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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Welcome to the world of Anatomy & Physiology! Your course CN 100 is one of the...

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Welcome to the world of Anatomy & Physiology! Your course CN 100 is one of the most exciting courses in the Nursing Curriculum. Mastering the course will help you understand your future Nursing courses better. So, buckle up because your journey starts now! Wright, Taynnel L In this Chapter, you will learn about: (1) Definition Anatomy and Physiology; (2) The Different Levels of Organization That Make Up the Human Body; (3) Overview of The Body Systems; (4) The Characteristics of Life And (5) Basic Anatomy and Terminologies that you will frequently encounter in the succeeding chapters of the course. LESSON 1. DEFINITION OF TERMS In this section you will learn about definition of terms of Anatomy and Physiology and its branches. After studying the section, you must have: a. Defined Anatomy and Physiology, b. Identified at least 5 branches of Anatomy, and c. Identified at least 3 branches of Physiology.  CN 100 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY: CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY Warm-up Activity FILL-IN THE BLANKS. Fill in the missing letters as quickly as you can. Hint: Anatomy and Physiology terms. 1. ___ ___ ___ ___ O ___ Y 2. ___ ___ T O __ __ G Y 3. ___ H ___ S___ ___ L ___ ___ Y Central Activities a. ANATOMY (structure) Anatomy is the study of structures that make up the body and the relationship of these structures to one another. It is-the science of body structures and the relationships among them. It was first studied by dissection, the careful cutting apart of body structures to study their relationships. Anatomy came from the Greek words: Ana which means “up” and Temnein/temos/tomos which means “to cut”. That explains the history of its origin as scholars used cadavers and cut them up or dissected them to study the human body. i.pinimg.com You can do further research on the history of Anatomy. Anatomy is divided into many branches. Among these include the following: Branches 1. Regional anatomy is the study of specific regions of the body such as the head or chest. 2. Systemic anatomy is the study of structure of specific systems of the body such as the nervous or respiratory 3. Gross anatomy is the study of structures that can be examined without a microscope. 4. Microscopic anatomy is the study of structures with the aid of microscope 5. Developmental anatomy is the study of the complete development of an individual from fertilization to death. 6. Pathological anatomy is the study of structural changes (gross to microscopic) associated with path- disease) disease. 7. Histology is the study of microscopic structure of tissues. 8. Radiographic anatomy is the study of body structures that can be visualized with techniques such as x-rays, MRI, and CT scans. Mariano Marcos State University College of Health Sciences 2 Department of Nursing  CN 100 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY: CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY 9. Cytology is the study of cell. 10. Blanchology is the study of internal organs. 11. Embryology is the study of the first eight weeks of development after fertilization of a human egg These are among the selected branches of anatomy which are considered significant in the medical profession. However, you may do further research on other branches of anatomy. b. PHYSIOLOGY (function) is the science of body function. It is the study of how the body parts work. It comes from the Greek words Physis, which means “nature, origin” and Logos meaning “the science/study of”. Just like Anatomy, Physiology also has its own branches. Among these are the following, which are considered significant in the medical profession: Branches 1. Neurophysiology is the study of the functional properties of nerve cells. 2. Cardiovascular physiology is the study of functions of the heart and blood vessels. 3. Respiratory physiology study of the functions of the air passageways and lungs 4. Pathophysiology is the study of functional changes associated with disease and aging. You may read more on the different branches of physiology on the suggested references. Activity 1. Test your knowledge! Before we move on to the next section, it’s time for you to evaluate first what you have learned by answering the following questions. Are you ready? Let’s get going! You will find the Answer Key at the end of the lesson. 1. Which of the terms discussed means “to cut up”? a. Anatomy b. Physiology 2. Blanchnology is the study of: a. Minute structures with the aid of the microscope. b. Human growth, development from fertilized egg to mature adult c. Internal organs d. Prenatal development 3. Pathological anatomy is the: a. Study of the body by system b. Study of the specific regions of the body c. Study of prenatal development d. Study of changes in diseased cells and tissues. Mariano Marcos State University College of Health Sciences 3 Department of Nursing  CN 100 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY: CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY Wrap -up Activity RECALL: 1. Anatomy is the study of the structures of the human body. It has many branches: regional, systemic, gross, microscopic, developmental, pathological, histology, radiographic, cytology, blanchology and embryology among others. 2. Physiology is the study of how body parts function. And like Anatomy, it has its own branches too: neurophysiology, cardiovascular, respiratory and pathophysiology among others. Now you can move to the next topic! Let’s get going! Mariano Marcos State University College of Health Sciences 4 Department of Nursing  CN 100 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY: CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY LESSON 2. LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY Introduction of the Lesson and Presentation of Outcomes In this section you will learn about the different levels of organization that make up the human body. After studying the section, you must have: a. Identified at least 3 levels of organization of the human body and b. Compare and contrast at least 2 organizations of the human body. Warm-up Activity CHECK UP: As quickly and as honestly as you could, check the following boxes of statements that you believe you have knowledge of.  