Intro to Psych 2 PDF

Theories of Personality and Measurement The field of personality psychology studies the But many psychological theorists look deeper. nature and definition of personality as well as Those schooled in the Freudian tradition look its development, structure and trait constructs, at pe...

Theories of Personality and Measurement The field of personality psychology studies the But many psychological theorists look deeper. nature and definition of personality as well as Those schooled in the Freudian tradition look its development, structure and trait constructs, at personality as consisting of underlying dynamic processes, variations (with emphasis on mental structures that jockey for supremacy enduring and stable individual differences), and outside the range of our ordinary awareness. maladaptive forms. Other theorists focus on how personality is Human personality is precisely the kind of shaped by learning. And to the humanistic complex subject matter about which theorists— theorists, personality is not something people have but rather something they create to give and students—can easily disagree. meaning and direction to their lives. Then, too, sociocultural theorists remind us that we must Personality refers to the enduring always consider the influences of culture, race, characteristics and behavior that comprise a and ethnicity on personality. person’s unique adjustment to life, including major traits, interests, drives, values, self- The concept of personality has been studied concept, abilities, and emotional patterns. Various for at least 2,000 years, beginning with theories explain the structure and development Hippocrates in 370 BCE. of personality in different ways, but all agree that personality helps determine behavior. Hippocrates theorized that personality traits and human behaviors are based on four separate temperaments associated with four According to Larsen & Buss (2014), the fluids (“humors”) of the body: choleric personality traits that every person carries temperament (yellow bile from theliver), allow him/her to transcend in doing his/her melancholic temperament (black bile from the work. These personality traits are founded and kidneys), sanguine temperament (red blood cultivated through various events and the people from theheart), and phlegmatic temperament he/she mingles with. Gladding (2013) purports (white phlegm from the lungs) that counselors’ personality towards counseling must be a well-rounded and should be distinct from others. Our personality is what makes us unique individuals. Each person has an idiosyncratic pattern of enduring, long-term characteristics and a manner in which they interact with other individuals and the world around them. Our personalities are thought to be long term, stable, and not easily changed. The word personality comes from the Latin word persona. Our own conceptions about people, and about The influential Greek physician and philosopher ourselves, may be similarly bound up with our own Galen built on Hippocrates’s theory, perspectives and initial beliefs. Some think of suggesting that both diseases and personality personality as consisting of the person’s most differences could be explained by imbalances in striking traits, as in “This person has an outgoing the humors and that each person exhibits one personality” or “That person has an agreeable of the four temperaments. personality.” For example, the choleric person is passionate, THE “BIG FIVE”: THE FIVE-FACTOR MODEL ambitious, and bold; the melancholic person is reserved, anxious, and unhappy; the sanguine - suggests that the factors are related to person is joyful, eager, and optimistic; and the people’s basic temperaments, which are phlegmatic person is calm,reliable, and thoughtful. considered to be largely inborn (de Moor et al., 2012). Galen’s theory was prevalent for over 1,000 years and continued to be popular through the - The researchers interpreted the results to Middle Ages. suggest that our personalities tend to mature over time rather than be shaped by environmental conditions, although the HANS EYSENCK’S TRAIT THEORY expression of personality traits is certainly British psychologist Hans J. Eysenck (1916–1997) - Cross-cultural research has found that these focused much of his research on the relationships five factors appear to define the personality between two personality traits: introversion– structure of American, German, Portuguese, extraversion and emotional stability–instability Israeli, Chinese, Korean, Japanese, and Philippine (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1985). (Emotional instability is people. also called neuroticism.) Eysenck added the dimension of emotional stability– instability to introversion–extraversion. He catalogued various personality traits according to where they are situated along these dimensions For example, an anxious person would be high in both: introversion and neuroticism—that is, preoccupied with his or her own thoughts and emotionally unstable. the scheme is similar to Hippocrates’. Phrenology was a pseudoscience that linked According to Eysenck’s dimensions, the choleric the bumps on a person's head to certain type would be extraverted and unstable; the aspects of their personality and character. sanguine type, extraverted and stable; the Phrenologists used phrenology heads or busts phlegmatic type, introverted and stable; and the to perform "skull readings, " supposedly melancholic type, introverted and unstable. revealing information about a person's character and tendencies.  