Ancient Indian Management Concepts PDF

# Unit-I: Introduction ## 1. Role of Literature: Rationale and Relevance - Management is concerned with getting things done through others. - It is an essential function of an organization. - Management is practiced in every facet of life - corporate, non-corporate, and personal. - It is applied...

# Unit-I: Introduction ## 1. Role of Literature: Rationale and Relevance - Management is concerned with getting things done through others. - It is an essential function of an organization. - Management is practiced in every facet of life - corporate, non-corporate, and personal. - It is applied in our personal lives when we make plans for the future, organize our resources, motivate and direct ourselves, and control our actions. - Similarly, a housewife manages her house well. - Management is a universal concept. - The evolution of management dates back to the time when civilization was developed. - Many well-accepted management principles of today can be found in historical records of various civilizations. - The Sumerian Civilization (around 5000 B.C.) is one of the oldest. - Temple priests collected taxes and managed estates. - Ancient Egyptian civilization (5000 to 525 B.C.) used sophisticated planning, organizing, and controlling techniques to construct pyramids and buildings. - Ancient Indian civilization also knew management principles. - Extracts of Harappa and Mohen-jo-daro cities show evidence of management skills. - The holy Vedas, the Ramayana, and the Gita are the main Indian epics that highlight the practice of managerial principles. ## Kautilya's Arthashastra - Written in about 321 B.C. by Kautilya, also named Vishnu Gupta and popularly known as Chanakya. - It mainly describes the principles and practices of economics and politics but also drives management ideas. - The book covers the various aspects of the operations of a state, like the duties of a ruler, his ministers, etc. - It also discusses meetings, government departments, diplomats, war, and peace. - It covers the organization and management of trade and commerce. - Chanakya is considered the earliest or the first writer on management in India. ## Historical View of Indian Literature ### 2.1 Vedas - Vedas means to learn or know. - At the beginning of day of Brahma, the universe is created. - Vedas are the breath of Brahman, Purushottama or Narayana. - These are recovered from the deep sea by Hayagriva incarnation of Brahman. - Veda mantras exist in the sky in the form of shabda sounds. - Brahma is born from the lotus emanated from the naval of Brahman or Narayana resting on the Shesha bed in Ksheersagar. - Brahma is authorized by Brahman to speak/chant Vedas by his four mouths by his Shakti Saraswati. | Mouth Direction | Veda | Upa Veda | |---|:---:|:---| | East | Rigveda | Ayurveda | | South | Yajurveda | Dhanurveda | | West | Samveda | Gandharvaveda | | North | Atharvaveda | Sthapatyaveda | - Veda was applied to perform *yajna*. - Specific role and function assigned to expert of each Veda, as shown in the following table: | Veda Expert | Role in Yajna | Functions | Remarks | |---|---|---|---| | Rigveda | Hota | Shashtra | Sukta recitation | | Yajurveda | Adhvaryu | Jiya | Physical space equipments for yajna | | Samveda | Udgata | Stutisam | Music, intonation | | Atharvaveda | Brahma | Control and supervision | Correction of mistakes, if any, by the three | - Main function of *yajna* was performed with the help of experts of Rigveda, Yajurveda, and Samveda; these are considered main and called *Vedatrayi*. - Atharvaveda is considered of auxiliary or support service only. - Three Vedas can be studied after *Yajnopavit*. - For study of Atharvaveda, another *Yajnopavit