The six distinct levels of organization of the human body are: chemical, organelle, cell, tissue, organ, system, organism.  The simplest in the structural ladder are chemicals.  Small structure contained within a cell that performs one or more specific functions are organelles.  The cell is the basic structural and functional units of an organism.  Cells that group together are called tissues. Tissues have four basic types: epithelial, connective, muscular and nervous.  Organs are composed of two or more tissue types that together perform one or more common functions.  Organs that group together and perform related function is called system.  Organism is a living individual composed of different systems that work together. Central Activities Your exploration of the human body will extend from atoms and molecules to the whole person. From the smallest to the largest, six distinct levels of organization will help you to understand anatomy and physiology: the chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, system, and organismal levels of organization. i.pinimg.com Mariano Marcos State University College of Health Sciences 5 Department of Nursing  CN 100 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY: CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY Just imagine, the levels of organization of a language—letters, words, sentences, paragraphs, and so on—can be compared to the levels of organization of the human body. What are the Distinct Levels of Organization of the Human body? They are as follows: 1. CHEMICAL. The simplest level of the structural ladder. It includes atoms, the smallest units of matter that participate in chemical reactions, and molecules, two or more atoms joined together. Certain atoms, such as carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), calcium (Ca), and sulfur (S), are essential for maintaining life. What are the two familiar molecules found in the body? Organelle. It is a small structure contained within a cell that performs one or more specific functions. Examples are your nucleus, ribosomes and endoplasmic reticulum. You will know more about this when you study about the cells. i.pinimg.com 2. CELL. It is the basic structural and functional units of an organism that are composed of chemicals. Among the many kinds of cells in your body are muscle cells, nerve cells, and epithelial cells. You will know more about this when you study about the cells. 3. TISSUE. These are groups of cells and the materials surrounding them that work together to perform a particular function. There are just four basic types of tissues in your body: epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscular tissue, and nervous tissue. Epithelial tissue covers body surfaces, lines They are similar to the way hollow organs and cavities, and forms glands. words are put together to form Connective tissue connects, supports, and sentences. protects body organs while distributing blood i.pinimg.com vessels to other tissues. Muscular tissue contracts to make body parts move and generates heat. Nervous tissue carries information from one part of the body to another through nerve impulses. You will know more about this when you study about the Tissues. 5. ORGANS. These are composed of two or more tissue types that together perform one or more common functions. At the organ level different types of tissues are joined together. Mariano Marcos State University College of Health Sciences 6 Department of Nursing  CN 100 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY: CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY Similar to the relationship between Organs have specific functions and sentences and paragraphs, organs are usually have recognizable shapes. Examples of organs are the structures that are composed of two or stomach, skin, bones, heart, liver, more different types of tissues. i.pinimg.com lungs, and brain. 6. SYSTEM. It consists of related organs (paragraphs) with a common function. An example of the system level, also called the organsystem level, is the digestive system, which breaks down and absorbs food. Its organs include the mouth, salivary glands, pharynx (throat), esophagus (food tube), stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, Figure 1. The levels of organization of the human body. Photo credit: PAP © 2014. © Gerard J. Tortora, L.L.C., Bryan Derrickson, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. gallbladder, and pancreas. Sometimes an organ is part of more than one system. The pancreas, for example, is part of both the digestive system and the hormone-producing endocrine system. Mariano Marcos State University College of Health Sciences 7 Department of Nursing  CN 100 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY: CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY 7. ORGANISM. This is a living individual that can be compared to a book in our analogy. All the parts of the human body functioning together constitute the total organism. Activity 2. Test your knowledge! Before we move on to the next section, it’s time for you to evaluate first what you have learned by answering the following questions. Are you ready? Let’s get going! You will find the Answer Key at the end of the lesson. 1. The following are examples of organs in the body. Which one is not? b. Neurons c. Stomach c. Heart d. Lungs 2. Enumerate the six distinct levels of organization of the human body starting from greatest to least. 3. Compare and contrast an organelle and a cell. Wrap-up Activity RECALL: 1. The six distinct levels of organization of the human body are: chemical, organelle, cell, tissue, organ, system, organism. 2. The simplest in the structural ladder are chemicals. 3. Small structure contained within a cell that performs one or more specific functions are organelles. 4. The cell is the basic structural and functional units of an organism. 5. Cells that group together are called tissues. Tissues have four basic types: epithelial, connective, muscular and nervous. 6. Organs are composed of two or more tissue types that together perform one or more common functions. 7. Organs that group together and perform related function is called system. 