Sigmund Freud The Ego Sigmund Freud’s psychodynamic perspective of - Develops because demands for instant personality was the first comprehensive theory gratification cannot be met immediately or of personality, explaining a wide variety of both safely. Guided by the reality principle—the normal and abnormal behaviors. understanding that we cannot always get what we want. According to Freud, unconscious drives influenced by sex and aggression, along with childhood - Most of the ego is conscious, but it works in sexuality, are the forces that influence our the unconscious to censor the impulses of the id personality. and balance the rules of the superego. Freud attracted many followers who modified his The Superego ideas to create new theories about personality. - Develops throughout early childhood, follows Theorists, referred to as neo-Freudians, the moral principle. It incorporates the generally agreed with Freud that childhood standards and values of parents and society. experiences matter, but they reduced the Provides us with our moral sense and acts as emphasis on sex and focused more on the social our conscience. environment and effects of culture on personality. The perspective of personality proposed by Freud and his followers was the Defense Mechanisms dominant theory of personality for the first - Defense mechanisms are methods the ego uses half of the 20th century. to avoid recognizing ideas or emotions that may cause anxiety. These defenses operate The psychoanalytic approach to personality unconsciously. teaches that all people undergo inner struggles. People are born with certain biological drives Repression such as aggression, sex, and the need for superiority. These drives come into conflict with - It removes anxiety-causing ideas from laws, norms, and moral codes. conscious awareness by pushing them into the unconscious. - Freud likened repression to keeping a lid on a the unconscious boiling kettle. - When enough pressure builds up, outbursts of - Freud believed that conscious ideas and anger or other problems develop. feelings occupy only a small part of the mind. Deepest thoughts, fears, and urges remain out of their awareness. Rationalization - Psychoanalysis urges people to discuss - Rationalization is the use of self-deception to whatever is on their minds, sometimes justify unacceptable behaviors or ideas. called a “talking cure.” - It can protect one’s self-esteem or self- - Freud also used dream analysis and concept, but can also mask the real problem and hypnosis to access the unconscious. prevent the person from dealing with the situation. the id - Behaves like a stereotypical two-year- Regression old, represents basic drives such as hunger. - Regression is returning to behavior that is It demands instant gratification and pays characteristic of an earlier stage of development no attention to rules or others. Follows when faced with stress. the pleasure principle. - Regression is usually temporary, but becomes a problem when it is used to avoid adult behavior.  Projection - dealing with unacceptable impulses by projecting these impulses outward onto other people. - People see their own faults in other people. Effects of Defense Mechanisms - When used in moderation, defense mechanisms are normal and useful. - They become unhealthy when they lead a person to ignore the underlying issues causing the feelings. The Oral Stage - Begins in the first year of life - Infants begin exploring the world by putting What are some common defense mechanisms? things in their mouths, and receive their main source of pleasure—food—orally. Answer: repression: pushing anxiety-causing ideas - A child whose caretakers do not meet the into the unconscious; rationalization: self-deception infant’s needs during this time may become to justify unacceptable behaviors; regression: fixated at the oral stage, resulting in smoking, returning to behavior from an earlier stage of overeating, or nail biting. development; and projection: projecting unacceptable impulses outward onto other people the anal stage - Older infants learn that they can control their bodily functions, and self-control becomes vital. - Fixation at this stage can result in anal- retentive behavior such as excessive self- control or anal-expulsive traits such as messiness. the phallic stage - Begins at age three, when children discover the physical differences of the two sexes and become focused on their own bodies. - Fixation at this stage can result in disorders such as depression and anxiety. Stages of Personality Development The Latency Stage - By age 5 or 6, children have been in - Freud believed an individual’s development went conflict with parents for many years, and so through five stages. retreat from the conflict. - These stages begin at birth and continue - Impulses remain hidden, or “latent.” through adolescence. The Genital Stage - He claimed people instinctively seek to preserve and extend life. - People enter this final stage at puberty. - Teens do not encounter any new - Psychological energy labeled libido (desire) is one psychological conflicts, but earlier conflicts of the most controversial personality theories. resurface. At what age do each of the stages of development occur? What is Jung's theory of the collective unconscious? Answer: oral—first year of life; anal—between one Answer: that all humans have an inherited and a half to two and a half years; phallic—three; store of concepts shared by all people across latency—five or six; genital—puberty all cultures Several personality theorists—neo-Freudians—are Alfred Adler among Freud’s intellectual heirs. Their theories, like Another follower of Freud, also felt that Freud his, include conflict and defense mechanisms. In had placed too much emphasis on sex. other respects, they differ considerably. - Believed people are motivated by a need to CARL JUNG had been a member of Freud’s overcome feelings of inferiority that he called inner circle. He fell into disfavor with Freud inferiority complex. In some people, feelings of when he developed his own psychodynamic inferiority may be based on physical problems theory—analytical psychology. and the need to compensate for them. Analytic psychology places a greater - All of us encounter some feelings of emphasis on the influences of shared symbols inferiority because of our small size as children, and religion on human behavior. and that these feelings give rise to a drive for superiority. Other Important Theorists - Self-awareness plays a major role in the formation of personality. He spoke of a creative self, a self-aware aspect of personality that –He argued that people inherit a collective strives to overcome obstacles and develop the unconscious: a store of human concepts shared person’s potential. Because each person’s by all people across all cultures. potential is unique, Adler’s views have been termed individual psychology. –The components of the collective unconscious are primitive concepts called archetypes:ideas and images of the accumulated experience of all Sibling Rivalry human beings. - is a common phenomenon that occurs within - Although these images remain unconscious, families and has been a topic of interest in the they appear in dreams. field of psychology. –Jung believed that consciousness was - the competition, jealousy, and conflicts that characterized by four functions: thinking, feeling, arise between siblings. It is a natural and intuition, and sensation. normal part of sibling relationships and can manifest in various ways, such as arguing, fighting, or seeking attention from parents. –Individuation: creating a healthy personality by integrating conscious and unconscious elements. - Adler suggested that birth order plays a significant role in shaping a child's personality and their relationship with siblings. He theorized that first-born children may feel dethroned when a younger sibling is born, leading to increased rivalry. - By examining the dynamics between siblings and the influence of parental factors, we can gain insights into the root causes and long-term implications of sibling rivalry.  Birth Order and Sibling Dynamics Psychoanalytic theory taught that little girls feel inferior to boys when they learn that boys have a penis and they do not. - Birth order, or the order in which siblings are But Horney argued that little girls do not born into a family, can significantly influence feel inferior to boys and that these views sibling dynamics and contribute to the were founded on Western cultural prejudice, development of rivalry. not scientific evidence. - Research suggests that birth order plays a role in shaping the personalities, behaviors, and When parents treat children with expectations of siblings. indifference or harshness, children develop feelings called basic anxiety. - Horney believed that environment and social upbringing, rather than intrinsic factors, largely lead to neurosis. She believed that people need warm, supportive environments and strong interpersonal relationships to realize their “real self.” Basic anxiety leads to three main Parental Influence on Sibling Relationships reactions: - Parents play a significant role in shaping sibling relationships and influencing the occurrence of a. Moving toward people, when one clings rivalry. The way parents interact with and treat to others and seeks to be loved; their children can impact their relationships with b. moving away from people, when one each other. does not want to become involved with others; and - Parental differential treatment, where parents c. moving against people, when one sees show favoritism or provide differential attention the world as hostile and acts and resources to one child over another, can accordingly toward others. contribute to feelings of jealousy, resentment, and rivalry among siblings. Erik Erikson Karen Horney - Believed social relationships are most important factors in personality - Believed childhood experiences play a major role development. in the development of adult personalities. Horney believed that environment and social upbringing, - Expanded Freud’s idea of ego and labeled rather than intrinsic factors, largely lead to later stages of development. neurosis. - She believed that people need warm, supportive environments and strong interpersonal relationships to realize their “real self.” - was criticized by the New York Psychoanalytic Institute because she took issue with the way in which psychoanalytic theory portrayed women. Early in the 20th century, psychoanalytic theory taught that a woman’s place was in the home. Women who sought to compete with men in the business world were assumed to be suffering from unconscious penis envy.  