faster than other rats that The Mozart Effect on listened to other composes or music at all child development Correlation between listening to music and learning in children? ○ There is a positive correlation between listening to music & improved learning skills ○ However, the effects of Mozart’s music have not proven directly for increasing the IQ of children What type of evidence is needed to draw valid conclusions? ○ Consistent data and evidence that can be located in a variety of secondary sources. ○ Also, if the data gathered relates to the overall purpose of the investigation and aim Why was the claim by studies of Dr. Alfred A. Tomatis later disputed? ○ Because their study showed that Mozart’s music had a profound effect on human cognition, but further studies showed that there was no real link between Mozart and IQ. How does the reporting of science influence the general public’s understanding of the subject? Examine a contemporary scientific debate and how it is portrayed in the mainstream media, including but not limited to: Genetically modified organisms is a term commonly used to describe crops produced through plant breeding technique that uses a specific type of genetic engineering Essentially, plant breeders take the gene for a specific trait in one plant or microbe & insert it into the cells of a crop ○ E.g animals (mammals, fish, insects, plants (maize, rice, soybean), bacteria (viruses) Accuracy of information The accuracy of the information was verified, by the information being substantiated in more than 1 reputable / reliable source on GMOs. This ensures similar findings can be considered accurate & answered if GMO’s are indeed safe or not safe. By ensuring that the information was related to the problem being investigated - ‘GMO’s are Validity of data safe’ There were a variety of precautions that were taken to ensure maximum reliability; these Reliability of include, checking and verifying the author's credentials about what field they specialise in, information sources whether there were traces of bias, if the data gathered was collected by using an appropriate method & measuring devices as well as the website / publication background to determine its reputability. Evaluate the use and interpretation of the terms ‘theory’, ‘hypothesis’, ‘belief’ and ‘law’ in relation to media reporting of scientific developments Theory ○ Explanation of why phenomena happen and is supported by empirical evidence. ○ A proposed explanation whose status is subject to debate and verification. Hypothesis ○ An initial explanation or conception of an observed phenomenon that is tested scientifically and is either supported or rejected by the empirical evidence. ○ A proposition or explanation put forward as the basis of an argument.  Belief ○ A mechanism through which humans understand the world. A scientific belief system is one which requires empirical evidence to support a claim ○ A faith-based belief system to which one ascribes with no requirement for empirical evidence. Law ○ Description, usually expressed as a mathematical relationship, of what happens in a phenomenon under given conditions. ○ The regulations that must be complied with, set down by an authoritative body. Compare the difference in reporting between a peer-reviewed journal article and a scientific article published in popular media Peer Review: ○ A large range of scientific papers are submitted to journals for publication, and the editors of these journals do not have sufficient expertise in the various science fields to know if every paper is valid & reliable enough to pass scrutiny. For this reason, reputable journals require that papers be peer reviewed. This means that before being published, the submitted papers are sent out to scientists working in the field who are familiar with that area of research. The peer reviewer then provides feedback to the journal editor about any concerns, problems or inconsistencies regarding the paper. The more scientists that peer review the research paper prior to publication, the greater the level of trust in the paper can be assumed. Peer reviewed journal article ○ Done by someone else who specialises in that specific field. ○ Higher calibre ○ Different levels in which they are regarded. ○ Tested, through a method with trials Scientific article ○ Anyone can tell you anything. ○ Not trialed, instead an opinion. Analyse how conflicts of interest can result in scientific evidence being suppressed, misinterpreted or misrepresented and discuss measures to counteract such conflicts, including but not limited to: What is the conflict? ○ Cigarette industries own scientific research had confirmed the presence of carcinogens (a chemical known to cause cancer) in cigarette smoke and established a causal link between smoking & lung cancer Tobacco industry and lung cancer Evidence suppressed? ○ Rather than adapt or change their business models, cigarette companies embarked on a campaign of denial & misinformation. The tobacco industry's only meaningful response to public concern was to add filters to their cigarettes. The effectiveness of these filters was minimal & only served as a means of delaying real action Measures to counteract such conflicts. ○ Visual health warnings in an effect to improve public health through the reduction of cigarette smoking  What is the conflict? ○ The burning of fossil fuels by humans & the subsequent release of CO2 & other greenhouse gases was causing global temperatures to rise & the climate to shift. Evidence suppressed? ○ Exxon now (Exxon Mobil) suppressed a series of internal documents that showed Fossil fuel industry and their own climate scientists had warned Exxon’s. Management committee as early as climate change 1977 there is general scientific agreement that the most likely manner in which mankind is influencing the global climate is through Co2 release from burning fossil fuels. Measures to counteract such conflicts. ○ Exxon & other fossil fuel corporations have spent millions of dollars on campaigns & lobbying government officials. Their aim was to deny & mislead the public & governments on the climate in order to delay meaningful action on legislating to reduce carbon emissions. What is the conflict? ○ Concerns were raised about products being advertised on the market. The main concern is that some products are unable to perform what they are supposed to. Evidence suppressed? Commercial industries ○ E.g. Weedkiller products are more toxic than their active ingredient researching products for market ○ After more than 40 years of widespread use, new scientific tests show formulated weed killers have higher rates of toxicity to human cells Measures to counteract such conflicts. ○ Funding to research → so that society is aware of the effects of the products they are purchasing on the market. Not only this but consumers must take their time and research what they are intending to purchase because they may be unaware of the long-term effects of these marketed products. What is the conflict? ○ Concerns were raised about the safety of asbestos mines as early as 1899, when people began to note the negative health effects of being exposed to asbestos dust. Asbestos mining and Evidence suppressed? lung cancer ○ In 1943 - Samac Laboratory in NY confirmed the link between dust and lung cancer - However was suppressed as the death toll continued to increase abnormally. As well as mining corporations refusing to acknowledge the damage to work as health & seek compensation for asbestos - related diseases Measures to counteract such conflicts. ○ This conflict was counteracted with the introduction of Australia’s wide ban (2003) on the manufacture & safety legislation was also introduced for the safe removal & disposal of materials containing asbestos Describe the halo effect and, using examples, explain how the influence of positive perceptions can result in the rejection of valid alternative perspectives, including but not limited to: The tendency for an impression created in one area to influence opinion in another area ‘HiSmile’ is constantly endorsed by popular, well-known celebrities - which causes people to Celebrities endorsing believe it whitens teeth instantly without the conduction of research regarding the properties products or viewpoints of the product and information about the product. Kim Kardashian → Diet Lollipops, don't actually do anything but got a lot more sales due to her endorsement  Popular brand Coles advertised bread that was ‘freshly baked’ but it arrived frozen and wasn’t baked there, companies making which resulted in them receiving a fine from the ACCC. Misleading advertising Panadol claimed to have a variety of products to suit specific needs (i.e back, period pain and claims headaches but it turned out that the products had the same ingredients and were costing more money for consumers. Using examples, analyse a pseudoscientific claim and how scientific language and processes can be manipulated to sway public opinion, including but not limited to: A pseudoscience that claims that a person’s past, current & future life circumstances can be explained by the position of the planet in the solar system at the time they were born Astrology Language used in Astrology: ○ Planet names E.g jupiter ○ Constellation ○ Horoscope Any belief in the divine or mystical relationships between a number & one or more coinciding events Language used in numerology: Numerology ○ Use of numbers in astrology charts ○ Prediction of life events ○ Prediction of personal traits Pythagoras Is an alternative medicine technique whose proponents claim that patterns, colour & other characteristics of the Iris can be examined to determine information about a patient's systemic health Iridology Language