8. Organism is a living individual composed of different systems that work together. How are you doing so far? Are you having fun yet? On to the next topic! Mariano Marcos State University College of Health Sciences 8 Department of Nursing  CN 100 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY: CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY LESSON 3. OVERVIEW OF THE BODY SYSTEMS In this section you will learn about the Overview of the Body Systems, which you will study more in detail as you progress through the course. After studying the section, you must have: a. Identified at least five (5) body systems, b. Discuss the functions of at least two (2) systems of the body and c. Differentiate at least three (3) systems of the body. Warm-up Activity Can you GUESS THE PICTURE? This a small portion of a picture. Clue: System of the body. Answer at the end of the lesson. Mariano Marcos State University College of Health Sciences 9 Department of Nursing  CN 100 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY: CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY Central Activities In this section, you will have a bird’s eye-view of the 11 systems of the body that you will be studying more in detail later on. Among the body systems include: Integumentary, Skeletal, Muscular, Nervous, Endocrine, Cardiovascular, Lymphatic, Respiratory, Digestive, Urinary, and Reproductive. Brief discussion of the components and general functions are as follow: 1. INTEGUMENTARY Components: skin and all other structures derived from it (hair, nails, sweat glands) Functions: Protects body; helps regulate body temperature; eliminates some wastes; helps make vitamin D; detects sensations such as touch, pain, warmth, and cold; stores fat and provides insulation. Integumentary system. Photo credit: http://www.slideshare.net/flattail/02- integumentary-system 2. SKELETAL Components: Bones and joints of the body and their associated cartilages and ligaments. Functions: Supports and protects body; provides surface area for muscle attachments; aids body movements; houses cells that produce blood cells; stores minerals and lipids (fats). Skeletal system. Photo credit: https://www.pinterest.ie/pin/377598749979813919/ 3. MUSCULAR Components: All of the muscles in the body specifically the skeletal muscle tissue—muscle usually attached to bones (other muscle tissues include smooth and cardiac). Functions: Participates in body movements, such as walking; maintains posture; produces heat. Muscular system. Photo credit: PAP © 2014. © Gerard J. Tortora, L.L.C., Bryan Derrickson, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Mariano Marcos State University College of Health Sciences 10 Department of Nursing  CN 100 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY: CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY 4. NERVOUS Components: Brain, spinal cord, nerves, and special sense organs/receptors, such as eyes and ears. Functions: Body’s main control and regulating system; Generates action potentials (nerve impulses) to regulate body activities; detects changes in body’s internal and external environments, interprets changes, and responds by causing muscular contractions or glandular secretions. Nervous system. Photo credit: https://www.sciencephoto.com/media/441966/view/human-nervous-system- artwork 5. ENDOCRINE Components: Hormone-producing glands (pineal gland, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thymus, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries, and testes) and hormone-producing cells in several other organs. Functions: Participates in the regulation of metabolism, growth, reproduction and other processes; Regulates body activities by releasing hormones (chemical messengers transported in blood from endocrine gland or tissue to target organ Endocrine system. Photo credit: http://welloflifecenter.com/2014/03/your- endocrine-system-the-key-to-a-happy-body/ 6. CARDIOVASCULAR Components: Heart, blood and blood vessels. Functions: Heart pumps blood through blood vessels; blood carries oxygen and nutrients to cells and carbon dioxide and wastes away from cells and helps regulate acid–base balance, temperature, and water content of body fluids; blood components help defend against disease and repair damaged blood vessels. Cardiovascular system. Photo credit: PAP © 2014. © Gerard J. Tortora, L.L.C., Bryan Derrickson, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 7. LYMPHATIC Components: Lymphatic fluid and vessels; spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, and tonsils; cells that carry out immune responses (B cells, T cells, and others). Mariano Marcos State University College of Health Sciences 11 Department of Nursing  CN 100 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY: CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY Functions: Returns proteins and fluids to blood; carries lipids from gastrointestinal tract to blood; contains sites of maturation and proliferation of B cells and T cells that protect against disease-causing microbes. Lymphatic system. Photo credit: https://www.lgdalliance.org/patient- professional-resources/ 8. RESPIRATORY Components: Lungs and air passageways such as the pharynx (throat), larynx (voice box), trachea (windpipe), and bronchial tubes leading into and out of lungs. Functions: Transfers oxygen from inhaled air to blood and carbon dioxide from blood to exhaled air; helps regulate acid–base balance of body fluids; air flowing out of lungs through vocal cords produces sounds. Respiratory system. Photo credit: http://redspottednewt.weebly.com/gas- exchange.html 9. DIGESTIVE Components: Oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, SI, LI, rectum; also includes accessory organs that assist in digestive processes, such as salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. Functions: Achieves physical and chemical breakdown of food; absorbs nutrients; eliminates solid wastes; Breaks down large molecules of food physically and chemically until they are small enough to be absorbed into the bloodstream from SI Digestive system. Photo credit: https://www.dreamstime.com/royalty-free- stock-photos-human-digestive-system-image4230818 10. URINARY Components: Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. Functions: Produces, stores, and eliminates urine; eliminates wastes and regulates volume and chemical composition of blood; helps maintain the acid–base balance of Mariano Marcos State University College of Health Sciences 12 Department of Nursing  CN 100 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY: CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY body fl uids; maintains body’s mineral balance; helps regulate production of red blood cells. Urinary system. Photo credit: PAP © 2014. © Gerard J. Tortora, L.L.C., Bryan Derrickson, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 11. REPRODUCTIVE Components: Male- testes, scrotum, penis, accessory glands and duct system Female- ovary, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina Functions: Gonads produce gametes (sperm or oocytes) that unite to form a new organism; gonads also release hormones that regulate reproduction and other body processes; associated organs transport and store gametes; mammary glands produce milk. Reproductive system. Photo credit: http://missbelmonte.weebly.com/reproductive-system.html After reading through the different system, what did you notice? Do you think the different body systems influence one another? What makes you think that? CAN YOU GUESS THE PICTURE? A human brain. The brain is part of the Nervous System. The human brain weighs approximately 1.4 kg (3 pounds) and is made up of billions of cells called neurons. Photo credit: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jHxyP-nUhUY Mariano Marcos State University College of Health Sciences 13 Department of Nursing  CN 100 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY: CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY Activity 3. Test your knowledge! Before we move on to the next section, it’s time for you to evaluate first what you have learned by answering the following questions. Are you ready? Let’s get going! You will find the Answer Key at the end of the lesson. 1. The Skeletal system is composed of the following structures, except: b. Bones c. Spinal Cord c. Ligaments d. Joints 2. What system generates action potentials to regulate body activities a. Muscular c. Nervous b. Renal d. Respiratory 3. What system regulates body activities by releasing hormones? a. Nervous c. Endocrine b. Reproductive d. Digestive Wrap-up Activity RECALL: There are about 11 systems of the body. The integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, cardiovascular, lymphatics, respiratory, digestive, endocrine, urinary, reproductive. Aside from these systems, another special system that you will learn in the succeeding lesson is the special senses. You’re almost done with the module! Keep it coming! Mariano Marcos State University College of Health Sciences 14 Department of Nursing  CN 100 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY: CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY LESSON 4. CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE Introduction of the Lesson and Presentation of Outcomes In this section you will learn about the different characteristics of life that help differentiate a living organism from a non- living. After studying the section, you must have: a. Identified at least five (5) characteristics of life and b. Discuss least two (2) survival needs. Warm-up Activity THREE WORDS: As quick as you can, think of three words (3) that comes into your mind about the characteristics of life. Write them down and at the end of the lesson, get back to them and see if you got it right! Central Activities What makes us different from others? More specifically, what makes a living thing different from a non-living one? In this section, you will learn the different characteristics of life. Mores o, these characteristics can all be seen in a living organism, albeit a human being. That’s us! You will even be able to relate yourself as you will learn these characteristics one by one. What are the different Characteristics of Life? 1. RESPONSIVENESS Responsiveness permits an organism to sense, monitor, respond in changes in its external/internal environment. It is the body’s ability to detect and respond to changes. Mariano Marcos State University College of Health Sciences 15 Department of Nursing  CN 100 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY: CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY For example, an increase in body temperature during a fever represents a change in the internal i.pinimg.com environment (within the body) colourbox.com 2. CONDUCTIVITY Refers to the capacity of living cells and tissues to selectively transmit or propagate a wave of excitation from one point to another within the body Copyright © 2014. © Gerard J. Tortora, L.L.C., Bryan Derrickson, John Wiley & 3. GROWTH Growth occurs as a result of normal increase in the size or number of cells. It is an increase in body size that results from an increase in the size of existing cells, an increase in the number of cells, or both. In addition, a tissue sometimes increases in size because the amount of material between cells increases. Mariano Marcos State University College of Health Sciences 16 Department of Nursing  CN 100 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY: CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY In a growing bone, for example, mineral deposits accumulate between bone cells, causing the bone to grow in length and width. Copyright The Straits Times 4. RESPIRATION It involves processes that result in the absorption, utilization or exchange of respiratory gases (O2 & CO2 between an organism and its environment 5. DIGESTION This is the process by which complex food products are broken down into simpler substances that can be absorbed and used by individual body cells 6. Absorption Absorption is the movement of digested nutrient thru the wall of digestive tube and into the body fluids to transport to cells for use. Mariano Marcos State University College of Health Sciences 17 Department of Nursing  CN 100 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY: CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY plincco.blogspot.com Photo credit:https://ramneetkaur.com 7. SECRETION This is the production and delivery of specialized substances such as digestive juices, and hormones for diverse body functions. 