Compare - "Passwords tap into things that are just How are the views on childhood of Adler, Horney, below the surface of consciousness, much the and Erikson similar? way Rorschach (the good old inkblot) and word association tests do. Answer: All theorized that early childhood relationships affect us throughout our lives. - A password is a liberation of the unconscious mind It creates a safe and secure space to indulge in memories that we hesitate to acknowledge or Psychology in Today’s World sometimes even reveal in a conscious way. Psychologists have found that computer passwords The Learning Approach reveal personality traits. - The two branches of the learning approach, Password to Personality behaviorism and social-learning theory, focus on how experiences shape behavior. - Most people pick computer passwords quickly, while others think long and hard. Regardless of how - Behaviorists assert that people learn socially you devise your login, chances are it will be easier desirable behaviors through a process called to crack than you think. socialization. - Most people choose passwords that reflect - Social learning theorists argue that people their personal lives and interests. learn by observation. - One study says passwords are unintentionally revealing because people tend to choose the Main Idea first things that come to mind. - The learning approach has two branches: - Four distinct types: family, fan, fantasists, behaviorism and social-learning theory. and cryptics. - Behaviorists believe that our actions are Family: name, nickname, or birth date of self learned. Social-learning theorists think that we or family member learn by observation. Fan: names of athletes, movie stars, singers, or fictional characters Behaviorism Fantasists: interest in a fantasy identity - The learning approach emphasizes the effects such as “goddess” of experience on behavior. Your behaviors reflect what you have been rewarded or reinforced for. Cryptics: mixing letters, numbers, symbols, and punctuation John Watson and B. F. Skinner What Your Choice of Password - Watson claimed external influences shape Reveals About Your Personality people’s preferences and behavior. According to renowned Psychologist Dr. Helen Petrie, a password can reveal your - Skinner emphasized the effects of most spontaneous thoughts and deepest reinforcement on behavior and rejected trying to memories, and can be likened to a digital see within people’s minds as unscientific. inkblot test. - Watson and Skinner discarded ideas of personal Purposeful Learning freedom, choice, and self-direction in favor of external - Individuals seek to learn about their influences such as parental approval. environments and have a certain degree of control over reinforcement. Behavior is not Socialization based solely on observation, and internal variables influence how we act. - the process by which people learn socially desirable behaviors. –Internal factors: skills, values, goals, expectations, self-efficacy expectations According to behaviorists, how do people learn acceptable behavior? Answer: through socialization and reinforcement Social-Learning Theory Focuses on the importance of learning by observation, and on the role of the cognitive processes that produce individual differences Albert Bandura - Bandura argued that practically any behavior that could be learned from direct experience could also be learned by observing and modeling other What is social cognitive theory? people. Answer: Personal, behavioral, and environmental - One study showed that children who witnessed factors influence our personality and learning. a violent action were more likely to repeat that action. In what way do learning theorists disagree with - Another study showed that children would not psychoanalytic theorists? copy an adult’s behavior if the adult was punished for that behavior. Answer: Learning theorists emphasize the influence of environment. - These studies suggest that children learn what society deems acceptable behavior by watching and modeling others. The Humanistic and Sociocultural Approaches Social Cognitive Theory - The humanistic perspective emphasizes Personality is shaped and learning is acquired by the importance of free choice, self- the interaction of: awareness, self-fulfillment, self-esteem, and ethical conduct in personality –Personal factors (thoughts, beliefs, values, development. genetic makeup) –Behavior (one’s actions and experience) - Psychologists following the sociocultural –Environmental factors (social, cultural, and approach focus on how gender, political forces) ethnicity, and culture influence personality. Presents a way to understand and predict human behavior - Humanistic psychologists believe that people Abraham Maslow shape their personalities through free choice - Maslow believed humans are separated from lower and action. animals by the drive to reach their potential. - Sociocultural psychologists focus on the - Each person is unique and must follow his or her roles of ethnicity, gender, and culture in own path. personality formation. - Following a personal path involves taking risks. Humanists and existentialists dwell on the meaning of life. Self-awareness is the hub of Hierarchy of Needs the humanistic–existential search for meaning. Five levels of needs: - Physiological needs (water, food) Humanism the view that people are capable of - Security needs (safety, shelter) free choice, self-fulfillment, and ethical behavior. - Social needs (love, belonging) - Esteem needs (respect) - Self-actualization needs (self-awareness, Gender-typing is the process by which males personal growth) and females come to develop personality traits and behavior patterns that society considers to What is self-actualization? be consistent with their gender, male or female— at least most of the time. Answer: the ability of people to reach full potential. Social Cognition and Gender-Typing Carl Rogers Social cognitive theorists find roles for learning in - Advocate of the humanistic approach gender-typing, and they suggest that - Believed people are basically good and children learn mentally healthy what is considered masculine or feminine in their - Said that people to some degree are the societies by means of observational learning and architects of their own personalities. socialization (Leaper, 2013; Zosuls et al., 2011). Termed self theory - Children observe the behavior of adult role Self-concept: a view of oneself as