used in Iridology: ○ They harp on the scientific names of the eye E.g Iris ○ Cholesterol rings ○ Nerve rings ○ Lymphatic rosary Can the scientific community and process of peer review find ‘the truth’? Conduct an investigation using secondary sources to research a scientist who has falsified their scientific experimental results, and discuss the process used to uncover the fraudulent research Name: ○ Ranjit Chandra (canada) Area of Research: ○ former nutrition researcher at Memorial University of Newfoundland and self- proclaimed “father of nutritional immunology” Fraudulent activity/ies: ○ Accused by the British Medical Journal of committing scientific fraud - his fraud was also the subject of a 2006 documentary by the Canadian Broadcasting corporation. How was the fraudulent research uncovered: ○ A trial (jury) in July 2015, conducted that the allegations made by the British Medical Journal of fraud were truthful. Consequences? ○ Due to these allegations, a number of his scientific articles have been retracted - an issue for his arrest was issued in relation to medical fraud & gaming of the Canadian medical system after losing his job as an academic.  Motive of the scientist in manipulating data? ○ To study whether infant formulas could help babies avoid allergy problems - he found whose parents had allergies and who were willing to participate. - However, scientists such as Harvey were the 1st to raise concerns disputing the accuracy. ○ Chandra found that the Nestle & Mead Johnson formulas could protect infants from allergies - after he designed the experiment - he then claimed that he had not been paid enough to properly perform the studies. Analyse the scientific debate surrounding ‘publication’ and discuss the implications of scientists’ need to ‘publish or perish’ Benefits of scientists publishing their work: ○ Boost their career - making it successful ○ Full credit ○ Society benefits - E.g with new findings that can prolong life or cure certain facets in society Negatives of not publishing their work: ○ Very expensive ○ Others can steal the credit ○ Losing credit can cause scientific career to dramatically decline Reasons people don’t publish: ○ Fear of being copied ○ Others taking their work ○ Fear of being rejected ○ Fear of failure ○ Don't want to be embarrassed publicly ○ Scooping? = someone else publishing 1st & therefore getting the credit Why are scientists held in higher regard? ○ Science is in theory, not about people but ideas ○ Science affects all of humanity, such as disease prevention or renewable energy technology ○ Communal science = is a gathering of ideas, information & resources between a collective of scientists for mutual accomplishment of a task or project. Evaluate the increasing volume of scientific papers being published and assess the feasibility of science to effectively manage, review, replicate and validate investigations, for example: Fusion occurs when two light atoms, like hydrogen, join together, or fuse, into a single heavier storm, releasing a lot of energy in the process. Their discovery seemed to offer a potential solution to the energy crisis: cheap energy, without pollutants or radioactive waste. Their Hypothesis — that inside a sample of palladium, deuterium atoms would be forced Pons and Fleischmann's close enough to cause them to fuse together. cold fusion Societal benefits = energy at a low cost announcement in 1989 How they did the experiment! ○ Pons and Fleischmann built a “fusion cell”, essentially of two pieces of metal, one palladium & the other platinum, submerged in a container or heavy water (water in which the hydrogen is replaced by deuterium). An electric current split the heavy water molecules, producing deuterium gas & oxygen. The deuterium could then be absorbed into the palladium. If fusion were occurring inside the palladium, they would expect it to produce a large amount of energy.  A fictional paper authorised by Simpsons characters Edna Krabappel and Maggie Simpson, as Alex Smolyanitsky’s well as someone called Kim Jong Fun - has just been accepted into two scientific journals falsified scientific paper The paper was created as a hoax set out to expose predatory journals using the pseudonyms In an attempt to raise awareness about these scam journals, US engineer Alex Smolyanitsky Maggie Simpson and recently created this completely incoherent “scientific paper using a random text generator. Edna Krabapple, accepted for He added a fake university (Belford University) publication in 2014 The journal of computational intelligence & Electronic systems accepted the paper immediately - while the other waited a month before publishing - sending invoices for a $459 publishing fee. A reporter published a fake study to expose how terrible some scientific journals are A reporter for the Ottawa Citizen wrote a plagiarised, completely incoherent paper