8. EXCRETION This is the removal of waste products produced during many body functions, including the breakdown and use of nutrients in the cell. Photo credit: https://www.quora.com/Which- body-organs-excretes-catabolic-waste 9. CIRCULATION Circulation is the movement of body fluids and many other substances such as normal hormones and waste products from one body area to another. Mariano Marcos State University College of Health Sciences 18 Department of Nursing  CN 100 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY: CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY 10. REPRODUCTION It involves the formation of a new individual and also the formation of new cells (via cell division) in the body to permit growth, wound repair, and replacement of dead or aging cells on a regular basis. Photo credit: http://www.citethisforme.com/topic- 11. MOVEMENT ideas/biology/Reproduction-9257786 Movement includes all the activities promoted by the muscular system such as propelling ourselves from one place to another aided by the skeletal system (walking, running). It includes motion of the whole body, individual organs, single cells, and even tiny structures inside cells. http://www.clipartpanda.com 12. DIFFERENTIATION Differentiation consists of changes in the cell structure and function from generalized to specialized. Such precursor cells, which can divide and give rise to cells that undergo differentiation, are known as stem cells. Each type of cell in the body has a specialized structure or function that differs from that of its precursor (ancestor) cells. For example, red blood cells and several types of white blood cells all arise from the same unspecialized precursor cells in red bone marrow. Also, through differentiation, a single fertilized human egg (ovum) develops into an embryo, and then into a fetus, an infant, a child, and finally an adult. Mariano Marcos State University College of Health Sciences 19 Department of Nursing  CN 100 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY: CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY A living organism in order to manifest the different characteristics of life have needs. These needs are necessary for survival. In the following section, you will learn of the four survival needs that a living organism, a human being to be more precise, must have. Survival Needs (you may research more on how these needs help a living organism live) 1. Nutrients which are taken via the diet, contain the chemicals used for energy and cell building. 2. Oxygen is needed/important for chemical reactions that release energy from foods. 3. Water is the single most abundant chemical substance in the body and provides the fluid base for body secretions and excretions. 4. Body temperature must be maintained at around 37 °C (98°F). Most body heat is generated by the activity of the muscular system. Activity 4. Test your knowledge! Before we move on to the next section, it’s time for you to evaluate first what you have learned by answering the following questions. Are you ready? Let’s get going! You will find the Answer Key at the end of the lesson. 1. It is the body’s ability to detect and respond to changes. 2. Includes all the activities promoted by the muscular system like walking or running. 3. The movement of body fluids from one are to another. 4. What are the four (4) survival needs of a living organism? Wrap-up Activity RECALL: 1. The different characteristics of life include: responsiveness, conductivity, growth, respiration, digestion, absorption, secretion, excretion, circulation, reproduction, movement and differentiation. 2. The four survival needs include: nutrients, oxygen, water and body temperature. Just a little bit more! One lap to go! Mariano Marcos State University College of Health Sciences 20 Department of Nursing  CN 100 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY: CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY LESSON 5. BASIC ANATOMY AND TERMINOLOGY Introduction of the Lesson and Presentation of Outcomes In this section you will learn about the anatomical positions and directional terms including the planes of the human body as well as descriptive terms for body regions. After studying the section, you must have: a. Describe accurately the anatomical position of the human body, b. Identified at least five (5) directional terms that describe the relationship of one body part to another, c. Identified at least two (2) planes of the human body, d. Differentiate the sections and regions of the human body and e. Identified at least five (5) anterior and posterior landmarks of the human body. Warm-up Activity CROSSWORD PUZZLE: Before starting the lesson, try answering the following crossword in one minute and see if you can still recall lessons in Anatomy and Physiology. o Cephalic o back of the body o divides the body or an organ into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) portions. o farther from the origination of a structure Time is up! You’ll see if you’re answers are correct as you go on with our lesson. Mariano Marcos State University College of Health Sciences 21 Department of Nursing  CN 100 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY: CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY Central Activities A. ANATOMICAL POSITION & DIRECTIONAL TERMS In Anatomical Position, descriptions of any region or part of the human body assume that it is in a standard position of reference. The subject stands erect facing the observer, with the head level and the eyes facing directly forward. The lower limbs are parallel and the feet are flat on the floor and directed forward, and the upper limbs are at the sides with the palms turned forward To better understand the anatomical position, here is the list of description to help you describe how it looks: 1. Erect body Two terms describe a reclining body. If the body is lying facedown, it 2. Arms hanging on the sides is in the prone position. 3. Palms facing forward If the body is lying faceup, it is in 4. Body facing forward i.pinimg.com the supine position. 5. Feet together, slightly apart 6. Feet facing forward 7. Head facing forward 8. Eyes looking straight ahead Anatomical position. Photo credit: https://www.brainkart.com/article/Terminology-and-the-Body- Plan_21745/ Mariano Marcos State University College of Health Sciences 22 Department of Nursing  CN 100 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY: CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY Directional Terms are important to locate various body structures. Anatomists use specific directional terms, words that describe the position of one body part relative to another. Most of the directional terms used to describe the relationship of one part of the body to another can be grouped into pairs that have opposite meanings. For example:  superior means toward the upper part of the body, and inferior means toward the lower part of the body  your knee is superior to your ankle, even though i.pinimg.com both are located in the inferior half of the body It is important to understand that directional terms have relative meanings; they make sense only when used to describe the position of one structure relative to another. What are the Directional Terms? DIRECTIONAL TERM MEANING EXAMPLE 1. Superior/cephalic/cranial Toward the head, or the The heart is superior to the upper part of a structure liver. 