POLI 212: Introduction To International Politics PDF

POLI 212: INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL POLITICS COURSE OVERVIEW The course examines the nature, scope and meaning of international politics; theory and its relevance to international politics, the traditional-scientific debate; the concept of national interest actors in international politic...

POLI 212: INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL POLITICS COURSE OVERVIEW The course examines the nature, scope and meaning of international politics; theory and its relevance to international politics, the traditional-scientific debate; the concept of national interest actors in international politics- state, governmental, non-governmental, etc, determinants of foreign policy, power in international politics; the Cold War and its aftermath. 1 1 Compiled & Codified by: ERIC TORTO 0  1 THEORY According to the social sciences, a theory is a system of ideas intended to explain a phenomena based on general principles independent of the phenomena to be explained. A theory helps us understand the causes of a phenomena, hence it is essential that it stays focused on explaining, examining, and ultimately comprehending the ideas, institutions, and practices related to politics and other social phenomena or issues. A phenomena is an event, situation, circumstance or occurrence that is observed to exist or occur particularly when its cause or explanation is unclear. A phenomenon can be either natural or artificial. This includes disasters like accidents, floods, earthquakes, and tsunamis as well as developments like poverty, hunger, unemployment, underdevelopment, etc. From the 1970s till the present, after World War II and its aftermath, the US, Europe, and other regions of the world have seen an increase in interest in social sciences theory. This led to the rise of political philosophies, ideologies, concepts or theories like socialism, capitalism, liberalism, realism, and communism in Europe and the rest of the globe, giving them a new elegance. Other ideologies to that was developed in terms of development of countries incorporate the modernization theory, dependency theory, feminist theory, sustainable development, and other ideologies. For the scientific definition of theory, it is a tested, well-substantiated, unifying explanation for a set of verified facts and proven factors. Scientific theory emerged in the 20th century. That is why this theory is called modern, or empirical. The empirical theory relies primarily on data. This theory is based on observation and examination of the data. This kind of theory is always backed by evidence. One of the main aims of this theory is to arrive at conclusions through scientific interpretation of information. That is why it is called scientific theory. Theory aims to comprehend or explore the causes of a phenomenon. a natural occurrence like lightning, earthquakes, floods, accidents, deaths, etc. Nikola Tesla, a Serbian-American engineer and physicist, pioneered numerous advances in the generation, transmission, and use of electric power. In an effort to mimic lightning and deciphered the process by which lightning is produced naturally, he created the first and present alternating current (AC) motor and developed AC generation and transmission technology. This AC power system is a theory because it had been tested extensively and innumerable times and the result and conclusion was already accurate. Through his invention and development of the alternating- current power system now provides electricity for homes and buildings. Another example of a scientific theory is the 1905 Albert Einstein's theory of relativity. It is a theory because it has been tested and verified innumerable times, with results consistently verifying Einstein's conclusion. The theory of relativity explains the behavior of objects in space and time, and it can be used to predict things such as the existence of black holes, light bending due to gravity and the behavior of planets in their orbits. This means that space and time are inextricably connected. However, simply because Einstein's Compiled & Codified by: ERIC TORTO  2 conclusion has become a theory does not mean testing of this theory has stopped; all science is ongoing. Theory can be grasped with very close observation of how things happen since they are like diluted laws. One can predict the emergence or reemergence of a phenomenon over time by paying attention to how things happen. The idea of quasi-lawlike qualities or lawlike tendencies is used to describe theory. Law and theory might be similar and likely to happen. Theory is employed to protect practice. The complexity of the world is reduced to make it more manageable through theory. Because theory is oversimplified, it has limitations. USE/APPLICATION OF THEORY It guides and helps with the selection, interpretation, and proposal of explanations of pertinent data in order to sketch the underlying influences or causes of observable events. Typically, theories are used to develop a research topic, direct the selection of pertinent data, evaluate the findings, and offer explanations for the factors that may have influenced or contributed to the observed occurrences. HYPOTHESIS The words "hypothesis" and "theory" are sometimes used interchangeably. Even though these two concepts are somewhat similar, they are largely distinct from each other. Definition ✓ Hypothesis is just a guess, hunch, hearsay or mere suspicion √ Hypothesis is a proposed or suggested explanation for an observed phenomenon √ Hypothesis is an assumption made before any research has been done. It is formed so that it can be tested to see if it might be true. √ Simply put, a hypothesis is an idea that can be tested based on the evidence available or an hypothesis is a tentative, testable explanation for a phenomenon in the natural world. A concept or statement must be tested to be proven credible. This serves as a starting point for further investigation to prove the hypothesis by applying the scientific method. Many describe it as an "educated guess" based on prior knowledge and observation. While an "educated guess" suggests a random prediction based on a person's expertise, developing a hypothesis requires active observation and background research. The basic idea of a hypothesis is that there is no predetermined outcome. For a solution to be termed a hypothesis, it has to be an idea that can be supported or refuted through carefully crafted experimentation or observation. A key function of a hypothesis is to derive predictions about the results of future experiments and then perform those experiments to see whether they support the predictions. Compiled & Codified by: ERIC TORTO  3 Examples of hypothesis 1. One might think that a prisoner who learns a work skill while in prison will be less likely to commit a crime when released. This is an hypothesis or an educated guess. 2. Students who eat breakfast will perform better on a math exam than students who do not eat breakfast." 3. Work habits improve during the times when one gets 8 hours of sleep only, as opposed to 9 hours of sleep only. 4. If sugar causes cavities, then people who eat a lot of candy may be more prone to cavities. 5. If ultraviolet light can damage the eyes, then maybe this light can cause blindness. INTERNATIONAL POLITICS The study of international politics is inherently an interdisciplinary field which incorporates politics, history, economics, geography, philosophy, law, and sociology, etc. The world we live in, the difficulties we encounter, power conflicts, and the chances and challenges for relations among peoples, societies, states, and organizations are all topics covered in international politics. International Politics involves the interactions between and among countries, intergovernmental organizations and international organizations on several levels. Global actors like states, formal and informal international organizations like the IMF and the G20, non-governmental organizations like Amnesty International, non-state actors like terrorists, multinational corporations, or powerful billionaires like Bill Gates are just a few of the many actors that shape our world via international politics. International Politics focuses on studying the manner in which political power operates within and beyond the states in the international stage. International Politics, on the other hand, deals with the political relations of States and focuses on how states collectively respond to the emerging global issues. International Politics is how power operates or is operated within and between STATES in the international arena. Thus, International Politics incorporates International Relations, international relations and Global or World Politics. Based on Harold Lasswell's widely cited definition of politics: “It is the social processes that determine who gets what, when, and how”. Lasswell adds a distinctly economic dimension to politics, whereby politics involves the distribution of resources or decisions on ‘who gets what’. This means politics is a method by which goods, services, or other programmatic actions are delivered to groups or individuals in a particular geographical location. The above definition suggests that there are conflicts between people over ideals and that society needs a set of rules to decide who receives or gets what. In terms of political power, it is up to the authorities or rulers to share out or distribute the national cake in the form of developmental initiatives like social amenities and infrastructure facilities with their people. The government is an institution in Compiled & Codified by: ERIC TORTO  4 charge of allocating the development initiatives. The Government is a body that establishes laws governing who gets what, when, and how. It implies that when we make recommendations about which buildings and roads, or services should be provided, together with who should receive them, when and for how long, and how, it implies that the president, parliament, contractors, road and housing minister, finance minister may be substantially involved in politics and the ones who make final decisions. Who Pays For It (Who Covers the Cost) of Amenities or Development Projects? This implies that someone is in charge of contributing funds or resources to sponsor and assist these development activities. These development initiatives or projects are financed by the government of a country. These funds are generated from various sources such as taxation and monies borrowed from International financial institutions like the IMF and the World Bank. POWER Political theorists have offered various definitions of power. Power is "the ability or capacity to enact or act in a particular way". The political scientist Robert A. Dahl defined power "as influence over the actions of others". Power is a game in which actors try to influence each other to get others to do what they would not otherwise have done. For instance arguing that, ‘A has power over B to the extent that he can get B to do something that B would not otherwise do’ A state must pass through or undergo 4 different stages in order to fully have great power. The four stages are acquisition, expansion, reproduction, and retention. For instance, Ghana acquired power and has been able to retain it for several years now but she has not been able to reproduce this power and expanded it. Ghana is at the Retention stage. Looking at powerful countries made up of the permanent members of the United Nations Security Council like the United States, China, United Kingdom, Russia and France, these countries have acquired, retained, reproduced and expanded it. They go to the extent of dictating and determining what others must do via the policies and programmes. The essence or goal of international politics is to inform or educate the public of how to maintain, reproduce and expand the power one has acquired. This is what states do. