India Chapter 3, 4, 5 PDF

Chapter -3 Land Resource and Agriculture Land use Categories Land revenue department is responsible for categorising land and maintaining its records. These records contains reporting area. Under the land revenue records land use categories are as follows: 1. Forest 2. La...

Chapter -3 Land Resource and Agriculture Land use Categories Land revenue department is responsible for categorising land and maintaining its records. These records contains reporting area. Under the land revenue records land use categories are as follows: 1. Forest 2. Land put to non-agricultural uses. 3. Barren and Wastelands. 4. Area under permanent pastures and grazing lands. 5. Area under miscellaneous tree crops and groves. 6. Culturable wastelands 7. Current fallow 8. Net sown area Land use Changes in India Unlike other natural resources, land is fixed, it does not change by size or area. Economic activities are the major causes that affect land use. The three main economic changes that changes the land use are: The size of the economy. The composition of an economy (proportion of different sectors). Increasing pressure on agricultural lands. During the period of 1960-61 to 2008-09 some land use changes are worth mentioning which show an increase and decrease in these categories: Area Records Increase in Land use Area under forest. Current fallow lands. Area under non-agricultural use. Net sown area. Area Records Decrease in Land use Barren and wasteland. Culturable wasteland Area under permanent pastures and treecrops. Fallow other than current fallow. Private land Owned by individual or group of individuals. Common Property Resources (CPRs) Available for all and can be used by any person. It provides fodder for the livestock and fuel for the households. In rural areas, such land is of particular relevance for livelihood of the landless and marginal farmers. Agricultural Land Use in India Most of the Indians are dependent on agriculture, directly or indirectly for their subsistence. Agriculture is mainly Land-based activity unlike secondary and tertiary sectors. The role of quality of land is important in agriculture. The more the land is fertile the more it gives output/production. Ownership of land resource is considered as a social status in rural areas.  It is also seen as security for credit, natural hazards or life contingencies. Availability of total resources for agricultural uses is Calculated by adding up net sown area, all fallow lands and culturable wastelands. Cropping Intensity (Cl)’is calculated as follows: Cropping Intensity in percentage = GCA (Gross Cropped. Area)/NSA (Net Sown Area) x 100 CROPPING MONTHS CROPS CULTIVATED SEASONS Kharif June-September Rice, Cotton, Bajra, Maize, Jowar, Tur Rabi October – March Wheat, Gram, Rapeseeds and Mustard, Barley Zaid April–June Vegetables, Fruits, Fodder In India farming is classified on the basis of moisture available for crops: Irrigated Farming The main source of moisture for this farming is irrigation by various methods i.e. wells, tubewells, etc. Two types are protective and productive farming. Rainfed Farming (Barani) The main source of moisture for this farming is rainfall. Two types are dryland farming and wetland farming. Dryland farming Is largely confined to the regions having rainfall less than 75 cm. These regions grow hardy and drought resistant crops such as ragi, bajra, moong, gram and gaur. On the other hand, in wetland farming, the rainfall is in excess of soil moisture requirement of plants during rainy season. Such regions may face flood and soil erosion hazards. These areas grow various water intensive crops such as rice, jute and sugarcane. Cropping Pattern Food Grains Food grains are important for agriculture economy which constitute about two-third of total cropped area in the country. The food grains are classified on the basis of structure of grains; Cereals India ranks 3rd in the production of cereals after China and USA. India produces 11% of the world and covers about 54% of the total cropped area in India. These cereals are: Rice It is the most important food crop of India which feeds more than half of our population. India ranked second with the production nearly 22% after China in the world. States like West Bengal, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh were majorrice producing states in India. In North- Western and in. Himalayas regions, it is grown as a Kharif crop, whereas in West Bengal, farmers grow three crops of rice called ‘aus’, ‘aman’ and ‘boro’. Wheat India shares 12% of total wheat production of the world. It is cultivated on about 14% of the total cropped area. About 85% of this area comes under the Indo-Gangetic Plain, Malwa Plateau and Himalayas in North and central parts of the country. The major wheat producing states of India are Uttarpradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, and Jammu and Kashmir. Coarse Grains These crops are grown in almost 16.50% of total cropped area in the country. These coarse grains are: Jowar/Sorghum It is grown in about 5.3% of total cropped area. Maharashtra is the largest producer of jowar in India. The major producer of Jowar are central and Southern states i.e. Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh. Bajra It is grown in about 5.2% of the total cropped area in the country. The major producers of bajra are Maharashtra, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Haryana. Maize It is grown in about 3.6% of total cropped area in the country. There is noparticular region under maize. It is sownall over India except Eastern and North Eastern regions. The leading producers are Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh,Telangana, Karnataka, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. Pulses Pulses are grown in India on about 11% of the total cropped area. India is one of the largest producers of pulses, as it cultivates about 20% pulsesof the world. Pulses are legume crops. These are largely confined to the drylands of Deccan and Central plateausand North-Western parts of the country. Gram It is grown in 2.8% of the total cropped area. The major producers are Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan. Tur (Arhar) This is grown in 2% of the total cropped area of India. It is the second important pulse crop in the country. Maharashtra is the leading producer of tur which produces about 75% of tur in India. It is also called as redgram or pigeon pea. Oil seeds Oil seeds are produced for extracting edible oils. Oil seeds include groundnut, (3.6%), rapeseed and mustard (2.5%), soybean, sunflower, etc. These different oilseeds are grown in India about 14% of total cropped area in the country. Drylands of Malwa Plateau, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Telangana and Rayalaseema of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka plateau are leading producers of oilseeds.  Soybean and sunflower are other important oil seeds grown in India. Fibre Crops Fibre crops are one which provides fibre for preparing cloth. These includes: Cotton India grows both short staple (Indian) cotton as well as long staple (American) cotton. India produces about 8.3% of the world’s cotton. This makes India the fourth largest producer of cotton after China, USA and Pakistan. Largest producers of cotton in India are Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana. Jute India accounts for about 60% of the world’s jute production. West Bengal (75%) is the largest producer of jute in the country. Other producers are Bihar and Assam. Other Crops Sugarcane It is an important cash crop in India. India’s sugarcane production is about 23% of the world’s total production, which makes India the 2nd largest producer after Brazil. Major producers are Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Gujarat. Uttar Pradesh accounts40 percent of sugarcane production and secures a position of the largest producer of India. Tea Assam (53.2%) is the largest producer of tea in India. Other states are West Bengal and Tamil Nadu. Coffee India is the 7th largest producer of coffee in the world which accounts about 3.2% share. Karnataka is the largest producer of coffee that produces more than 66% of India’s total coffee. About 54.6% of population is engaged in agricultural activity. According to census (2011) and about 57% of its land is used for cultivation of various crops in India whereas world average is only about 12%. The land-human ratio in India is only 0.31 hectare whereas, the world is almost double of this figure i.e. 0.59 hectare. Strategy of Development Before Independence, Indian agriculture was largely subsistence in nature, this period was frequently witnessed severe droughts, famines and food shortage. About l/3rd of the irrigated area went to Pakistan. Consequently, Government took several steps to increase the production of food grains. Following three strategies were adopted to achieve this goal: 1.Switching over from cash crops to food crops. 