2. Inferior/caudal Away from the head, or The stomach is inferior to the lower part of a the lungs. structure 3. Anterior/ventral Nearer to or at the front The sternum (breastbone) of the body is anterior to the heart. 4. Medial Nearer to the midline (an The ulna is medial to the imaginary vertical line radius. that divides the body into equal right and left sides) 5. Posterior/dorsal Nearer to or at the back The esophagus (food tube) of the body. is posterior to the trachea (windpipe). 6. Lateral Farther from the midline The lungs are lateral to the heart. 7. Intermediate Between two structures The transverse colon is intermediate to the ascending and descending colons. 8. Ipsilateral On the same side of the The gallbladder and body as another ascending colon are structure ipsilateral. 9. Contralateral On the opposite side of The ascending and the body from another descending colons are structure contralateral. Mariano Marcos State University College of Health Sciences 23 Department of Nursing  CN 100 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY: CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY 10. Proximal Nearer to the attachment The humerus (arm bone) is of a limb to the trunk; proximal to the radius. nearer to the origination of a structure 11. Distal Farther from the The phalanges (finger attachment of a limb to bones) are distal to the the trunk; farther from carpals the origination of a structure. (wrist bones) 12. Superficial Toward or on the surface The ribs are superficial to of the body the lungs. 13. Deep Away from the surface of The ribs are deep to the the body skin of the chest and back. 14. Visceral a membrane covering the - internal organs 15. Peripheral towards the side away from the central axis of the body 16. Parietal refers to the wall of - cavity *Note that the terms anterior and ventral mean the same thing in humans. However, in four-legged animals ventral refers to the belly side and is therefore inferior. Similarly, the terms posterior and dorsal mean the same thing in humans, but in four-legged animals dorsal refers to the back side and is therefore i.pinimg.com superior. Can you give examples on how to use each of the directional terms? Practice some more. Directional Terms. Photo credit: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/287315651201804050/ Mariano Marcos State University College of Health Sciences 24 Department of Nursing  CN 100 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY: CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY B. PLANES OF THE HUMAN BODY The Planes of the Human Body are imaginary flat surfaces that pass through the body parts. They are known as follows: 1. Sagittal plane is a vertical plane that divides the body or an organ into right and left sides. It may also be further subdivided into: Midsagittal/median plane is a plane passes through the midline of the body or an organ and divides it into equal right and left sides. Parasagittal plane is when the sagittal plane does not pass through the midline but instead divides the body or an organ into unequal right and left sides. 2. Frontal/coronal plane divides the body or an organ into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portions. 3. Cross-section/Transverse/Horizontal plane divides the body or an organ into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) portions. 4. Oblique plane passes through the body or an organ at an oblique angle (any angle Copyright © 2014. © Gerard J. Tortora, L.L.C., Bryan Derrickson, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. other than a 90-degree angle). Section/s. It is a cut of the body or one of Copyright © 2014. © Gerard J. Tortora, L.L.C., Bryan Derrickson, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. its organs made along one of the planes just described. It is important to know the plane of the section so you can understand the anatomical relationship of one part to another. 1. Longitudinal is a cut thru the long axis of the organ Planes. Photo credit: Copyright © 2014. © 2. Transverse/cross-section is a cut at a Gerard J. Tortora, L.L.C., Bryan Derrickson, John right angle to the long axis Wiley & Sons, Inc. 3. Oblique is a cut is made across the long axis other that at right angle Mariano Marcos State University College of Health Sciences 25 Department of Nursing  CN 100 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY: CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY Sections. Photo credit: Copyright © 2014. © Gerard J. Tortora, L.L.C., Bryan Derrickson, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.  Body Regions. The human body is divided into several major regions that can be identified externally. 1. Axial consist of the head, neck, thorax, abdomen, pelvis (torso) 2. Appendicular consist of the upper and lower extremities and their connections to the axial portion Upper: shoulder, upper arms, forearm, wrist, hands Lower: thighs, legs, ankles, feet Mariano Marcos State University College of Health Sciences 26 Department of Nursing  CN 100 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY: CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY C. DESCRIPTIVE TERMS FOR BODY REGIONS In using descriptive terms for body regions, first we start with the Surface Anatomy, the study of structural relationship of the external features of the body to the internal organs and parts. First you learn about the different Anterior Body Landmarks, then you proceed with the Posterior Body Landmarks. C.1 ANTERIOR BODY LANDMARKS Mariano Marcos State University College of Health Sciences 27 Department of Nursing  CN 100 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY: CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY Cranial Skull Sternal Breastbone Facial Face Antecubital Back of elbow Frontal Forehead Carpal Wrist