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS The primary focus of the study of International Relations is the interaction of states between and among themselves with other political actors. The fact that every state in the system is sovereign and independent and does not have to answer to a higher power is one of the main characteristics of the international system. It includes or entails the relationships and business that takes place Compiled & Codified by: ERIC TORTO  5 inside the international community between and among states or nations. In a nutshell, the study of International Relations is an effort to understand conduct that happens across national boundaries as well as the larger structures that govern such interactions. It is not necessary for the relationships to always be between heads of state; they could also be between and among ministers or other representatives of states. For instance, traditional aspects of international relations that are connected to global peace and prosperity cover issues like global diplomacy, arms control, and alliance politics. Business and trade, education, technology, the mining industry, financial problems, etc. are all included in the field of International Relations. A $2 billion bauxite agreement with the Chinese government was approved and signed by Ghanaian President Nana Akufo-Addo at the beginning of 2017. International Relations is the word used to describe this kind of transaction between Ghana and China. As a diplomat, you will represent and protect a country's interest in terms of politics, trade and consular services abroad in another country. As a diplomat, you will have to work for a minimum of 2, 3, or 4 years. One of the responsibilities of representatives is to serve as a liaison between the nation you represent and the nation in which you are stationed. Thus, a diplomat's role as a representative of a country abroad is categorized as International Relations. international relations It involves private interactions of or between and among non-state actors such as individuals, multinational corporations, intergovernmental organizations, and sometimes international organizations across borders. In actuality, there is a great, even bewildering variety in international relations (lower case). States are not the only actors in it; consider the impact of major non-state actors of transnational or multinational corporations like Google and Apple as well as terrorist organizations like ISIS and Al-Qaeda. Think about climate change, migration, and human rights in addition to concerns like trade, diplomacy, and war and peace. The interactions that go on in international relations can either be between a non-state actor (Amazon Prime) and a state actor ( Government of Ghana) or mainly and purely between and among non-state actors (Coca-Cola and Invictus Plastics & Bottles Inc.). The deal between the Arsenal Football Club and Amazon Prime to have an episode of "Amazon: All or Nothing," an Amazon behind-the-scenes documentary, is another illustration of international relations. This makes it international relations because both Arsenal Football Club and Amazon Prime, a division of Amazon Inc., are both non-state actors. Other examples of international relations include multinational corporations or global firms such as Microsoft, Apple, Tesla, Facebook, Google, Nestle, Twitter, Toyota, Walmart, Standard Chartered, etc. The same can be said about international and regional club associations such as FIFA, UEFA, CAF, CONCACAF, CONMEBOL, WAFU, Olympic games, etc. Compiled & Codified by: ERIC TORTO  6 GLOBAL POLITICS Global Politics also known as World Politics. It studies the political and economic patterns of the world. It has to do with the different processes of political globalization in relation to questions of social power. It studies the relationship between cities, states, shell-states, multinational corporations, non-governmental organizations and international organizations. Areas of discussion under global politics include democracy, human rights, foreign aid, climate change and the environment, conflict and peace, poverty, health, Identity, borders, and security, etc. In simple terms, global politics examines important political and public issues as a result of globalization. Examples of such political and public issues are illustrated and mentioned above. Solutions to contemporary world issues have been both helped and hindered by the rise of globalization. This is the increasingly-accepted ideology among world leaders and political scientists that states should work at developing relationships with each other. Globalization has elevating effects on the influence and power of certain nations at the expense of others. This is one of the major causes of contention between countries of the Middle East and countries in the West. Public issues are situations or problems that affect all people or part of the population in a certain place or location. They can be of economic, social, cultural or environmental nature and might arise within a city, state, country or even globally. Public issues for instance, include problems such as the environment, healthcare, the refugee crisis, racial injustice, income inequality or gap, gun violence, hunger, and food poverty or insecurity. For example, the water pollution in a local lake is a public issue for those around it. The rights of minorities and immigration are public issues of national concern and terrorism and climate change are problems with a global impact. Global political issues today are caused by a multitude of aspects of life, from religion to medicine to economics and beyond. Political issues can be defined as the conflicts of various types that occur between individuals, organizations, states, and other actors. Usually, conflicts over political issues occur between two individuals who propose different solutions to the problems. A political issue is a question about who has power and what people are doing or thinking about things that affect them. An example of political issues in the world today is war. The largest attack of one state on another in Europe or the world since World War II occurred on February 27, 2022, when Russia invaded Ukraine. Countries around the world spoke out in favor of the autonomy of Ukraine, sending military equipment and humanitarian aid. They also instituted a series of sanctions against the Russian government as well as private institutions and individuals. Another major example of a political issue is democracy and or versus authoritarianism. While many countries are committed to preserving democratic forms of government in one way or another, an increasing number of countries are becoming authoritarian. Some of these are labelled ''rogue states,'' and use their authoritarian system to acquire an imbalanced level of political power in the Compiled & Codified by: ERIC TORTO  7 global community. Countries that rely on authoritarian political systems often state that it is the most effective way to maintain economic and political stability and ensure that there are no major insurrections. States that function with democratic systems have a more positive view of public input and recognition of human rights in making policies. There are benefits and drawbacks to each type of government. An example of an authoritarian state is North Korea and Russia whereas a democratic state is the United States and Great Britain. ANARCHY IN THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM The term anarchy can have different meanings. However, in this essay we will only focus on one definition. Anarchy in the context of the international system implies there are no higher authorities, and because states are considered by many as primary actors in international relations, an anarchical world would be one where there is no higher authority than that of the state. This means anarchy is the idea that the world lacks any supreme authority or sovereign. It is an organized chaos: a complex situation that appears chaotic while having enough power or order to achieve progress or goals.In an anarchic state, there is no hierarchical superior, coercive power that can resolve disputes, enforce law and order in the international community. The state exists as a full sovereign of its people and territory, and which enjoys the ultimate power of being completely self-determined. In simple terms, it means there is no world government, no sovereign body above states with the authority or power to impartially impose justice on state actors. In the view of many international relations specialists, this anarchic structure explains a lot about how states act or behave. It is a self-help system, where each sovereign unit is responsible for its own security within a competitive, often ruthless, Hobbesian domain or world. Since there is no one to put an end to war, it could be argued that war is a product or function of the international system's anarchic structure and will continue to exist unless and until some sort of global Leviathan materializes. State sovereignty within or inside a structure of anarchy means International courts lack universal jurisdiction. In order to impose justice for international crimes, states must voluntarily subject their own national leaders to criminal culpability. It seems sense that states are reluctant to take this action. Furthermore, even if they do formally accede or submit, no supranational authority or coercive institution has the power or mandate to compel states to adhere to international law or rulings. Compiled & Codified by: ERIC TORTO  8 The League of Nations, for instance, denounced and condemned Japan's military occupation of Manchuria as a breach or violation of international law in 1933. Japan's response was to merely withdraw from or leave the League of Nations. This continues, routinely, to the present day. In 2013, the Philippines filed a suit or case against China's broad or expansive maritime and territorial claims in the South China Sea before an international tribunal. From the outset, Beijing stated or declared it would not participate in the arbitration and would later reject and dismiss the court's findings when it decided or ruled in favor of Manila. Big, powerful countries tend to abide by international law when it suits them and ignore it when it doesn’t. Thanks to its unique power position atop the international hierarchy, this is especially true of the United States. In 1986, the International Court of Justice, the UN’s highest judicial body, condemned the United States for the crime of aggression against Nicaragua. The Reagan administration had fueled the murderous Contra rebels and secretly mined Nicaraguan harbors in an attempt to undermine the Sandinista government. The White House ignored the court’s findings, dismissed its legitimacy, and refused to hold official perpetrators accountable. Thus, a significant flaw or weakness in today’s international legal system is that justice is influenced, and often even determined by, power asymmetries or imbalances. It’s difficult or challenging to know how to avoid this. The very foundations of the post-WWII international order were only possible because the great powers or countries of the time granted themselves special or exceptional privileges. The support of the most powerful states in the world was ensured by permanent seats on the United Nations Security Council, and veto power decisions. As a practical matter, the problem of enforcement means that international courts will tend to prosecute crimes selectively, which will generally mean small, weak states are subject to the law, while powerful states can escape accountability. The International Criminal Court’s disproportionate focus on prosecuting African leaders, for example, has garnered widespread criticism. But this double standard merely reflects the difficulty of applying the law equally in an anarchic system. In a nutshell, in the famous words of Thucydides, an ancient Athenian military general and historian, anarchy in the international system is how "The strong do or act as they want and the weak suffer as they want". Compiled & Codified by: ERIC TORTO  9 INTERNATIONAL LAW Because international politics involves the interactions between and among countries, intergovernmental organizations and international organizations on several levels, international law becomes important in shaping the policies of countries towards other countries in the international system or community. Countries or states enact laws that govern their citizens and the areas under their jurisdiction or territory. These are called domestic laws, and they can vary greatly from one country to another. However, there is another category of legislation or law known as international law. International law entails a body of legal system, rules and principles that regulate the behaviour of individuals and entities with global personality. It defines legal responsibilities of sovereign states and individual and international organisations, not only concerning their conduct with each other but also encompasses their treatment of the individuals within the state boundary. It is an independent system of laws that exists outside the legal orders of particular states. International law has no defined area or governing body but consists of a collection of international treaties, accords, charters, agreements, tribunals, protocols, memorandums, legal precedents of the International Court of Justice, and more. Since there is no unique governing and enforcing body it is largely a voluntary endeavor, wherein the power of enforcement only exists when the parties consent to abide by an agreement. Its domain encompasses a wide range of issues of international concern such as environment, migrant labour, drug trafficking, terrorism, disarmament, international crime, etc. It regulates global commons such as space, environment, global communication and world trade, international waters, etc. There is no definitive governing body to legislate and enforce international law. The United Nations is the most widely recognised international organisation and the International Court of Justice is its judicial counterpart. SUBJECTS OF INTERNATIONAL LAW Subjects of International Law are referred to as entities who have a legal personality, with certain rights and duties under the international legal system. The state:- It is considered to be the primary and original subject of international law. States include the United States, China, Russia, United Kingdom, France, Brazil, Ghana, Nigeria, Cuba, Comoros, Canada, Germany, Australia, Japan, etc. Individuals :– Common people of any state are also believed to be the subject of international law. International Organizations :– It is an association of states, established by a treaty between two or more states. International Organizations too have a legal personality and are considered to be the subject of international law. For example, the United Nations. Compiled & Codified by: ERIC TORTO  10 Multinational Companies :– They own and operate their corporate entities in at least one other country aside from the place where it was incorporated, therefore it is established in more than one country. Amazon, Walmart, Standard Chartered, Toyota, Coca Cola, Twitter are few examples of multinational corporations. INTERNATIONAL LEGAL PERSONALITY In a broad sense international legal personality refers to the rights, duties and legal powers held by entities under international law. It means having rights and duties under international law and a capacity to enforce these by or against the relevant actor. These entities include multinational corporations or companies, sovereign states, international organizations, and individuals. These entities should have legal powers, the ability to effectively exercise their powers, and associations with states on a permanent basis. To put it simply, it indicates that these entities are legally capable of suing other entities or being sued themselves. TYPES OF INTERNATIONAL LAW It can be divided into public international law and private international law and also sometimes supernatural. PRIVATE INTERNATIONAL LAW √ Private International Law is the legal framework composed of conventions, protocols, model laws, legal guides, uniform documents, case law, practice and custom, as well as other documents and instruments, which regulate relationships between individuals in an international context. √ Private international law is a procedural rule applied in the conflicts between private persons and multinational corporations. √ Private international law consists of principles and rules that deal with relationships between citizens of different countries or legal disputes that have a foreign element. For example, is a cross-border divorce case: an American man and a French woman were married in France and now live in Quebec. If they want to divorce, the rules of private international law will determine whether they have to go to a US, French or Quebec court to get their divorce. Private international law also applies to business like transnational commercial disputes involving multinational corporations. Globalization and the Internet mean that companies are doing more business in other countries. For example, if you run into a problem when buying something online from an American company and you want to sue, the rules of private international law will apply. PUBLIC INTERNATIONAL LAW Compiled & Codified by: ERIC TORTO  11 √ Public international law is a body of rules applied in the conflicts of sovereign states. Public international law is also known as the Law of Nations. √ This covers the rules, and laws that govern the conduct and dealings between nations and/or their citizens. √ Public international law deals mostly with the rights and responsibilities that countries have toward each other. In international law, countries are usually referred to as “states.” Public international law also applies to international organizations such as the United Nations (UN) and the World Trade Organization (WTO). Public international law sets the rules for issues that concern all humankind: the environment, the oceans, human rights, international business, etc. Various international bodies enforce these rules. For example, the International Criminal Court investigates and hears cases of people accused of war crimes or crimes against humanity. This court applies “international criminal law.” Another example is the Convention on the Rights of the Child. Countries that have signed this convention must respect the rights it gives to children and make sure these rights are made known and protected. SOURCES OF INTERNATIONAL LAW International Law is comprehensive or broad in nature (scope) and due to that it is an amalgamation of various sources, there exists no single system of laws which can interpret and extend the law but international law still exists and is ascertainable. The principles of international law may be gleaned from and examined in various 'sources'. Sources of international law are the materials and processes out of which the rules and principles regulating the international community are developed. Sources of international law include treaties, international customs, conventions or general widely recognized principles of law, judicial decisions and teachings or the decisions of national and lower courts, and scholarly writings TREATIES The Vienna Convention of 1969 defines a Treaty as an agreement whereby two or more states establish or seek to establish a relationship between them governed by international law.” It is also defined as the legally binding written documents between states and international organizations and how they operate with private entities. Treaties act as a direct source of rights and obligations for the states. They are voluntary and cannot bind non-signatories. These accords may be bilateral or multilateral. Multilateral treaties or agreements are those which specify how the law will be applied generally or universally or involves multiple states. Bilateral treaties, on the other hand, are agreements that are formed solely by two states to address a specific issue involving these states. Compiled & Codified by: ERIC TORTO  12 The Peace of Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years' War and is regarded as the oldest and first known treaty, was signed in 1648 in Münster, Germany. The Treaty of Paris, for instance, was signed in 1783 between America and its allies and Great Britain on one side. The Revolutionary War was over thanks to this peace deal. One of the most debatable armistice agreements in history is the Treaty of Versailles (1919). The so-called "war guilt", the treaty required Germany and the other Central Powers to bear full responsibility for World War I. INTERNATIONAL CUSTOMS. It is the international obligations arising from established international practices, as opposed to obligations arising from formal written conventions and treaties. However, the ICJ’s statute refers to “international custom, as evidence of a general practice accepted as law,”. It is regarded as a second source of international law. Custom, involves two fundamental elements: the actual practice of states and the acceptance by states of that practice as law. The actual practice of states covers various elements, including the duration, consistency, repetition, and generality of a particular kind of behaviour by states. All such elements are relevant in determining whether a practice may form the basis of a binding international custom. All states may contribute to the creation of new or modified customs, but not all states participate equally in the process. The formation of customs normally has a bigger relevance for the major states. For instance, compared to other nations that had little to no experience in this field, the United States and the Soviet Union were significantly more important in the 1960s in the establishment of space law customs. [Space law is the set of international legal rules and regulations that control and conduct behavior in and around regions of space above Earth's lower atmosphere.] All states in the international community are bound by a practice once it becomes custom, whether or not individual states have formally accepted or consented, except in circumstances where a state has opposed from the outset of the custom (usually a difficult test to prove) CONVENTION A Convention is a long established, informal and uncodified procedural agreement followed by the institutions of state. Conventions are particularly important in countries like the UK which lack a written constitution, where they provide help in understanding how the state functions. They do not exist in any written document holding legal authority, but there will rarely be a departure from a convention without good reason. The "Salisbury Convention" in the Lords, which states that the Lords will not object to the second or third reading of any Government legislation promised in its election manifesto or those in the 2011 Cabinet Manual pertaining to what would happen in the case of a hung Parliament, are examples of conventions. Another example is the assumption that a government will resign if it loses a vote of confidence in the Commons. JUDICIAL DECISIONS They are the determination by a court of competent jurisdiction on matters submitted to it. Compiled & Codified by: ERIC TORTO  13 DIPLOMACY Diplomacy has existed since the beginning of the human race. There has not been a documented start of diplomacy; however there have been instances ranging back to the 5th century where diplomacy arose in certain nations. Dating back to 432 B.C, the Congress of Sparta was an “illustration of diplomacy as organized by the Greek City States”. The origin of the word “diploma” comes from different sides of the earth. In Greece diploma meant “folded in two”, while in Ancient Rome the word was used to describe travel documents. Diplomacy refers to the method that governments use to influence the actions of foreign governments through