2.Intensification of cropping over already cultivated land. 3. Increasing cultivated area by bringing cultivable and fallow land under plough. However, Indian agriculture could not progress much, then Government introduced modem technology into agriculture. These were:  High Yielding Variety (HYV) of seeds Fertilisers Mechanisation Improved irrigation and credit marketingfacilities. Intensive Area Development Programme All the above inputs were the main components of what is known as Green Revolution. This strategy of agricultural development in the country made the country self-reliant in foodgrain production. But, green revolution was initially confined to irrigated areas only. This led to regional disparities in agricultural development in the country till the seventies. Consequently, Planning Commission prepared plans to solve the problems of agriculture in rainfed areas in 1980s. It initiated agro-climate planning in 1988 to induce regional balance. Growth of Agricultural Output and Technology Since independence, there has been improvement in technologies used for agricultural production. As a result, increase in agricultural production hasbeen recorded. India is now becoming 1st largest producer of pulses and jute and 2nd largest in rice, wheat, groundnut, sugarcane and vegetables. New technologies also came up to increase the production of food grains, for e.g. HYV seeds, chemical fertilisers raised 15 folds since mid-1960s. Problems of Indian Agriculture These problems are: Dependence on Erratic Monsoon There is only 33% cultivated area is under irrigation. The nature of South-West monsoon is very fluctuating which causes flood and drought situation in India. Low Productivity India also lag behind in terms of per hectare production and perperson production and also behind at International level. This low productivity is a result of high population which creates a heavy pressure on available land resources. Constraints of Financial Resources and Indebtedness Lack of money and financial resources are the major constraints to the development of agriculture in India. As majority of farmers are small, marginal and poor, they cannot afford highly expensive inputs to increase their production. Lack of Land Reforms Lack of land reforms and unequal distribution of land resources led to the worst condition of poor and marginal farmers and also become constraint in the development of agriculture in India. Small Farm Size and Fragmentation of Landholdings ‘Inheritance law’ is mainly responsible for small and fragmented farm size. Lack of Commercialisation As most of the farmers are poor and marginal, farmers practice subsistence agriculturefor their living. Vast Under-employment There is seasonal unemployment in agriculturalsector. There is no income during ploughing field to harvesting crops. Degradation of Cultivable Land After green revolution degradation has startedin India. Excessive use of irrigation, chemical fertilizers, etc created problems of water lodging and solemnization. Fertility of land is also decreasing day by day. 4. WATER RESOURCES 71% of the earth’s surface is covered with it but freshwater constitutes only about 3 % of the total water. WATER RESOURCES OF INDIA India accounts 4% of the world’s water resources The total water available from precipitation in the country in a year is about 4,000 cubic km. The availability from surface water and replenishable groundwater is 1,869 cubic km. But the total utilisable water resource in the country is only 1,122 cubic km. Water Resources can be Grouped into) A.Surface water resources There are four major sources of surface water - rivers, lakes, ponds and tanks In the country, there are about 10,360 rivers and their tributaries longer than 1.6 km each The mean annual flow in all the river basins is about 1,869 cubic km. However, due to topographical, hydrological and other constraints, only about 690 cubic km (32 per cent) of the available surface water can be utilised b) Ground Water Resource The total replenishable groundwater resources in the country are about 432 cubic km. The groundwater utilisation is very high in the states of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Tamil Nadu States like Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Kerala, etc., which utilise only a small proportion of their groundwater potentials C. Lagoons and Backwaters The States like Kerala, Odisha and West Bengal have vast surface water in these lagoons and lakes. The water of lagoons and lakes is brackish in nature, but can be used for fishing and irrigating lands of paddy