Orbital Eye Metacarpal/Volar Palm Buccal Cheek Digital/Phalanges Fingers Oral Mouth Abdominal Abdomen Cervical Neck Flank Trunk Thoracic Chest Coxal Hip Axillary Armpit Inguinal Groin Mammary Breast Pubic Pubis Brachial Arm (upper) Femoral Thigh Antecubital Forearm (lower) Patellar Kness Otic Ear Tarsal Ankle Temporal Temple Perineal Region Nasal Nose between anus Mental Chin and external Pollex Thumb genitals Manual Thumb Dorsum Back of hand Pedal Foot Hallux Great toe C.2 POSTERIOR BODY LANDMARKS Occipital Base of skull Nuchal Back of neck Acromidal Point of shoulder Deltoid Upper arm Scapular Shoulder blade Olecranal Posterior surface of the elbow Lumbar Loin Crural Leg Sacral Between hips GLuteal Buttocks Popliteal Posterior knee area Sural Calf of the leg Calcaneal Heel Plantar Side of the feet Calcaneal Plantar area of the feet Mariano Marcos State University College of Health Sciences 28 Department of Nursing  CN 100 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY: CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY Mariano Marcos State University College of Health Sciences 29 Department of Nursing  CN 100 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY: CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY C.3 ABDOMINOPELVIC QUADRANTS AND REGIONS To describe the location of the many abdominal and pelvic organs more easily, anatomists and clinicians use two methods of dividing the abdominopelvic cavity into smaller areas. C.3.1 QUADRANTS Quadrants are simpler and divides the abdominopelvic cavity into quadrants (KWOD-rantz; quad- one-fourth). In this method, a midsagittal line (the median line) and a transverse line (the transumbilical line) are passed through the umbilicus (um- BI-li-kus; umbilic- navel) or belly button. Vertical and horizontal lines pass through the umbilicus i.pinimg.co  Right upper quadrant (RUQ)  Left upper quadrant (LUQ)  Right lower quadrant (RLQ)  Left lower quadrants (LLQ) The nine-region division is more widely used for anatomical studies, and quadrants are more commonly used by clinicians for describing the site of abdominopelvic pain, a tumor, or another abnormality. C.3.2 REGIONS Two horizontal and two vertical lines, aligned like a tic-tac-toe grid, partition the cavity into nine abdominopelvic regions. The top horizontal line, the subcostal line (sub-under; costal rib), is drawn just inferior to the ribs, across the inferior portion of the stomach; the bottom horizontal line, the transtubercular line, is drawn just inferior to the tops of the hip bones. Two vertical lines, the left and right midclavicular lines, are drawn through the midpoints of the clavicles (collar bones), just medial to the nipples. The four lines divide the abdominopelvic cavity into a larger middle section and smaller left and right sections. Mariano Marcos State University College of Health Sciences 30 Department of Nursing  CN 100 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY: CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY C.4 BODY CAVITIES Body Cavities are spaces that enclose internal organs. Bones, muscles, ligaments, and other structures separate the various body cavities from one another. Major Cavities that you will learn next are your thoracic or chest cavity and abdominal cavity. Aside from major cavities, you will also learn about dorsal cavities as well as the viscera, the organs of the cavities. C.4.1 MAJOR CAVITIES a. THORACIC/CHEST CAVITY It is formed by the ribs, the muscles of the chest, the sternum (breastbone), and the thoracic portion of the vertebral column. It consist of R and L pleural cavity, pericardial cavity and a midportion called the mediastinum. It is also where the lungs and heart are located. The Pericardial cavity is a fluid-filled space that surrounds the heart. Pleural cavities are two fluid-filled spaces, one around each lung. The Mediastinum is an anatomic region in the central portion of the thoracic cavity between the medial walls of pleural cavities. It is between the lungs, extending from the sternum to the vertebral column and from the first rib to the diaphragm. The mediastinum contains all thoracic organs except the lungs themselves. Among the structures in the mediastinum are the heart, esophagus, trachea, thymus, and several large blood vessels that enter and exit the heart. The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominopelvic cavity. Mariano Marcos State University College of Health Sciences 31 Department of Nursing  CN 100 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY: CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY b. ABDOMINAL CAVITY The Abdominal Cavity extends from the diaphragm to the groin and is encircled by the abdominal muscular wall and the bones and muscles of the pelvis. As the name suggests, the abdominopelvic cavity is divided into two portions, abdominal and pelvic, even though no wall separates them. Abdominal cavity is the superior portion that contains the stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, small intestine, and most of the large intestine. Pelvic cavity is the inferior portion that contains the urinary bladder, portions of the large intestine, and internal organs of the reproductive system. Mariano Marcos State University College of Health Sciences 32 Department of Nursing  CN 100 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY: CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY Mariano Marcos State University College of Health Sciences 33 Department of Nursing  CN 100 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY: CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY Body cavities. Copyright © 2014. © Gerard J. Tortora, L.L.C., Bryan Derrickson, John Wiley & C.4.2 DORSAL CAVITIES Comprise your Cranial Cavity and Spinal/Vertebral Cavity. a. Cranial Cavity It is the cranial bones form a hollow space of the head which contains the brain b. Spinal/Vertebral cavity It is the bones of the vertebral column which contains the spinal cord. Mariano Marcos State University College of Health Sciences 34 Department of Nursing  CN 100 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY: CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY The cranial cavity and vertebral canal are continuous with one another. Three layers of protective tissue, the meninges, and a shock-absorbing fluid surround the brain and spinal cord. In which abdominopelvic quadrant would pain