peaceful tactics such as negotiation and dialogue. It can also be defined as the art of obtaining agreement between countries who need to cooperate to produce results in which each has an interest. Diplomacy is the act of conducting negotiations between two persons, or two states at a large scope is essential to the upkeep of international affairs. The diplomatic techniques used in diplomacy include negotiation and dialogue. The diplomatic techniques of diplomacy are always in the hands or decided by authorities of contesting parties. Diplomacy is most importantly used to complete a specific agenda. For the upkeep of the International System, diplomacy is utilized in every corner of the world. Therefore without diplomacy many states would not be able to conduct successful or fruitful negotiations and much of the world’s affairs would be abolished, international organizations would not exist, and above all the world would be at a constant state of war. It is for diplomacy that certain countries can exist in harmony. Negotiation in international relations is often a process of power-based dialogue intended to achieve certain goals or ends, and which may or may not thoroughly resolve a particular dispute or disputes to the satisfaction of all parties. Fred C. lklé (1964) in his How Nations Negotiate book defines negotiation as: a process in which explicit proposals are put forward ostensibly for the purpose of reaching agreement on an exchange or on the realization of a common interest where conflicting interests are present. One definition of diplomatic negotiation is the conduct of international relations between sovereign partners to settle a disagreement peacefully and in a manner that is agreeable to both parties. Negotiations on a diplomatic level can take place between states as well as between non-state individuals or entities. Diplomats are what we refer to as these foreign government representatives or officials. These foreign government officials or Diplomats are referred to as High Commissioners in Commonwealth countries but as Ambassadors in non-commonwealth countries. Commonwealth of Nations is an association of states that were once colonized by Britain. These States or countries include, the colonial masters the United Kingdom, India, Ghana, Nigeria, Sierra Leone. A diplomat from Ghana to the United Kingdom or to India is an High Commissioner but a diplomat from Ghana to Brazil or China is regarded as an Ambassador. In the Commonwealth of Compiled & Codified by: ERIC TORTO  14 Nations, a high commissioner is the senior diplomat (generally ranking as an ambassador) in charge of the diplomatic mission of one Commonwealth government to another. Instead of an embassy, the diplomatic mission is generally called a High Commission. These government representatives carry out their duties in embassy and high commission structures and sometimes consulates. An embassy is the main location for a diplomatic presence of one country in another. A country has at most one embassy in another country, and most embassies are located in capital cities. Consulates are like branch offices of the embassy; a country can have several consulates in another country, usually located in all major cities of that country. Even though embassies and consulates are located in another country, they are legally considered territory of the country they represent. So the host country does not have jurisdiction inside the embassy of a foreign country. The term for this is called extraterritoriality. For instance, the United States Embassy in Ghana is a property of the United States government, hence Ghana does not have jurisdiction there or it is not subject to Ghanaian law. A prisoner or criminal who decides to hide and avoid capture by the host country and is sheltered in an embassy provided he is a citizen, cannot be arrested or given permission to leave by the host country. A typical instance is when WikiLeaks founder Julian Assange and others hacked into the Pentagon's computer network. In 2010, Mr. Assange started disseminating archives of top-secret American diplomatic and military records, provided thanks to Chelsea Manning, a former Army intelligence analyst. Mr. Assange hid out in Ecuador's embassy in Britain to avoid being apprehended and imprisoned for revealing government secrets in violation of the Espionage Act. His citizenship as an Ecuadorian made this possible. He managed to avoid capture and, beginning in 2012, sought refuge at the Ecuadorian embassy for seven years. During that time, he dated and married Stella Moris, a lawyer, and they had two sons together. However, on Thursday, April 12, 2019, the Ecuadorian government suspended Mr. Assange's citizenship and kicked him out, opening the door for his arrest. For seven years, Mr. Assange eluded the police and detectives of the United States and the United Kingdom because he was residing under the jurisdiction of the Ecuadorian embassy, a foreign land. Diplomats who represent their country abroad enjoy diplomatic immunity. Diplomatic immunity is a principle of international law that ensures that diplomats or foreign government officials are not subject to the jurisdiction of local courts and or considered not susceptible to lawsuit or prosecution. Diplomacy immunity was established and codified in large part by the Vienna Conventions on Diplomatic Relations in 1961. It is granted to individuals depending on their rank and the amount of immunity they need to carry out their duties without legal harassment. However, diplomats are still expected to respect and follow the laws and regulations of their host countries; immunity is not a license to commit crimes. These diplomats can still be expelled under certain conditions or situations. The stated purpose of diplomatic immunity is to facilitate safe passage of diplomats and promote amicable foreign relations between governments, particularly during times of disagreement or armed conflict. For instance, in the Compiled & Codified by: ERIC TORTO  15 United States Top-level ambassadors and their immediate deputies can commit crimes, from littering to murder and remain immune from prosecution in the U.S. courts. In addition, they cannot be arrested or compelled to testify in court. In the United States, several levels of immunity are granted: the higher the rank, the greater the immunity. Diplomatic agents and their immediate families have the most protection and are immune from criminal prosecution and civil lawsuits. The lowest level of protection is granted to embassy and consular employees, who receive immunity only for acts that are part of their official duties—for example, they cannot be forced to testify in court about the actions of the people they work with. For example, in a 1983 case the New York City Police Department suspected a diplomat's son of 15 different rapes. The son was allowed to leave the United States without ever being taken to court because he claimed diplomatic immunity. If diplomatic immunity is used as a shield, the police cannot prosecute, no matter how serious the crime may be. Throughout the course of history diplomacy has been a paramount element in the upkeep of peace and in the creation of positive change. Without diplomacy much of the world’s affairs would not exist. There are many examples of how diplomacy has affected countries, and even individual citizens. Clinton's negotiations with Kim Jung Il in North Korea serve as an illustration of how bargaining may favorably impact someone. Two American individuals were released as a result of their amicable negotiations. Libya and Switzerland are two instances of how politics can taint diplomacy. Power, or more specifically oil, has allowed nations like Libya, led by Moammar Ghaddafi, to have a bigger presence in the globe and say things that would otherwise be taboo or normally not be said. Power corrupts, however diplomacy seeks to rid corruption and reinforce the international system as well as international law. It is for diplomacy that international organizations can exist. The Peace Treaty of the 1648 Westphalia Peace Treaty was reached through diplomatic efforts and state-to-state negotiations, which sparked the creation of several agendas. It led to establishing a new international order based on state sovereignty in central Europe, and also resulted in the first contemporary diplomatic congress. After the development of modern diplomacy, much of Europe underwent change as states were given the chance to discover alternatives to situations involving bloodshed or conflict. It is for diplomacy that international organizations can exist. In a diplomatic way, an international organization is merely a many members finding a common ground on a particular subject. In the United Nations for example, all the members try to find a common interest for positive change. Although it is sometimes perceived to be slow change, the method of diplomacy causes fewer casualties than any other one. If diplomacy were not in existence, international organizations would not exist. The world would be at a constant state of war, and war would in fact never end because they normally end with diplomatic negotiations. Diplomacy through negotiation and dialogue are the strategies and techniques used or applied to promote peace and harmony between contending parties with varying or mutual interests. In the Compiled & Codified by: ERIC TORTO  16 case or situation when a diplomatic dialogue and negotiation fails to result in a successful resolution or the intended outcome, the ultimate course of action is war or violence. This can be supported by the adage that "When Diplomacy Ends, War Begins," which was coined by the late Adolf Hitler, leader of the Nazi Party, dictator of Germany and mastermind or orchestrator of World War II. Carl Von Clausewitz, a Prussian commander, supported this argument and narrative by saying that "war is a continuation of politics by other means." The idea that war is only a continuation of policy "by'' other means suggests that when saying that " hostilities break out, all diplomatic, economic, and ideological exchanges between the parties cease. While armies, navies, and air forces battle it out, statesmen put nonviolent policy tools aside. Therefore, in times of war, the only tool available to military leaders and their political overlords for achieving their political objectives is lethal force. Combatants cross a resemblance of an event horizon, moving from ordinary politics of peacetime into a shadowy world where violent interaction rules. War and peace are separated by a break. The German Chancellor Otto Von Bismarck also fiercely asserted that "if the day will not be settled by speeches and majority decisions but by iron and blood." WAR A war is an intense armed conflict between states, governments, societies or paramilitary groups such as mercenaries, insurgents and militias. It can also be defined as a state of armed conflict between different countries or different groups within a country. These actors engaged in wars are known as belligerents. Belligerents are the actors, parties who engaged in a specific war or conflict. These parties frequently and constantly start and pick fights with other parties. These belligerents include states, military personnel, paramilitary groups such as insurgents, mercenaries and militias. The parties or belligerents at war in the ongoing Ukraine-Russia Crisis are Ukraine and Russia. The Axis powers, such as Germany, Italy, and Japan, and the Allies, which included France, Great Britain, the United States, the Soviet Union, and to a lesser extent, China, were the main or principal belligerents in World War II. TYPES OF WAR Wars can be classified into three types. These are total war, limited war and proxy war. TOTAL WAR Total war refers to a military conflict in which the contenders or belligerents are willing to make any sacrifice in lives and other resources to obtain a complete victory. Total war is a war which is unrestricted in terms of the weapons used, the