an individual models and may come to assume that their - The self is concerned with recognizing personal behavior should conform to that of adults of the values and establishing a sense of one’s same gender. relationships to other people The Self-Concept and Congruence Gender-schema theory proposes that children develop a gender schema as a - Self-concepts are made up of our impressions means of organizing their perceptions of the of ourselves and our evaluations of our adequacy. world. - The key to happiness is congruence, or consistency between one’s self-concept and one’s - A gender schema is a cluster of ideas about experience. masculine and eminine physical traits. Gender becomes important because of society’s Self-Esteem and Positive Regard emphasis on it. - At first, self-esteem reflects the esteem in which others hold us. Humanistic Psychology - We cannot fully live up to the wishes of others and also remain true to ourselves. Behaviorists argue that psychologists should not - The expression of self does not always lead attempt to study self-awareness. to conflict. - The path to self-actualization requires getting Humanists, however, begin with the assumption in touch with our genuine feelings and acting on that self-awareness is the core of humanity. them.  Sociocultural Factors and the Self - Social and cultural factors affect the self-concept and self-esteem of the individual. - Members of groups that have been discriminated against may have lower self-images. Acculturation and Self-Esteem Personalities are influenced by cultural settings. Cheater-Hawk Hypothesis A Korean American child, for example, might be - This theory suggests that psychopathy is an influenced by Korean culture at home and evolved strategy of exploiting other people and American culture at school. resources through deception (cheaters) and aggression (hawks). We theorized that people with Acculturation: the process of adapting to a psychopathic traits would generally avoid other new or different culture. aggressive individuals, but would see anxious, kind people as being more easily exploited. By using a - Some immigrants become assimilated, or Sims video game, we could put our hypotheses to absorbed, into the culture of the area to which the test without harming anyone. they move. What might happen as a result of a parent’s - Other choose to maintain separation, and conditional positive regard? they retain their language and customs. Answer: Children might come to think that they are - Research suggests that people who are worthwhile only if they behave in certain ways. bicultural have the highest self-esteem. What are key differences between an Why are humanistic theories popular? individualistic society and a collectivistic Answer: because they stress human freedom and one? conscious experience rather than seeing us as products of our childhoods or our circumstances Answer: individualistic—people defined by personal identities and goals; collectivistic— people defined by the groups Sociocultural Psychology - Focuses on the roles that ethnicity, gender, Evaluation of the socioeconomic status, and culture play in shaping Sociocultural Approach personality, behavior, and mental processes. - Provides valuable insights into the roles of - Both family and environmental influences are key ethnicity, gender, culture, and socioeconomic factors in personality development. status in personality formation Individualism v. Collectivism - Allows us to understand how individuals think, behave, and feel about themselves within a - Individualists give priority to their personal given cultural setting identities and goals. - Enhances our sensitivity to cultural differences - Collectivists give priority to goals of the group. Special implications for education: –More attention should be paid to learning tools - Reliable measure of personality differences such as group activities, which may be tied to between individuals from different cultures social and cultural practices.  What implications might the sociocultural Measurement of Personality approach have for learning and education? Physicians have an easy time of it measuring Answer: Social and cultural contexts have heart rate and blood pressure. an impact on learning. Psychologists, biologists, and neuroscientists find it easier to measure electricity in the brain Current Research in Psychology or substances in the blood than to measure psychological concepts such as intelligence, The Science of Well-Being depression, extraversion, or emotional stability. “Positive psychology” is a science of the Personality assessment positive aspects of a human life: happiness, well-being, and flourishing. is the measurement and evaluation of psychological traits, states, values, It seeks to bring solid empirical research into interests,attitudes, worldview, cognitive style and areas such as wisdom and creativity. related individual characteristics. Psychology seems to focus on the shortcomings A trait is a way in which one individual varies and struggles of individuals instead of their from anotherThe attribution of a trait term is potential. always a relative phenomenon. - Positive psychology aims to study what sort A constellation of traits that is similar in of life is worth living. pattern to one identified category of personality within a taxonomy ofpersonalities - Happiness is partly innate and partly depends on us. Traits are characteristics possessed by people, - One study shows that well-being is tied to a whereas types are descriptions of people. longer life. Personality typologies are common: Research indicates that using simple well-being strategies can make people lastingly happy. Carl