from appendicitis (inflammation of the appendix) be felt? Viscera Viscera are the organs of the thoracic and abdominal pelvic cavities. Viscera of the abdominal cavity include the stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, small intestine, and most of the large intestine. Viscera of the pelvic cavity include the urinary bladder, portions of the large intestine, and internal organs of the reproductive system. There is a thin slippery membrane that covers the viscera called, Serous membrane. Location: liver, spleen, kidneys, heart Function: secrete a lubricant called serous fluid that allows the organ to glide against other structures without causing friction Parts of the serous membrane:  Parietal layer  Lines the wall of the cavities  Visceral layer  Covers the viscera within the cavities Activity 5. Test your knowledge! Before we move on to the next section, it’s time for you to evaluate first what you have learned by answering the following questions. Are you ready? Let’s get going! You will find the Answer Key at the end of the lesson. 1. How would you describe the anatomical position? 2. The knee is _________ to your ankle. 3. The arm bone is _______ to the radius. 4. What do you call the plane that does not pass through the midline but instead divides the body into unequal right and left sides? 5. Chin is also known as _______. 6. What are the nine (9) abdominopelvic regions? 7. What organs are located in the Abdominal cavity? Mariano Marcos State University College of Health Sciences 35 Department of Nursing  CN 100 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY: CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY Wrap-up Activity RECALL: 1. Descriptions of any region of the body assume the body is in the anatomical position, in which the subject stands erect facing the observer, with the head level and the eyes facing directly forward. The feet are flat on the floor and directed forward, and the upper limbs are at the sides, with the palms turned forward. A body lying face down is prone; a body lying faceup is supine. 2. Regional names are terms given to specific regions of the body. Within the regions, specific body parts have anatomical names and corresponding common names. 3. Directional terms indicate the relationship of one part of the body to another. 4. Planes are imaginary flat surfaces that are used to divide the body or organs to visualize interior structures. 5. Sections are cuts of the body or its organs made along a plane. They are named according to the plane along which the cut is made and include transverse, frontal, and sagittal sections. 6. Body cavities are spaces in the body that help protect, separate, and support internal organs. 7. The thoracic cavity is subdivided into three smaller cavities: a pericardial cavity, which contains the heart, and two pleural cavities, each of which contains a lung. 8. The abdominopelvic cavity is divided into a superior abdominal and an inferior pelvic cavity. 9. To describe the location of organs more easily, the abdominopelvic cavity is divided into nine regions: right hypochondriac, epigastric, left hypochondriac, right lumbar, umbilical, left lumbar, right inguinal (iliac), hypogastric (pubic), and left inguinal (iliac). CONGRATULATIONS! You made it! You were great! You are done with the Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology. After finishing the lesson, you have acquired the basic knowledge on principles and terminologies that will help you further understand the different body systems in your course, CN 100. Review your lessons in preparation for your quiz, which will be scheduled and administered online by your Instructor. There are also websites listed in your syllabus that you can visit to help enhance your learning in Anatomy and Physiology. Keep it up! Mariano Marcos State University College of Health Sciences 36 Department of Nursing  CN 100 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY: CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY FEEDBACK Answer Key: Activity 1 1. a 2. c 3. d Activity 2 4. a 5. The six levels of organization of the human body are Organism, System, Organs, Tissue, Cell, Organelle and Chemical. 6. An organelle is a small structure contained within a cell and may perform one or more specific functions like in a nucleus or ribosomes. The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of an organism like your muscle cells and epithelial cells. Activity 3 7. c 8. c 9. c Activity 4 10. Responsiveness 11. Movement 12. Circulation 13. Nutrient, Oxygen, Water and Right body temperature Activity 5 14. In the anatomical position, the subject stands erect facing the observer, with the head level and the eyes facing directly forward. The lower limbs are parallel and the feet are flat on the floor and directed forward, and the upper limbs are at the sides with the palms turned forward 15. Superior 16. Proximal 17. Parasagittal plane 18. Mental 19. The nine abdominopelvic regions are right hypochondriac, epigastric, left hypochondriac, right lumbar, umbilical, left lumbar, right inguinal (iliac), hypogastric (pubic), and left inguinal (iliac). 20. It contains the stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, small intestine, and most of the large intestine. How did it go with your practice test? Are you satisfied with your score? Do you need further study? Do you have more questions about the topics? How do you find the module, did it help you with your learning? Feel free to contact your Instructor at his/her given consultation time for the course. Mariano Marcos State University College of Health Sciences 37 Department of Nursing  CN 100 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY: CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY REFERENCE MATERIALS  Tortora, Gerard/ Derrickson Bryan 2013. Principles of Anatomy and Physiology 14th edition  Marieb, Elaine. 2014 Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology11th edition. Philippines: Pearson Education South Asia.  Seeley, Rod R. et al. 2011. Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology 11th edition. New York: McGraw-Hill.  Bergman, R. A. (n.d.). Anatomy Atlases. Retrieved from Anatomy Atlases website: http://www.anatomyatlases.org  Visible Body. (n.d.). Retrieved from visiblebody.com: http://www.visiblebody.com Mariano Marcos State University College of Health Sciences 38 Department of Nursing