territory or combatants involved, or the objectives pursued, especially one in which the accepted rules of war are disregarded. It is a complete Compiled & Codified by: ERIC TORTO  17 mobilization of national resources for belligerence or a comprehensive warfare that includes all the resources of a state, not just the armed forces or military. Total war is a strategy in which militaries use any means necessary to win, including those considered morally or ethically wrong in the context of warfare. The goal is not only to decimate but to demoralize the enemy beyond recovery so that they are unable to continue fighting. The purpose is to destroy the other contender’s resources so that they are unable to continue to wage war. This might include targeting major infrastructure and blocking access to water, internet, or imports (often through blockades). Additionally, in total war, there is no limit on the type of weapons used and biological, chemical, nuclear, and other weapons of mass destruction may be unleashed. Total war includes four things: Mobilization, refusal to compromise, the blurring of roles between soldier and civilians, and total control of society. In many ways World War I was total war. There had never been a war that was so widely devastating. Other total wars that have occurred throughout history include the third Punic War, the Mongol Invasions, the Crusades and the Second World War. The practice of total war, however, largely ended with World War II, as nuclear war assured mutually assured destruction. The bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by the United States showed the apocalyptic possibilities of total nuclear war. The invasion of Ukraine by Russia on February 27, 2022, is gradually revealing the return or re-emergence of total conflict. LIMITED WAR Limited war is defined as a war in which not all resources of a state are involved. It is the not complete but partial mobilization of national resources for belligerence at their disposal whether in a specific conflict. This denotes that a limited war is a war in which one or more of the following factors are restricted: the weapons employed, the states or territories engaged, or the aims or objectives pursued, particularly when nuclear weapons are not utilized or is avoided. The Korean, Vietnam, Persian Gulf and Iraq wars were all examples of limited wars. The goal of at least one of the parties in a limited war is to maintain its freedom and preserve itself. The fundamental reason why the Vietnam War was a limited war was that the United States government never meant to fight it as a total war, it was not even formally declared as a war. The Korean War is considered a limited war due to then US President Truman's declaration that he would prefer to lose the Korean War over using nuclear weapons. The Korea War was a limited war due to the absence of nuclear weapons. PROXY WAR A proxy war is an armed conflict between two states or non-state actors which act at the instigation or on behalf of other parties that are not directly involved in the hostilities. A proxy war occurs when a major power instigates or plays a major role in supporting and directing a party to a conflict but does only a small portion of the actual fighting itself. Proxy war according to that meaning is 'an international conflict between two foreign powers, fought out on the soil of a third country'. Common tactics used in proxy wars are when competing powers wage a Compiled & Codified by: ERIC TORTO  18 propaganda war. In a proxy war, the opposing parties send others to fight or carry out their military operations on their behalf. In a proxy war, the opposing powers engage in combat using trade and economic methods. In a proxy war, the opposing parties never publicly admit their involvement. Iran working with Houthi rebels in Yemen is a proxy war because Iran primarily weapons and funding. On the other hand, the United States working with the Afghanistan government against what is left of Al-Qaeda and the Taliban is more of a limited war because of the major U.S role, with thousands of American troops and hundreds of airstrikes. Another example of a proxy war in Africa is the Congo Crisis (1960-1965). It was a period of social, political, and military upheaval in the newly formed Republic of the Congo-Léopoldville (present day Democratic Republic of the Congo, formerly Zaire). It was a war between President Patrice Lumumba's military government forces and that of Mobutu Sese Seko's rebels. What made the Congo Crisis a proxy war is due to the involvement of the Soviet Union and the United States as third parties. After being denied Western aid to control rebel factions in the south of Congo, Lumumba turned to the Soviets, who provided him with weapons and military advisors. This decision worried officials in the United States, who now believed the budding nation would officially turn communist. Doing so would provide Moscow with crucial uranium deposits, while depriving the United States of their most prosperous overseas mines. In a backchannel coup, United States military advisors helped Mobutu and Belgian operatives overthrow Lumumba. Both the Soviet Union and the United States were much worried that the rich uranium mines in the southern areas of the Congo would come under the other’s control. While both the United States and the Soviet Union had uranium deposits of their own, the uranium located in the Congo was extremely valuable given its high quality. TYPES OF POWER The idea to distinguish between hard power and soft power was first introduced by Nye more than two decades ago (1990). In general, he defines power as the “ability to affect others to get the outcomes one wants” and command or hard power as coercive power wielded through inducements or threats. The first part of this essay explains the concepts of hard and soft power with referring to their combination, known as smart power. HARD POWER According to Joseph Nye, hard power involves "the ability to use the carrots and sticks of economic and military might to make others follow your will". Here, "carrots" stand for inducements such as the reduction of trade barriers, the offer of an alliance or the promise of military protection. On the other hand, "sticks" represent threats - including the use of coercive diplomacy, the threat of military intervention, or the implementation of economic sanctions. Ernest Wilson describes hard power as the capacity to coerce "another to act in ways in which that entity would not have acted otherwise". Hard power means it is based on military Compiled & Codified by: ERIC TORTO  19 intervention, coercive diplomacy and economic sanctions and relies on tangible power resources such as armed forces or economic means. Thus, the German invasion into Poland in 1939 and the UN economic sanctions against Iraq in 1991 following the first Gulf War are examples for the use of hard power. SOFT POWER Sometimes you can get the outcomes you want without tangible threats or payoffs. The indirect way to get what you want has sometimes been called "the second face of power" or "soft power." In contrast, co-optive or “soft power is the capacity to persuade others to do what one wants”.. According to Nye, persuasive power is based on attraction and emulation and “associated with intangible power resources such as culture, ideology, and institutions”. It refers to the ability of a country to persuade others to do what it wants without resorting to force or coercion. Soft power describes the use of positive attraction and persuasion to achieve foreign policy objectives. In politics, soft power is the ability to co-opt rather than coerce. In other words, soft power involves shaping the preferences of others through appeal and attraction. Soft power shuns the traditional foreign policy tools of carrots (inducements) and sticks (threats), seeking instead to achieve influence by building networks, communicating compelling narratives, establishing international rules, and drawing on the resources that make a country naturally attractive to the world. A country may obtain the outcomes it wants in world politics because other countries admire its values, emulate its example, aspire to its level of prosperity and openness. This soft power—getting others to want the outcomes that you want—co-opts people rather than coerces them. Soft power rests on the ability to shape the preferences of others. In the business world, smart executives know that leadership is not just a matter of issuing commands, but also involves leading by example and attracting others to do what you want. Similarly, contemporary practices of community-based policing rely on making the police sufficiently friendly and attractive that a community wants to help them achieve shared objectives. Sometimes I can affect your behavior without commanding it. If you believe that my objectives are legitimate, I may be able to persuade you without using threats or inducements. For example, loyal Catholics may follow the Pope's teaching on capital punishment not because of a threat of excommunication, but out of respect for his moral authority. Or some radical Muslims may be attracted to support Osama bin Laden's actions not because of payments or threats, but because they believe in the legitimacy of his objectives. Political leaders have long understood the power that comes from attraction. If I can get you to want to do what I want, then I do not have to use carrots or sticks to make you do it. Soft power is a staple of daily democratic politics. The ability to establish preferences tends to be associated with intangible assets such as an attractive personality, culture, political values and institutions, and policies that are seen as legitimate or having moral authority. A defining feature of soft power is that it is non-coercive; the currency of soft power includes culture, political values, and foreign policies. If a leader represents values that others want to follow, it will cost less to lead. Soft power also emphasises the importance of legitimacy. State activities need to be Compiled & Codified by: ERIC TORTO  20 perceived as legitimate in order to enhance soft power. The dispersion of American culture within the Eastern bloc during the Cold War indicates the existence of American soft power and more recent processes of EU enlargement are indices for soft power possessed by the EU. An illustration of soft power is the employment of Dennis Rodman, a 56-year-old five-time NBA champion and native of New Jersey, by the United States to promote cordial ties with Kim Jong Un, the supreme leader of North Korea. According to rumors, Kim, a basketball aficionado who appreciated the Chicago Bulls' rebounding prowess, arranged for the two to become friends in 2013. Subsequently, Dennis Rodman visited the dictator five times since, naively believing that his diplomatic “missions” would help relations between North Korea and the United States. Doing this, Dennis Rodman indirectly was tasked in taking the role U.S. diplomats should perform by engaging with the North Korean regime of Kim Jong Un. Under the leadership of former US President Donald Trump, Rodman's diplomatic missions and interaction with North Korea were able to materialize fruitfully in 2018. President Donald Trump met with Kim in Singapore in 2018, becoming the first sitting United States president to meet with the leader of North Korea. The historic summit was, in a way, validation for Rodman’s efforts. All the heat he took for meeting with the dictator had finally opened the door for dialogue or communication between the two countries. China's investments in sub-Saharan African countries, Hollywood productions or movies, or Turkey's financial investments in the Arab world, The creation of roads, infrastructure, buildings, and food and shelter, are other instances of soft power. Soft power is the most effective and efficient concept in contemporary global politics because of its endurance and sustainability. Hard power, however, is less useful today as the global system changes in its disfavour. SMART POWER More plainly, smart power is a combination of both hard and soft power approaches to diplomacy. This idea was taken up and coined "smart power” by Nossel and Nye. Smart power draws from both hard and soft power resources. It is defined as “an approach that underscores the necessity of a strong military, but also invests heavily in alliances, partnerships, and institutions". Smart power is “the capacity to combine elements of hard and soft power in ways that are mutually reinforcing”. Even the Former United States Secretary of State, Hillary Clinton makes clear, ‘it is a mistake to count too much on hard or soft power alone.’ Smart power necessitates that states be in tune with their populace, and understand the wants of the country, while being able to discern the ability of the country to achieve such goals. The key is that states also consider the regional and global implications of their actions. It is paramount that state leaders know the proper strategies of diplomacy to be employed for each given situation. The epitome or personification of smart power was former US President Roosevelt. Consider his admiration for the military as evidence that he was keenly aware of the use of harsh power. But he was also conscious of the value of soft power. Roosevelt's primary goal in negotiating important treaties like the Portsmouth Treaty of 1905, which put an end to the Compiled & Codified by: ERIC TORTO  21 war between Japan and Russia, was to make the United States appear more alluring. He wanted to simultaneously showcase the nation's new military might and promote America as a force for good, so he sent the Great White Fleet, the new American navy, on a tour around the globe. He effectively used the fleet as a soft-power symbol by using a hard-power tool. Smart power in simple words is an offer or proposal states or countries cannot refuse. TYPES OF DIPLOMACY There are different kinds of diplomacy. These are economic diplomacy, cultural diplomacy and military diplomacy. ECONOMIC DIPLOMACY Economic diplomacy is the use of official resources to encourage trade or commerce, investment, cooperation on bilateral and multilateral trade agreements, and other ways to grow a nation's economy. It may also refer to utilizing economic means to advance foreign policy goals. Economic diplomacy is also the process of employing international economic operations or transactions by a country to further their political interests is known as economic diplomacy. It is an endeavour to improve one's position in the global economy. Economic Partnership Agreements (EPAs) are trade and development agreements signed between the EU and the countries and regions of the African, Caribbean, and Pacific. The agreement offers EU and ACP countries the opportunity to negotiate development-oriented free trade arrangements called Economic Partnership Agreements (EPAs). Through these Economic Partnership Agreements, the European Union also hopes to establish markets with Africa, the Caribbean, and the Pacific. The African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) is the United States' version of economic diplomacy. This legislation's declared goals are to support sub-Saharan African economies and strengthen trade ties between the US and the area. The AGOA legislation's initial 15-year validity period was completed on June 29, 2015, and it was then extended for an additional 10 years, to 2025. This is done to increase African economic opportunities and provide tangible trade benefits for African producers. Commodities like textiles can be freely exported from Africa to the US and vice versa. The African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) is also another regional example of economic diplomacy. The AfCFTA aims to considerably increase intra-African trade by removing obstacles to it, especially trade in value-added products and trade across all of Africa's economic sectors. Wamkele Mene serves as its secretary general, and the organization's secretariat or headquarters is in Accra, Ghana. Economic sanctions and foreign aid are the two most well-known examples. The WTO, the negotiation of free trade and Compiled & Codified by: ERIC TORTO  22 preferential trade agreements, the avoidance of double taxation, and other current trends all show increased coordination between state and non-official entities. CULTURAL DIPLOMACY Cultural diplomacy is the activity or practice of building or developing relationships with other countries on a bilateral and multilateral basis through culture, education, technology, the media, youth, sports, and cultural tourism. It can also refers to a discipline of international relations when countries attempt to use their cultural assets for political ends or achieve foreign policy objectives. In order to affect the international environment, cultural diplomacy involves managing cross-cultural relationships as well as exporting and sharing cultural resources, artifacts, and accomplishments. Informal ambassadors or early cultural diplomats might be thought of as those who travel, trade, teach, or create art. In fact, anyone who engages with people from other cultures facilitates a type of cultural exchange, which can occur in a variety of contexts, including sports, literature, music, science, business & commerce, and more. The interaction of peoples, the sharing of languages, religions, ideas, arts, and social structures have all helped to improve relations between diverse groups throughout history. For instance, the development of regular trade routes makes it possible for traders and government officials to frequently exchange information as well as cultural gifts and expressions. These intentional initiatives to exchange cultures and communications might be seen as the earliest forms of cultural diplomacy. Confucianism is the most sophisticated form of cultural diplomacy. In simple terms, Confucianism is a philosophy based on mutual respect and kindness toward others. It was developed to bring peace and stability in society. This is promoted via religion in the form of Confucius Institute. The goal or effect of cultural diplomacy is to captivate the hearts, minds, and attention of people all across the world or beyond borders. Another instance of cultural diplomacy occurred during the Cold War, when the American basketball club or team, the Globetrotters, captured the admiration and attention of the Soviet Union crowd when they played in that country. Instead of using compulsion or violence, they achieved this through sports advertisements. MILITARY DIPLOMACY Military diplomacy is also known as Defense diplomacy. Military diplomacy can be characterized as a set of activities, primarily carried out by representatives of the defense department and other state institutions, with the goal of advancing the foreign policy interests of the state in the area of security and defense policy. These activities are based on the use of diplomatic instruments such as negotiations. The primary objective or goal of military diplomacy is the co-formation and implementation of state security policy, and its duty is to forge solid, long-lasting relationships between nations in the area of defense. The formation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization is a classic illustration of a military or defense diplomacy (NATO). 30 nations from Europe and North America are members of the NATO military alliance, which is Compiled & Codified by: ERIC TORTO  23 an international organization. It was created on April 4, 1949, when the North Atlantic Treaty was signed. NATO's primary role is to use political and military means to guarantee the independence and security of its members. Cooperation on both a bilateral and multilateral level is used in military diplomacy. Both civilian and military representatives play a significant role in its establishment and high level maintenance. METHODS APPLIED Education or instructional programs and military training; Military exercises or drills; Military missions and activities; Intelligence collaboration and exchange ACTORS IN INTERNATIONAL POLITICS Actors are individuals and organizations/institutions whose actions and inactions influence the international system in profound ways. These individuals and organizations are known as Actors. These actors play major roles in the political, economic, social,and cultural life of the world. It must be pointed out that some of the major roles played by the actors are extremely negative. This is because terrorists and other fundamentalist groups are also actors in international relations. Actors are the leaders of countries, individuals, representatives and leaders of intergovernmental organizations (such as theUnited Nations, World Bank and the International Monetary Fund-IMF), multinational corporations, terrorist organizations,and international nonprofit organizations. TYPES OF ACTORS Actors in the global system are either state actors or non-state actors. STATE ACTORS State actors are the individuals and institutions that act on behalf of states/countries. The United States and Ghana’s presidents, as well as the ministers/secretaries of finance and foreign affairs of both countries, are state actors. State actors do not act on their own behalf. President Nana Akuffo Addo, Mohammed Bawumia, Ken Offori Atta, Hon. Shirley Ayorkor Botchwey, the current speaker is Rtd Hon Alban Kingsford Sumana Bagbin, are but a few examples of state actors in Ghana. NON-STATE ACTORS Non-state actors are individuals and organizations who act on behalf of themselves, multinational corporations, nonprofit organizations, terrorist and other militant groups, and intergovernmental organizations. Some popular non-state actors are Jeff Bezos, Elon Musk, Arnold Compiled & Codified by: ERIC TORTO  24 Schwarzenegger, Oprah Winfrey, Lionel Messi, Christiano Ronaldo, Warren Buffet, Bill andMelinda Gates, Carlos Slim Helu, Rafael Nadal, Roger Federer, Jim Yong Kim (president of the World Bank),the World Bank, Barclays Bank, World Vision International, Oxfam International,Care International, Action Aid, Amnesty International, Medicines Sans Frontiers (Doctors Without Borders), Standard Chartered Bank, Unilever, Coca Cola, andChristine Lagarde (the Managing Director of the IMF). Al-Qaida, Al-Shaabab, Boko Haram are also examples of non-state actors. THE STATE, NATION, AND NATION-STATE Both students in Political Science and other academic disciplines use the state, nation, and nation-state interchangeably. Nevertheless, there are differences between these concepts. It is very important for students in international relations to understand these concepts. THE STATE The state, also called country, denotes a clearly defined area with its own government that exercises authority over its population. This means the boundaries between two states can easily be identified since each has a defined area and a population to pass laws to control. Ghana, Nigeria, United States, Canada, Jamaica, Argentina, Comoros, Eritrea, Sao Tome and Principe, Finland, Latvia, Djibouti, Napel, Bhutan, China, Germany, Egypt are examples of the many states we have in the international system. Max Weber in his Politics as a Vocation, 1918. Define a state as a human community that successfully claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force. ATTRIBUTES OF THE STATE 1. Clearly defined (uncontested) boundary (territory) 2. Population (Citizenry) 3. Legitimate Government 4. Monopoly over the use of physical force to exact compliance 5. A standing army NATION The nation denotes a group of people traceable to particular historical descent or background and living in different parts of the world. A people or aggregation of men, existing in the form of an organized jural society, inhabiting a distinct portion of the earth, speaking the same language, using the same customs, possessing historic continuity, and distinguished from other like groups by their racial origin and characteristics, and generally, but not necessarily, living under the same government and sovereignty. A nation is similar to a cultural group. A nation might not be a politically independent unit, and sometimes a nation does not have its own state. Compiled & Codified by: ERIC TORTO  25 JURAL SOCIETY: organised upon the basis of a fundamental law, and existing for the recognition and protection of rights Some members of the nation may be in Africa,while others may be Asia and North America. People typically talk about the Jewish nation to imply thatJews are scattered in the world and traceable to Abraham.Quite a number of them are in the United States and Israel, yet there are some in Ethiopia, the Russian Federation (Russia), and other European countries. An example of a nation is the Asante people, these Asantes are scattered in the world and can be traced to one ancestor, Okomfo Anokye. Some of these Asate people can be found in America, Europe and Asia. This is similar to the Gas, Ewes, Guans, Mamprosi, and more. NATION-STATE The nation-state is a combination of the nation and the state. It indicates the group of people traceable to a particular background living in the same country. It is also When a state has only one ethnic group living in its borders, the resulting state is termed a nation-state. Nation-states have a unique cultural, political, and economic character. Let us assume there is a Jewish nation. If all Jews were living in Israel, Israel would then be called a nation-state. Japan. 