crops, coconut, etc. WATER PROBLEMS 1. Deterioration of water quality 2. Water pollution Ganga and Yamuna are the two highly polluted rivers in the country WATER CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT The steps for conserving water resources are :- a) Prevention of water pollution The Prevention and Control of Pollution Act – 1974 Environment Protection Act – 1986 The Water Cess Act - 1977 b) Develop water saving technologies c) Encourage watershed management Watershed Management Watershed management basically refers to efficient management and conservation of surface and groundwater resources. It involves prevention of run off and storage and recharge of groundwater through various methods like percolation tanks, recharge wells, etc. Haryali project Haryali is a watershed development project sponsored by the Central Government which aims at enabling the rural population to conserve water for drinking, irrigation, fisheries and afforestation. The Project is being executed by Gram Panchayats with people’s participation Neeru – Meeru & Arvari pani sansad Neeru-Meeru (Water and You) programme (in Andhra Pradesh) and Arvary Pani Sansad (in Alwar, Rajasthan) have taken up constructions of various water- harvesting structures such as percolation tanks, dug out ponds, check dams, etc., through people’s participation d) Rainwater harvesting ✗ Rainwater harvesting is a method to capture and store rainwater for various uses. ✗ It is also used to recharge groundwater aquifers. ✗ It is a low cost and eco-friendly technique for preserving every drop of water by guiding the rain water to borewell, pits and wells. ✗ Rainwater harvesting increases water availability, checks the declining groundwater table etc. ✗ Rainwater harvesting has been practiced through various methods 1. Harvesting through Wtershed management 2. Harvesting through Lakes 3. Harvesting through Service wells 4. Harvesting through Recharge wells e) Water recycle and reuse Recycle and reuse is a simple and best way to conserve fresh water and make it available for all. Industries can use water of low quality and their waste water for cooling and firefighting, which can decrease the cost of water for them and conserve fresh water. f) Sustainable use of water Highlights of India’s National Water Policy, 2002  The National water Policy, 2002 stipulates water allocations priorities broadly in the following order i.e. drinking water, irrigation, hydro-power, navigation, industrial and other uses. The main objectives of this policy are to provide water to all human beings and animals, regular monitoring of surface and ground water quality, create awareness of water as a scarce resource, create conservation consciousness among people through education, regulation, incentives and disincentives, etc Chapter 5: Mineral and Energy Resources Types of Mineral Resources Mineral are classified on the basis of their physical and chemical properties which are as follows: 1. Metallic Minerals: These minerals are rich in metals e.g. copper, bauxite, iron, manganese, etc. These are of two types: I. Ferrous Minerals: These are rich in iron contents and an important source of iron. II. Non-Ferrous Minerals: These do not have iron content and have highest proportion of other metals. For e.g. copper, bauxite, etc. 2. Non-Metallic Minerals: These minerals do not have contents of metals. They are classified into two groups: I. Organic Minerals: These are made up of organic matter of buried animal and plants. For e.g, coal, petroleum. II. Inorganic Minerals: These are inorganic in nature of origin. For e.g. Mica, limestone, graphite, etc. Characteristics of Minerals Resources The main characteristics of minerals are as follows: 1. Their distribution over the earth surface is uneven. 2. There is inverse relationship in quantity and quality of minerals i.e. good quality minerals are less in quantity as compared to low quality minerals. 