Jung (1923) and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Spending time thinking of three things that (MBTI; Myers & Briggs, 1943/1962) went well in a day can increase one’s happiness Holland’s six personality types (Holland, 1999): for up to six months. artistic,enterprising, investigative, social, realistic, orconventional According to positive psychologists, people can Type A personality vs. Type B personality create their own happiness and well- (Freidman &Rosenman,1974) being by thinking positive and healthful thoughts. MMPI personality profiles (Dahlstrom, 1995)  Uses of Personality Assessment The reliability of a test - is the stability of one’s test results from one Basic Research testing to another. We usually determine the Determine the number and nature of reliability of tests by comparing testing results dimensions thatmake us unique on different occasions or at different ages. Stability of personality across time - A reliable IQ test should provide scores during Clinical/Counselling childhood that remain reasonably similar in Vocational counselling adolescence and adulthood. Personality disorders Personnel Management Test standardization Recruitment and selection - is a process that checks out the scores, Placement validity, and reliability of a test with people of various ages and from various groups. Threat Assessment Judgements of dangerousness of persons - We cannot assess the intellectual functioning of interest of an individual without relating it to other people in the same age group. Measures of personality are used to make important decisions, such as whether a person is suited for a certain type of work, a particular class in school, or a drug to reduce agitation. Objective Tests As part of their admissions process, graduate - present respondents with a standardized group schools often ask professors to rate prospective of test items in the form of a questionnaire. students on scales that assess traits such as intelligence, emotional stability, and cooperation. - Respondents are limited to a specific range of answers. There are broadly two types of personality assessment methods: - One test might ask respondents to indicate whether items are true or false for them. 1. Projective methods Another might ask respondents to select the 2. Objective methods preferred activity from groups of three. Students may take tests to measure their aptitudes and interests to gain insight into PROJECTIVE TESTS whether they are suited for certain occupations. It is assumed that students who - have no clear specified answers. People are share the aptitudes and interests of people shown ambiguous stimuli such as inkblots or who function well in certain positions are ambiguous drawings and asked to say what they also likely to function well in those positions. look like or to tell stories about them. Or they are asked to complete sentences or to draw pictures The validity of a test of persons. There is no one correct response. - is the extent to which it measures what it is supposed to measure. We usually assess - It is assumed that people project their own the validity of personality tests by comparing personalities into their responses. The meanings test results to external criteria or they attribute to these stimuli are assumed to standards. reflect their personalities as well as the drawings - For example, a test of hyperactivity might or blots themselves. be compared with teachers’ reports about whether or not children in their classes are hyperactive.  WHAT ARE PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS? - Psychology is the study of behavior and mental processes. - Psychological disorders are behaviors or mental processes that are connected with various kinds of distress or significant impairment in functioning. - Some psychological disorders are characterized by anxiety, but many people are anxious now and then without being considered disordered. Behaviors or mental processes are suggestive of PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL psychological disorders when they meet some DISORDERS combination of the following criteria: THE DEMONOLOGICAL MODEL THEY ARE UNSUAL. Rarity or statistical deviance may not be sufficient for behavior or mental people assumed the behaviors associated processes to be labeled abnormal. with psychological disorders were caused by possession by the Devil. So-called THEY SUGGEST FAULTY PERCEPTION OR witches were executed for events ranging INTERPRETATION OF REALITY. Our society from a neighbor’s infertility to a poor considers it normal to be inspired by religious harvest.In fact, throughout all of recorded beliefs but abnormal to believe that God is history, people have attributed unusual literally speaking to you. “ behavior and psychological disorders to demons. THEY SUGGEST SEVERE PERSONAL STRESS. Philippe Pinel Anxiety, exaggerated fears, and other psychological states cause personal distress, (1745–1826) in France, began to view and severe personal distress may be psychological disorders as diseases of the considered abnormal. mind, and they encouraged humane treatment. THEY ARE SELF DEFETING. Behavior or mental CONTEMPORARY PSYCHOLOGICAL MODELS processes that cause misery rather than The diathesis-stress model assumes that happiness and fulfillment may suggest there may be biological differences between psychological disorder. individuals—diatheses—that explain why some people develop certain psychological THEY ARE DANGEROUS. Behavior or mental disorders under stress, whereas others do processes that are hazardous to the not (Gandubert et al., 2016). self or others may be considered suggestive of psychological disorders. The