98% of Japan's population is Japanese. Ireland and Germany are also examples. 90% of the population identify themselves as Irish or German. STATELESS NATION Nations without a national territory or their own state are stateless nations. Kurds who today are spread across Turkey, Syria, and Iraq. Also the Basques in Spain. MULTIETHNIC STATE A multiethnic state is a state that contains more than one ethnic group. A multiethnic state differs from a multinational state because the ethnic groups in a multiethnic state do not have a history of self-determination. Belgium which has two major ethnic groups that do not have a history of self-determination: the Dutch-speaking Flemish and the French-speaking Walloons. Also the United States. MULTINATIONAL STATES A multinational state or a multinational union is a sovereign entity that comprises two or more nations or states. This is when a state has multiple ethnicities with a history of self-determination living together. This contrasts a nation state, where a single-nation accounts for the bulk of the population. Present-day examples of multinational states include the United Kingdom which has English, Scottish, Welsh and Northern Irish nations within its country. They each have a history of self-determination and have their own unique culture, symbols and national flag. Others include the Russian Federation (republics, krais, oblasts), India, South Africa and Canada are viewed as present-day examples of multinational states. Austria-Hungary, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics-USSR (most powerful and influential states and Compiled & Codified by: ERIC TORTO  26 eventually encompassed 15 republics - Russia, Ukraine, Georgia, Belorussia, Uzbekistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia) and Yugoslavia are examples of historical multinational states which have since split into a number of sovereign states. CONFEDERATION Confederation is primarily any league or union of people or bodies of people. The term in modern political use is generally confined to a union or a voluntary association of independent and sovereign states or groups united for purposes of common action. A confederation can also be defined as a system of governance, in which the constituents (states or provinces) come together for political, economic , security or administrative reasons. Entering a confederation is entirely voluntary and depends on the government of every individual state or on the local authority in the case of provinces. Once entered the confederation , the constituents maintain their sovereignty and their powers (almost entirely), and there is no superior, unified, central government. Depending on the structure of the confederation, there might be a weak central body, appointed by all constituents, created to speed up bureaucratic processes and facilitate communication. In a confederation there is no: unitary budget, common military, common foreign policy strategy, common diplomatic representatives; and common legal system. Switzerland, officially known as the Swiss Confederation , is an example of a modern country that traditionally refers to itself as a confederation. The concept of confederation is similar to the principles on which international organizations stand. All international governmental organizations follow the concept of confederation. Examples of these organizations who are confederations include the United Nations, The European Union or Alliance. Examples of historical confederations include the United States which started as confederation and later turned into a federation once the constitution was created, signed and ratified by all members. Others include the Fante Confederation and the German Confederation established by the Congress of Vienna in 1815. FEDERATION Federation is a form or system of government in which sovereign power is formally divided between a central authority and a number of constituent regions so that each region retains some degree of control over its internal affairs. A federation is a political system in which individual states or other groupings come together with the understanding under the umbrella of a single central authority. Members of a federation are bound to respect the authority of the central government and maintain limited powers. The balance of power between the constituents and the central government is laid out in a written constitution. Provinces and states members of a federation do not entirely lose their power, and can enjoy a certain degree of independence. Individual states can maintain separate laws, traditions and habits, but the central government Compiled & Codified by: ERIC TORTO  27 has authority over: Defense and security matters, Foreign policy; International relations and diplomacy; Decision to start or end a war; National currency ; and Military. In addition, the central government can interfere in the legal and economic aspects of the member states /provinces. Policies and regulations approved by the central government apply to the federation members – in line with the provisions laid out in the constitution – and constituents are legally bound to respect such regulations. Federations are quite common today: the United States, Canada, Nigeria and Switzerland are just a few of the most notorious examples. UNITARY STATE A unitary state refers to a country that has one supreme authority which rules over all other sub-national levels or delegations. A unitary state is the opposite of a federation where powers are dispersed. A unitary state only exercises the powers that the central government decides to delegate. Most states worldwide work under a unitary system of government, for example, 165 out of a possible 192 states that are members of the UN are unitary states. Sub-national units are either abolished or created in a unitary state. An example of this is the merging of French regions. The central government may narrow or broaden the powers of the sub-national units. Under a unitary system of government, political powers can be diffused to a local government by statutes through devolution. However, the central government still maintains supreme powers and may invalidate the powers of devolved governments or revoke their acts. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is an example of a unitary state. Some other notable unitary states include Italy, Japan, the People's Republic of China, France, the Netherlands, Bulgaria, the Philippines, Ghana, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Algeria, Denmark, Kazakhstan, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Morocco, Uganda, Haiti, Guatemala, Iceland, and Kenya among many others. GEOPOLITICS Geopolitics is the struggle over the control of geographical entities with an international and global dimension and the use of such geographical entities for political advantages. In simple words, geopolitics refers to political factors that are between countries or regions. Geopolitics explains how countries, businesses, terrorist groups try to reach their political goals by controlling geographical features of the world. It can also be the political issues between or involving two or more countries that cause tension or unrest. It means geopolitics looks at a particular use of power. How countries or groups compete to control these entities within the international community. It is therefore used to understand the complex world around us or "getting what you want in the world." The geographical entities are the places, regions, territories, scales and networks that make up the world. GEOECONOMICS Compiled & Codified by: ERIC TORTO  28 Geoeconomics deals with the analysis of how a state develops and exercises power from the economic perspective rather than the strictly geographical perspective between two states. It is also the use of economic instruments to promote and defend national interests, and to produce beneficial geopolitical results; and the effects of the other nations’ economic actions on a country’s political goal. Geoeconomics is used to understand the effects and the material causes of power disputes between different actors on the international order. China is arguably the world’s most prominent practitioner of geoeconomics, but Russia and the US are also major players. Beijing has repeatedly cut car imports from Japan or withheld exports of Chinese rare earths to Japan in efforts to weaken Tokyo’s resolve over territory and sovereignty in the East China Sea. In providing aid to Africa, China rewards those countries that vote with it at the United Nations. Russia uses its energy endowment to advance strategic objectives. In 2008, it shut off gas pipelines to parts of Europe in the middle of winter amid political disputes. The Kremlin offers huge financial support to annexed Crimea. In response to the Russian annexation of Crimea, the US and others did not send troops to defend Ukrainian territory, but instead introduced sanctions on Russia. The US has also led international efforts to influence Iran’s nuclear policies through sanctions. The preponderance of the dollar and US dominance of the international financial system mean that American sanctions have a lot of bite. SOVEREIGNTY In international law, sovereignty means that a government possesses full control over affairs within a territorial or geographical area or limit. Sovereignty means states are independent of one another and that each state can pursue the course of action or policy that it deems important. The exercise of power by the state. It is also the hierarchical, supreme authority within a state and external autonomy. In other words, states have the exclusive right to exercise control over their territories in the way they want it. Sovereignty is the right to have absolute and unlimited power, either legal or political, within the territory of a state. An example of sovereignty is the power of a government to rule his people. The state or quality of being sovereign, means the state of making laws and controlling resources without the coercion of other states or countries. The state having the supreme authority over all things. Practically, sovereignty means that one state cannot demand that another state take any particular internal action. For example, if Canada did not approve of a Brazilian plan to turn a large section of Brazil's rainforest into an amusement park, the Canadian reaction is limited by Brazil's sovereignty. Without the involvement or direct supervision of the US government, Ghana's government can pass laws governing