3. Minerals are exhaustible. Once they used cannot replenished immediately at the time of need. So, minerals have to be conserved and used judiciously. Distribution of Minerals in India Most of metallic minerals in India occur in the Peninsular Plateau region in the old crystalline rocks. River valleys of Damodar, Sone, Mahanadi and Godavari have over 97% of coal reserves in India. Sedimentary basins of Assam and offshore region in the Arabian Sea (Gujarat and Mumbai High) are famous for their crude petroleum reserves. New reserves of petroleum also have been found in the basins of Krishna-Godavari and Kaveri. Minerals are generally concentrated in three broad belts in India. These belts are: 1. The North-Eastern Plateau Region This belt includes the regions of Chotanagpur (Jharkhand), Odisha Plateau, West Bengal and parts of Chhattisgarh. Important minerals are iron ore, coal, manganese, bauxite and mica. Due to availability of these minerals, most of the iron and steel industries are located here. 2. The South-Western Plateau Region This belt extends to lower Karnataka, Goa and contiguous uplands of Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Ferrous metals and bauxite are concentrated here along with high grade iron ore, manganese and limestone. This belt is rich in coal packs except neyveli lignite. Neyveli has lignite coal deposit. Deposits of monazite sand and thorium are found in Kerala. Mines of iron-ore are located in Goa. 3. The North-Western Regions Minerals of this belt are associated with Dharwar system of rocks which are found in the Rajasthan and parts of Gujarat. Major minerals are copper and zinc. Rajasthan is rich in building stones i.e. sandstone, granite, marble, fuller’s earth and gypsum. Some cement industries are also concentrated here due to availability of dolomite and limestone which are the raw materials of these industries. Gujarat is rich in petroleum deposits. Salt is also produced in Gujarat and Rajasthan. 4. Other Areas/Regions Both Eastern and Western parts of the Himalayan belt have minerals like copper, lead, zinc, cobalt and tungsten. Assam Valley has mineral oil deposits. Besides, oil resources are also found in off-shore areas near Mumbai Coast (Mumbai High). Iron ore India has largest iron ore reserves in Asia. Its superior quality of hematite and magnetic iron ore have a great demand in international market. Iron ore mines of India are found near the coal fields of North-Eastern Plateau region which is an advantage for iron-ore industries of India. During 2004-05, India has about 20 billion tonnes of iron-ore reserves. Few Indian states have about 95% of total iron-ore reserves in India. These states are: Odisha: The important mines are located at Sundergarh, Mayurbhanj and Jhar. Gurumahisani, Sulaipet, Badampahar in Mayurbhanj and Kiruburce and Bonai (Sundergarh) have important mines. Jharkhand It has oldest mines in India. Important mines are Noamundi and Gua in Poorbi and Paschimi Singhbhum districts. Chhattisgarh: The mine belt further extended to Durg, Dantewada, Bailadiala, Dalli and Rajhara. Karnataka: Important mines are Sundar-Hospet area of Bellary distict, Baba Budan hills and Kundremukh in Chikmogalur Tumkur districts, Maharashtra: Important iron-ore deposits are located in Chandrapur, Bhandara and Ratnagiri districts. Andhra Pradesh: Important areas of iron ore are Karimnagar Warangal, Kumool, Cuddapah and Anantpur districts. Others: These include Salem and Nilgiris Districts of Tamil Nadu state and Goa state. Manganese It is an important raw material which is used in iron and steel industry for smelting of ironore and in the manufacturing of ferro alloys. It is mainly associated with Dharwar system but found almost in all geological formations. Important states are: Odisha: It is the largest manganese producer of India. The central part of the iron-ore belt of India has most of the manganese mines of Odisha. Important mines are located in the districts of Bonai, Kendujhar, Sundargarh, Gangpur, Koraput, Kalahandi and Bolangir. Karnataka: Dharwar, Bellary, Belgaum, North Canara, Chikmagalur, Shimoga, Chiradurg and Tumkur. Maharashtra: The main disadvantage of its mines are that these are located away from iron and steel plants. Nagpur, Bhandara and Ratnagiri have manganese mines. Madhya Pradesh: Balaghat, Chhindwara, Nimar, Mandla and Jhabua districts have manganese mines. Others: Other producer states of manganese are Andhra Pradesh, Goa and Jharkhand. 