about soils, cancer treatment & mars, and 8 scientific journals want to publish it. **THESE FOR - PROFIT JOURNALS PUBLISH WITHOUT PEER - REVIEW** Tom Spears’ nonsense journal submission accepted for ○ To expose predatory science journals publication in 2013 ○ So called “predatory” - journals are online - only, for profit operations that take advantage of inexperienced researchers under pressure to publish their work in any outlet that seems superficially legitimate. ○ Respected, rigorous journals like science & nature that publish much of the research you read about in the news for one - the predatory journals don’t conduct peer review - the process where other scientists in the field evaluate a paper before it's published. Analyse the benefits of peer review in relation to the advancement of science It helps ensure that papers published in scientific journals answer meaningful research questions and draw accurate conclusions based on professionally executed experimentation. The major advantage of a peer review process is that peer-reviewed articles provide a trusted form of scientific communication. Establishes the validity of research based upon the expert knowledge of other researchers in the discipline, therefore preventing falsified work from being accepted within an area of study. Provides valuable feedback so that researchers can revise and improve their papers before publication. Discuss the impact of fake science journals on the public perception of science Positives ○ Captivate the interest of the public (those who don’t have an interest in science) OR simulates interest. ○ Gives ideas for other researchers to work on something ○ Increased readership → free for all Negatives ○ Misleads the public into believing an aspect of science that is not true ○ False information can potentially harm humanity ○ Businesses who publish these fake journals will have a bad reputation and potentially lose profit Module 8 - Science and Society How do science-related events affect society’s view of science? Investigate case studies of past events to consider how they have affected the public image of science, including but not limited to: A nuclear meltdown described a malfunction of a nuclear reactor. The term “nuclear meltdown” is commonly used by the public and by the news media, but nuclear engineers usually refer to it as a core melt accident. A nuclear meltdown occurs when the middle portion of the nuclear reactor containing the fuel rods (its “core”) is not properly cooled This can occur when the college system fails or is otherwise defective. If this happens, uranium or plutonium or similar materials inside the nuclear reactor becomes hot and may start melting or disabling. It is this meeting that is a nuclear meltdown. Nuclear retorts generate energy through a process called nuclear fission Examples of Nuclear Reactor Meltdowns: ○ Chernobyl — 1986 chanyeol incident is one of the most famous examples of science gone wrong. The incident occurred as a combined result of flawed reactor design, Meltdowns of nuclear insufficient staff training & communication & failure to adequately follow safety reactors regulations. Implications to society: ○ Short term immediate relocation of those living within 30 km of the nuclear plant site Pressure on healthcare system from the hospitalisation of people who suffered acute radiation syndrome Loss of income for power plant workers & others who earned a living through agriculture in the surrounding areas ○ Long term International spread of radioactive products over almost 30 countries Accumulation of radioactive compounds such as plutonium, iodine & strontium in food chains & water source Continued pressure on healthcare by those who require ongoing treatment for cancer & radiation exposure Ongoing threats to agriculture industry Edward Jenner in 1796, observed that milkmaids who previously had caught cowpox thus he injected a young boy with cowpox to test the theory What causes smallpox infection? ○ Caused by an infection with variola virus. The virus can be transmitted: Directly (person to person), indirectly (from an infected, via contaminated items). Development of the Effects of smallpox infection smallpox vaccine ○ Person can actually die ○ Symptoms = fever, vomiting, spots & rashes Methods to treat smallpox before the vaccine was invented? ○ They used to grind up smallpox that they scraped from patients wounds and blow it into noses of non - infected patients How is smallpox & cowpox related? ○ Cowpox is also called vaccina, a mildly eruptive disclosure of cows that when transmitted to otherwise healthy humans produces immunity to smallpox.  