its citizens, manage its resources, and create policies and initiatives for Ghana's growth. TYPES OF SOVEREIGNTY Compiled & Codified by: ERIC TORTO  29 There are several types of sovereignty. These are De jure sovereignty, de facto sovereignty, domestic sovereignty, interdependence sovereignty, international legal sovereignty and international illegal sovereignty. DE JURE SOVEREIGNTY De jure sovereignty means that a government has a legal right to control over a particular territory. It means a country's sovereignty is based on law and there is a legal justification supporting the country's existence. States which are only de jure states are sometimes recognised as being the legitimate government of a territory over which they have no actual control. Since South Sudan became an independent state on 9 July 2011, there are now 193 independent sovereign states in the world. De FACTO SOVEREIGNTY The term refers to a place that exercises internal sovereignty over its citizens but is not recognized by most of the world as the de jure legal authority in that territory. De facto sovereignty is defined as political organizations governing recognizable, populated territories, but lacking universal diplomatic recognition. Examples include Abkhazia, Somaliland, and the Turkish Republic of North Cyprus. Many and perhaps even most civil wars occur because a de facto state has arisen within the territory recognized as governed by some official state. Due to the recent overthrow of their legal civilian governments by their country's military forces, Myanmar, Mali, Guinea, Sudan, Burkina Faso and Afghanistan are now regarded as de facto states. DOMESTIC SOVEREIGNTY Domestic sovereignty refers “ to the nature of domestic authority structures” and the effective level of control they wield within a state's borders. It is the actual control over s state exercised by an authority organised within this state. In simple terms, domestic sovereignty has to do with the power and authority of a state to effectively exercise legitimate control and regulate the activities of its citizens within a given geographical territory. INTERDEPENDENCE SOVEREIGNTY Interdependence sovereignty describes a state's ability to control trans-border movements. It is also the actual control of movement across state's borders. A state has the power to influence and control who comes in and who goes out of its territory. INTERNATIONAL LEGAL SOVEREIGNTY This means the formal and official recognition of a state by other sovereign states. For a state to be internationally recognized as a sovereign state it means that its government has a legal right to control over its geographical region or territory. For instance, Ghana is recognized Compiled & Codified by: ERIC TORTO  30 internationally as a legal sovereign state by members of the United Nations General Assembly who are also sovereign states. INTERNATIONAL ILLEGAL SOVEREIGNTY This is the opposite of international legal sovereignty. It is a state that is not legally and generally accepted or recognized by other sovereign states as a de jure sovereign state. Due to the recent overthrow of their legal civilian governments by their country's military forces, Myanmar, Mali, Guinea, Sudan, Burkina Faso and Afghanistan are not legally or formally accepted or recognized as sovereign states by other international sovereign states. THEORIES IN INTERNATIONAL POLITICS The theories of international politics differ solely because they are built on different premises. Therefore the aim of this section is to evaluate the usefulness of international politics theories such as realism, liberalism, constructivism and other ideologies. (NEO)REALISM Realism’s roots are often said to be found in some of humankind’s earliest historical writings, particularly Thucydides’ history of the Peloponnesian War, which raged between 431 and 404 BCE, Niccolo Mechiavelli, an Italian philosopher who wrote "The Prince," Thomas Hobbes, whose book "Leviathan" contains traces of political realities, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, whose book "The State of War". Indian writer Chanakya wrote “Arthashastra,” which translates to ‘The Science of Material Gain’ or ‘Science of Polity.’ In it, Chanakya said that a king’s main goal is to increase the power of his state, expand his empire, and destroy his enemy. “One should neither submit spineless nor sacrifice oneself in foolhardy valor,” he said, “it is better to adopt such policies as would enable one to survive and live to fight another day.” Thucydides, writing over two thousand years ago, was not a ‘realist’ because IR theory did not exist in named form until the twentieth century. However, when looking back from a contemporary vantage point, theorists detected many similarities in the thought patterns and behaviours of the ancient world and the modern world. They then drew on his writings, and that of others, to lend weight to the idea that there was a timeless theory spanning all recorded human history. That theory was named ‘realism’. Hans J. Morgenthau coined the term "realism" in his 1948 book Politics among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace, which is when it first gained widespread recognition. Realism, also known as political pessimism. Realism is more about what the world is. For realists, a peaceful global order is desirable, but that is far from reality. Hence, they are pessimists. Realism claims to explain international politics as it is. Realism emphasizes the role of the state based on the belief that all states are motivated by national (selfish) interest. Realism Compiled & Codified by: ERIC TORTO  31 is a view of international politics that stresses its competitive and conflictual side. This means realists see power politics as the only possible outcome of international politics. Human nature concept, laid out by Hans Morgenthau, is based on the argument that humans’ lust for power can have a profound impact on the nature of states as states are led by human beings. According to human nature realists, states, by default, have this ‘will to power’ wired into them like human beings, and in an anarchic order, they continue to seek expansion of power. This could create conflicts. Realists consider the principal actors in the international arena to be states, which are concerned with their own security, act in pursuit of their own national interests, and struggle for power. That is, states are selfish and must not be trusted together with their people and are manipulative in nature. To this school of thought, states should continuously make choices to increase their own capabilities while undermining the capabilities of others. Realists believe that there are no universal principles with which all states may guide their actions. Instead, a state must always be aware of the actions of the states around it and must use a pragmatic approach to resolve problems as they arise. ASSUMPTIONS OF REALISM 1. The first assumption of realism is that ‘sovereign states' are the main characters or principal actors in the unfolding tale of the international system. Other bodies exist, such as individuals, international institutions, non-governmental organizations, multinational corporations, and other sub-state or trans-state actors are viewed as having little independent influence or their power is limited. 2. The second assumption of realism is that the state is a unitary actor. National interests, especially in times of war, lead the state to speak and act with one voice. The state acts under the consideration of its own national interest. For realists a country faces the outside world as an integrated unit. A common assumption among realists is that political differences within the state are ultimately resolved, namely by the government who speaks with one voice for the state as a whole. 3. The third assumption of realism is that decision-makers are rational actors in the sense that rational decision-making leads to the pursuit of the national interest. Here, taking actions that would make your state weak or vulnerable would not be rational. Realism suggests that all leaders, no matter what their political persuasion, recognise this as they attempt to manage their state’s affairs in order to survive in a competitive environment. They are aware of their external environment and they think strategically about how to survive in it. In particular, they consider the preferences of other states and how their own behavior is likely to affect the behavior of those other states, and how the behavior of those other states is likely to affect their own strategy for survival. Moreover, states pay attention to the long term as well as the immediate consequences of their actions. Compiled & Codified by: ERIC TORTO  32 4. One of the fundamental tenets of realism is that the primary goal is to gain or acquire power. The ultimate priority in foreign relations, according to realism, is the survival of the state or state's existence, and power alone determines or dictates the outcomes of international interactions and relations. Realism believes that once you are a state your aim should be the quest for power and must be relentless. Realists' priorities are focused solely on enhancing one's own country's dominance over others. This portrays a situation where states consistently decide to strengthen their own capabilities while weakening those of others. 5. Another major assumption of realism is that there are always zero sum transactions or outcome in the pursuit of national interest. Zero-sum outcome is a situation in which one person's gain is equivalent or equal to another's loss, and the net change is wealth or benefit. Realists think that winning and maintaining strength in the international sphere are the top priority of every state. States must contend with one another in order to increase their own advantages since it is a zero-sum game. A typical example based on the zero-sum game or outcome is the Cold War. The Cold War was an ideological dispute between the bipolar states such as the capitalist United States and the defunct socialist Soviet Union. At the conclusion of the ideological conflict, the United States gained unipolar dominance or hegemony in the international sphere at the expense of the Soviet Union, which vanished after collapsing and being split into 15 states. Accordingly, the United States gained after the conflict at the expense of the Soviet Union who loss. 6. Insofar as realists envision the world of states as anarchic. States live in a context of anarchy – that is, in the absence of anyone being in charge internationally. The often-used analogy of there being ‘no one to call’ in an international emergency helps to underline this point. Within our own states we typically have police forces, militaries, courts and so on. In an emergency, there is an expectation that these institutions will ‘do something’ in response. Internationally, there is no clear expectation of anyone or anything ‘doing something’ as there is no established hierarchy. Therefore, states can ultimately only rely on themselves. 7. According to realism, National security and Survival are the primary goals or central issues of the State. To attain security, states try to increase their power and engage in power-balancing for the purpose of deterring potential aggressors. Wars are fought to prevent competing nations from becoming militarily stronger. In The Prince (1532), Machiavelli stressed that a state's or leader’s primary concern is to promote national security. In order to successfully perform this task, the leader needs to be alert and cope effectively with internal as well as external threats to his rule; he needs to be a lion and a fox. Power (the Lion) and deception (the Fox) are crucial tools for the conduct of foreign policy. 8. Human nature is a starting point for political realism. Realists view human beings as inherently egoistic, self- interested and desire power to the extent that self-interest overcomes Compiled & Codified by: ERIC TORTO