2. Non-Ferrous Minerals India has large deposits of bauxite but is lacking behind in other non-ferrous minerals. Bauxite It is the ore that used to manufacture aluminum and aluminum products. It is found in laterite rocks mostly in the plateau or hilly regions of peninsular India and also in the coastal areas. Important states are: Odisha: It is the largest producer of bauxite and important producing areas are Kalahandi, Sambalpur, Bolangir and Koraput. Jharkhand: Pelands of Jharhand in Lohardage home rich deposits. Gujarat: Bhavanagar and Jamnagar are important sites of bauxite. Chattisgarh: Amarkanatak plateau region has large deposits of bauxite. Madhya Pradesh: Katni-Jabalpur and Balaghat have important deposits of bauxite. Others: Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Goa are other producers of bauxite. Copper It is alloyable, malleable and ductile and an indispensable metal in electrical industry used for making wires, electric motors, transformers and generators. It is also used to give strength in gold jewelleries. Important copper producing states are: Jharkhand Singbhum district Madhya Pradesh Balaghat Rajasthan Jhunjhunu and Alwar Andhra Pradesh Agnigundala in Guntur district Karnataka Chitradurg and Hasan Tamil Nadu South Arcot district Non-Metallic Minerals Limestone, dolomite, phosphate and mica are some non-metallic minerals produced in India. Mica is the important among them while others are produced for domestic consumption. 1. Mica Mica is mainly used in the electrical/electronic industries which can be split into very thin, strong and flexible sheets. Due to its resistance quality, it is used in electrical and electronic industry. Important producer states are: Jharkhand Hazaribagh plateau produces a high quality of mica.’ Andhra Pradesh Nellore district is important producer of mica, it produces best quality mica. Rajasthan A 320 km long belt from Jaipur to Bhilwara near Udaipur produces mica. Karnataka Mysore and Hasan are important producers of mica. Others Coimbatore, Tiruchirappalli, Madurai and Kanyakumari (Tamil Nadu), Ratnagiri (Maharashtra), Alleppey, (Kerala), Purulia and Bankura (West Bengal) are also known for mica deposits. Energy Resources All sectors of economy i.e. agriculture, industry, transport are run by power which comes from mineral fuels whether conventional or non-conventional energy resources. Conventional Sources of Energy These are exhaustible in nature e.g. fossil fuels like coal, petroleum and natural gas. 1. Coal It is required in the generation of thermal power and smelting of iron-ore. India has about 80% of bituminous coal which is of non-cooking grade. It is found in two rock sequences i.e. Gondwana coal fields and tertiary coal fields. Gondwana Coal Fields Damodar Valley is the important coal field of India. Jharkhand and West Bengal coal have the entire area of this coal field. Jharia (largest coal field), Raniganj (second fields largest), Bokaro, Giridih, Karanpura are important coal fields of this valley. Other river valleys are Godavari, Mahanadi and Sone. Tertiary Coal Fields Important states are: Meghlaya Darangiri, Cherrapunji, Mewlong and Langrin (Meghalaya). Assam Makum, Jaipur and Nazira in Upper Assam. Arunachal Pradesh Namchik-Namphurk Jammu and Kashmir Kalakot Others Nagaland state Other Coal Fields Besides, the brown coal or lignite coal occurs in the coastal areas of Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, Gujarat and Jammu and Kashmir. 2. Petroleum Crude petroleum consists of hydrocarbons of liquid and gaseous states varying in chemical composition, colour and specific gravity. It is used as a source of energy in all internal combustion engines of automobiles, railways and aircrafts. It is also used as a raw material in petrochemical industries to produce fertilizer, synthetic rubber, synthetic fibre, medicines, Vaseline, lubricants, wax soap and cosmetics, etc. It is also called liquid gold due to the scarcity and different uses. Crude oil is found in sedimentary rocks of tertiary age. Before independence, Digboi was the only crude oil producing region in India but after independence in 1956, Oil and Natural Gas Commission was set up. Important oil producing regions are: Assam Digboi, Naharkatiya and Moran. Gujarat and Mumbai High Ankaleshwar, Kalol, Mehasana, Nawagam, Kosamba and Lunej. Krishna, Godavari and Kaveri basin also have Oil and Natural Gas reserves on the East coast of India. There are two types of oil refineries in India: A) Field Based Refineries Digboi is an example of field based refinery. B) Market Based Refineries Barauni is an example of market based refinery. There are total 21 refineries as on June 2011. 3. Natural Gas It occurs along with oil as well as separately in gas reserves in India. These gas reserves are located along with Eastern cost of Tamil Nadu, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Tripura, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Maharashtra. Gujarat and Maharashtra have off- shore wells of natural gas. According to a survey report, there are indications of huge gas reserves in Ramathanpuram in Tamil/Nadu state. Non-Conventional Energy Sources Unlike conventional sources of energy, non-conventional energy sources are renewable i.e. solar, wind, hydro-geothermal and biomass and are not threat to natural system. Their use ensure sustainable development as these are environment friendly and cheaper energy sources. 