How has the development of flight changed over time? ○ People travel more, more tourism ○ Import and export, transfer of goods are easier (mail) ○ More expensive ○ Learn more and well connected ○ Creates a barrier between the social classes E.g 1st class, business Why was it slow in early years? ○ Technology was not as advanced ○ Knowledge was not there nor available ○ Types of materials were not easily available Development of flight ○ More dangers with risks ○ Not enough people who were educated THE LATEST DEVELOPMENT IN FLIGHT = SOLAR FIGHT AROUND THE WORLD (2016*) Advantages ○ People are able to travel more ○ Export goods and import ○ Connect with people geographically Disadvnatges ○ Highly expensive ○ Barriers with social class ○ Pollution - immense amounts (the amount of fuel used) - fossil fuels — waste from planes goes in the ocean What is the damming of a river? ○ The process of blocking a river or stream using a dam (large wall) made from materials such as rock or concrete. Reasons for damming include: ○ To supply water for households and agricultural irrigation, providing a place for recreation activities and generating clean, renewable energy in a controlled manner. Advantages ○ Generates clean, renewable energy that does not produce greenhouse gases. ○ Supplies household water. ○ Supplies water used for agricultural irrigation. ○ Electricity is generated in a controlled manner. ○ Can be used as a form of recreation for nearby camping sites such as boating, water Positive and negative skiing and swimming. aspects of damming Disadvantages rivers ○ Organisms that have adapted to the amount of dissolved oxygen, chemical composition, temperature, timing and quantity of water flow may not cope with the changes to the ecosystem. ○ Loss of biodiversity. ○ Changes to the physical properties of the river. ○ Prevents fish migration in species that spawn in different habitats from which they live. ○ Stops naturally occurring sediment from accumulating downstream. Example ○ Franklin dam in Tasmania ○ Big protests and lobbying by locals caused the dam to never be constructed Why is scientific research regulated? Investigate the need for the regulation of scientific research in, for example: What is genetic modification, specifically what is genetic modification of sex cells and embryos? ○ A process where the gene/s of an organism are altered in order to achieve a desired outcome such as glow in the dark fish ○ Sex cells = Gametes/germ cells, Embryo = sperm + egg cells combine → zygote → embryo → foetus In Australia, what is the Council that prohibits ‘human genetic cloning and associated technologies’? What is the Committee called? What penalties are associated with non-compliance of Australian code? ○ NHMRC = National Health and Medical Research Council Genetic modification ○ Embryo research licensing committee of sex cells and ○ Fines and excluded from research for several years embryo What is gene manipulation? Do the ethics vary from germline (genetic modification) to somatic cell (gene manipulation) therapy? Why/why not? ○ Gene manipulation → can be a temporary process CRISPR baby scandal ○ Chinese scientist completed gene modification without correct ethical procedures being followed ○ 2018 → twins (modified at the blastocyst stage) ○ Attempting to make the twins immune to HIV ○ Scientist was imprisoned ○ Because germ line cells were modified, these children will face ramifications and further ethical issues later in life such as should they have kids themselves Investigate and assess ethical issues surrounding current scientific research in, for example: Can informed consent be given? Could it create economic and social inequalities? Gene manipulation in Could it increase discrimination biotechnology Could there be unintended consequences? The long term effects aren't known Could genetic manipulation be used maliciously? ○ CRISPR babies Investigate a range of international scientific codes of conduct in regard to scientific research and practice in the areas of, for example: Convention on the rights of a child ○ Any decision concerning children has to be the primary consideration Surrogacy ○ Every child has the right to a nationality, to be registered and to know and be cared for by their parents ○ Children should not be sold Evaluate the effectiveness of international regulation in scientific research and practice How do economic, social and political influences affect scientific research? Evaluate the costs involved in space exploration compared to investments in social issues, for example poverty and human global food supply Billions spent on space exploration ○ US → US$25.8 billion into the Apollo missions but $212 billion per year on welfare Technologies that have been developed for public use as a result of space exploration programs ○ CAT scans and MRI’s Yet they weren’t invented in a laboratory or a hospital, but rather thanks to research done by the U.S. space program. It was NASA scientists that originally utilised digital signal processing to produce computer-improved images of the Moon during the various Apollo missions, this di