biopsychosocial model explains psychological disorders in terms of a THE INDIVIDUAL’S BEHAVIOR IS SOCIALLY combination of UNACCEPTABLE. We must consider the (a) biological vulnerabilities; cultural context of a behavior pattern (b) psychological factors such as exposure to in judging whether it is normal. stress; and (c) sociocultural factors such as family relationships and cultural beliefs (Lane, 2014). But again, different factors take on different importance among different people. Psychologists today therefore frequently speak of Types of mental health issues the interaction between the biological nature of and illnesses the individual and his or her life experiences, or nurture. Mental illness is a general term for a group of illnesses that may include symptoms that CLASSIFYING PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS can affect a person’s thinking, perceptions, mood or behaviour. Classification is at the heart of science. Without classifying psychological disorders, investigators Mental illness can make it difficult for would not be able to communicate, and scientific someone to cope with work, relationships and progress would come to a halt. other demands. The relationship between stress and mental illness is complex, but it is known that stress can worsen an episode of The most widely used classification scheme for mental illness. psychological disorders is the The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the Mental Disorders, compiled by the American Psychiatric Most people can manage their mental illness Association. with medication, counselling or both.This page lists some of the more common mental health issues and mental illnesses. Anxiety disorders is a group of mental health disorders that includes generalised anxiety disorders, social phobias, specific phobias (for example, agoraphobia and claustrophobia), panic disorders, obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) and post-traumatic stress disorder. PREVALANCE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS Untreated, anxiety disorders can lead to At first glance, psychological disorders might seem significant impairment on people’s daily lives. to affect only a few of us. Relatively few people are admitted to psychiatric hospitals. Most people Behavioural and emotional disorders will never seek the help of a psychologist or in children psychiatrist. Many of us have “eccentric” relatives or friends, but most of them are not considered Common behaviour disorders in children include “crazy.” Nonetheless, psychological disorders affect oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), conduct us all in one way or another. disorder (CD) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Treatment for these mental health disorders can include therapy, education and medication. Bipolar affective disorder is a type of mood disorder, previously referred to as ‘manic depression’. A person with bipolar disorder experiences episodes of mania (elation) and depression. The person may or may not experience psychotic symptoms. The exact cause is unknown, but a genetic predisposition has been clearly established. Environmental stressors can also trigger episodes of this mental illness. Depression Psychosis is a mood disorder characterised by lowering of People affected by psychosis can mood, loss of interest and enjoyment, and reduced experience delusions, hallucinations and energy. t is not just feeling sad. There are confused thinking.. Psychosis can occur in different types and symptoms of depression. There a number of mental illnesses, including are varying levels of severity and symptoms drug-induced psychosis, schizophrenia and related to depression. Symptoms of depression can mood disorders. Medication and lead to increased risk of suicidal thoughts or psychological support can relieve, or even behaviours. eliminate, psychotic symptoms. Dissociation and dissociative disorders Schizophrenia is a mental process where a person disconnects from their thoughts, feelings, memories or sense of is a complex psychotic disorder identity. Dissociative disorders include dissociative characterised by disruptions to thinking amnesia, dissociative fugue, depersonalisation and emotions, and a distorted perception disorder and dissociative identity disorder. of reality. Symptoms of schizophrenia vary widely but may include hallucinations, delusions, thought disorder, social Eating disorders withdrawal, lack of motivation and impaired thinking and memory. People with Eating disorders include anorexia, bulimia nervosa schizophrenia have a high risk of suicide. and other binge eating disorders. Eating disorders Schizophrenia is not a split personality. affect females and males and can have serious psychological and physical consequences. Obsessive compulsive disorder is an anxiety disorder. Obsessions are recurrent thoughts, images or impulses that are intrusive and unwanted. Compulsions are time-consuming and distressing repetitive rituals. Treatments include cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT), and medications. Paranoia is the irrational and persistent feeling that people are ‘out to get you’. Paranoia may be a symptom of conditions including paranoid personality disorder, delusional (paranoid) disorder and schizophrenia. Treatment for paranoiainclude medications and psychological support. Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a mental health condition that can develop as a response to people who have experienced any traumatic event. This can be a car or other serious accident, physical or sexual assault, war-related events or torture, or natural disasters such as bushfires or floods.