1. Nuclear Energy Sources Nuclear energy has emerged as a feasible source in recent times. Uranium and thorium are main minerals that are used to generate nuclear energy. Uranium Deposits in India It is found in Dharwar rock system. Important regions are: Jharkhand Singbhum (alongwith the copper belt) Rajasthan Udaipur, Alwar, Jhunjhunu districts. Chhattisgarh Durg district Maharastra Bhandara district. Himachal Pradesh Kullu district. Thorium Deposits in India It is found in very few places in India: Kerala (in monazite and ilmenitte beach sands) Plakkad and Kollam districts. Andhra Pradesh Vishakhapatnam. Odisha Mahanadi river delta These three states have world’s richest monazite deposits. The development of nuclear energy was started after establishment of Atomic Energy Institute at Trombay in 1954 which was renamed as the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre in 1967. Tarapur (Maharashtra), Rawatbhata near Kota (Rajasthan), Kalapakkam (Tamil Nadu), Narora (Uttar Pradesh), Kaiga (Karnataka) and Kakarapara (Gujarat) are other nuclear power sites in India. 2. Solar Energy Sun’s energy trapped by two methods i.e. photovoltaic cells and solar thermal technology and convert into electricity is called solar energy. Its construction is easy, eco-friendly and cost competitive. It is 7% and 10% more effective than coal and oil based plants and nuclear energy, respectively. Heaters, dryers, cookers and other heating appliances use solar energy more than others. Gujarat, Rajasthan and the Western part of India have higher potential for the development of solar energy. 3. Wind Energy Wind energy is non-polluting and renewable source. Through turbine mechanism, kinetic energy of wind can be directly converted into electrical energy. Electricity can be produced by permanent wind systems like trade wind, westerlies or seasonal winds like monsoon winds. Besides, production of electricity can also be done by local winds, land and sea breezes. India already has started generating wind energy to lessen the burden of oil import bill. It is estimated that India has 50000 megawatts potential of wind generation, of which one-fourth may be easily employed. Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Karnataka have higher potential for the development of wind energy. 4. Tidal and Wave Energy Ocean currents are the store house of infinite energy. Large tidal waves are known to occur along the west coast of India. Many efforts for the efficient use of oceanic tides and waves were made since 17th and 18th century. But these waves have not yet been utilised properly because of lack of technology’. 5. Geothermal Energy Magma that comes over the earth’ surface releases vast amount of heat. This heat energy can be converted into electrical energy by tapping it. It is called geothermal energy Main sources of this energy are magma, hot spring (hot water), hot geysers, etc. Geothermal energy is gaining importance and can be used as an alternative to conventional energy sources. In India at Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh, a geothermal energy plant has been commissioned. 6. Bio-Energy Bio-energy refers to energy derived from biological products which includes agricultural residues, municipal, industrial and other wastes. It can be converted into electricity or electrical energy, heat energy or gas for cooking food. This can also solve the problem of garbage and waste in urban areas because energy can also be derived from these. It can contribute in improving economic life of rural peoples in developing countries, increasing environmental problems like pollution, solid waste management, enhancing self-reliance and reducing pressure on fuel wood. A project in OKHLA (Delhi) is an example that generates energy from municipal waste. Conservation of Mineral Resources There are some methods through which we can conserve mineral resources: 1. Adoption of renewable resources in place of exhaustible resources like solar power, wind, geothermal energy can save our non-renewable resources. 2. Use of recycle scrap metals should be encouraged. 3. Use of substitutes for scarce metals may also reduce their consumption. 4. Export of strategic and scarce minerals must be reduced, so that the existing reserve may be used for a longer period.