Samskar* is required. - Each Veda has three *Kanda* or Division: 1. Samhita 2. Brahmana 3. Aranyaka or Upanishada or Vedanta - Vedas have six Vedangas or Limbs: 1. Shiksha (Methods of Study) 2. Kalpa (Method of Rituals) 3. Vyakrana (Grammar) 4. Nirukta (Etymology) 5. Chanda (Metres and Prosody) 6. Jyotisha (Astronomy and Astrology) ### Concept of Vedpurusha - Suppose Veda is a human body or Purusha. - Shiksha is his nose, Vyakrana (Grammar) is his mouth, Kalpa is his hand, Nirukta is his ears, Chanda is his foot and Jyotisha is his eyes. - Vedpurusha is incomplete and incapable of performing *yajna* if any of the six Vedangas (limbs) is missing or weak. - For a healthy and active Vedpurusha development, it is essential that Veda education is given *sangopanga* to students by Veda expert Gurus in each Vedanga. - "Sangopanga" means Vedas learnt with six angas or limbs. - Vedas have six darshanas (Philosophies): 1. Nyaya 2. Vaisheshika 3. Sankhya 4. Yoga 5. Purvamimansa – Yajna karma 6. Uttarmimansa or gyan, or Vedanta, or Upanishada, or Aranyaka - All have a common goal to arrive at *gyana* truth or Brahman. - *Sutras* are part of Vedas. - A sutra is an exceedingly terse aphorism. - Its literal meaning is thread. - It is easy to understand, communicate orally and remember/recall. - Sutras contain the distilled essence of profound and abstract teaching of Vedas. - Sutras are explained by teachers through their commentaries. - Important Veda sutras are: - Brahma sutra by Ved Vyasa - Yog sutra by Patanjali - Grihya sutra by Jaimini - Shrauta sutra by Jaimini - Shulva sutra by Jaimini - Dharma sutra by Jaimini - Since Vedas have come from the breath of the unmanifested form of Brahma and not created by any human being, these are called "Apauresheya". - Braman is immortal so are Vedas, his breath, and exist for even in *shabda* form in the sky. - Even holocaust or pralaya does not destroy Brahman. - So, his breath (Vedas) is also not destroyed even in pralaya. - Vedas are immortal and "Apauresheya". - But Vedic rishis could see Veda mantra in meditation with a pure mind and intellect. - Their divine vision could see Veda mantras and divine ears could listen to the sound of Veda mantras. - Our Veda rishis are not creators of Vedas. - They are mantra *darshtas* only. - They have authored some part of Vedic knowledge. - They are considered authority on that part. - Now, we remember their names with their contribution. - In *Dwapar Yuga* of the present chaturyugi, Ved Vyasa (called as Shri Krishna Devpayana Vyasa), who was an incarnation of Bhagwan Vishnu, through that man of Kaliyuga will have limitation of time and capacity to learn one integrated Veda. - Therefore, he divided one Veda into four parts and appointed his disciples to be Acharya of each Veda, as shown below: | Sr. No. | Veda | Name of Disciple Rishi | |---|---|---| | 1 | Rigveda | Pall Rishi | | 2 | Yajurveda | Vaishamparyan Rishi | | 3 | Samveda | Jaimini Rishi | | 4 | Atharvaveda | Sumant Rishi | - These rishis appointed own disciples to further divide each Veda in different branches. - Every branch of a Veda has its Samshitha, Brahmana, and Aranyaka. - Each branch of a Veda has its own unique way of mantra chanting. - Now, we have one branch of Rigveda, two of Yajurveda, and three of Samveda only. - Veda's each branch of Philosophy (Darshana) has one rishi as Acharya or authority (shown in the following table): | Sr. No. | Name of Philosophy | Name of Rishi (Authority) | Main Work | |---|---|---|---| | 1 | Nyaya | Gautam Rishi | Gautam Nyaya Sutras | | 2 | Vaisheshika | Kanad Rishi | Vaisheshika Sutras | | 3 | Sankhya | Kapila Muni | Sankhya Sutras | | 4 | Yoga | Patanjali Rishi | Patanjali Yoga Sutras | | 5 | Purvamimansa (Karamakanda) | Jaimini Rishi | Sankhya Sutras | | 6 | Vedanta (Uttarmimansa) | | Mimansa Sutras | - Darshana six branches: 1. Advait Darshana 2. Dwait Darshana 3. Vishishta Dwait Darshana 4. Shuddha Dwait Darshana 5. Dvait-Advait Darshana 6. Achinta Bheda-Abheda - Advait Darshana: Adi Guru Shankaracharya - Dwait Darshana: Madhvacharya Jagadguru - Vishishta Dwait Darshana: Jagadguru Ramanujacharya - Shuddha Dwait Darshana: Jagadguru Vallabhacharya - Dvait-Advait Darshana: Jagadguru Nimbakacharya - Achinta Bheda-Abheda: Chaitanya Mahaprabhu - Regarding Vedanta Darshana, the concept of *Prasthanatrayi* is significant. - Prasthanatrayi means study and commentary on Brahma sutra, Bhagwadgita, and Upanishada. - This must have been done by a person who wants to become a *Jagadguru* of any branch of Vedanta Darshana. - The following table lists Vedanga authority rishis: | Sr. No. | Vedanga | Acharya Rishi | Work | |---|---|---|---| | 1 | Shiksha | Natraj Shiva | Sound of Damru | | 2 | Vyakrana (Grammar) | Panini Rishi | Panini Vyakarna | | 3 | Jyotisha | Parashara Rishi | Vrahad Parashari | | | | Guru Shukracharya | Bhrigu Samhita | | | | Garga Rishi | Garga Samhita | | | | Surya Siddhanta | Lord Sun | | 4 | Nirukta | Dhanvantari | | | 5 | Kalpa | Jaimini Rishi | | | 6 | Chanda | Pingala Rishi | | - Now, we describe briefly the contents of each Veda: 1. **Samhita:** It is a collection of *Suktas* (hymns), riches used at *yajna* and offering of libations in fire, the mantra on correct recital of which the efficacy of the rite depends. - The Samhita part of Rigveda contains 1017 Suktas arranged in 10 Mandalas. - *Suktas* are prayers of Vedic Gods/Goddesses, but are in the end of only one supreme God called "Brahman", *yajna purusha*. - Rigveda is a book of *Hota*, the priest who pour offerings into the fire. 2. **Brahmana:** It provides practical interpretations of Vedic rituals, including the construction of altars and the performance of sacrifices. It explains the philosophical basis of the rituals and their symbolic significance. 3. **Aranyaka or Upanishada or Vedanta:** It is a philosophical text that explores the nature of reality, the self, the universe, and the relationship between the human soul (Atman) and the ultimate reality (Brahman). - Vedas have six *Vedangas* or Limbs: 1. Shiksha (Methods of Study) 2. Kalpa (Method of Rituals) 3. Vyakrana (Grammar) 4. Nirukta (Etymology) 5. Chanda (Metres and Prosody) 6. Jyotisha (Astronomy and Astrology) ### Concept of Vedpurusha - Suppose Veda is a human body or Purusha. - Shiksha is his nose, Vyakrana (Grammar) is his mouth, Kalpa is his hand, Nirukta is his ears, Chanda is his foot and Jyotisha is his eyes. - Vedpurusha is incomplete and incapable of performing *yajna* if any of the six Vedangas (limbs) is missing or weak. - For a healthy and active Vedpurusha development, it is essential that Veda education is given *sangopanga* to students by Veda expert Gurus in each Vedanga. - "Sangopanga" means Vedas learnt with six angas or limbs. ## Indian Knowledge Systems (Bhartiya Gyan Parampara) - Vedas have six *darshanas* (Philosophies): 1. Nyaya 2. Vaisheshika 3. Sankhya 4. Yoga 5. Purvamimansa – Yajna karma 6. Uttarmimansa or gyan, or Vedanta, or Upanishada, or Aranyaka - All six have a common goal to arrive at *gyana* truth or Brahman. - *Sutras* are part of the Vedas. - A sutra is an exceedingly terse aphorism. - Its literal meaning is thread. - It is easy to understand, communicate orally and remember/recall. - Sutras contain the distilled essence of profound and abstract teaching of Vedas. - Sutras are explained by teachers through their commentaries. - Important Veda sutras are: 1. Brahma sutra by Ved Vyasa 2. Yog sutra by Patanjali 3. Grihya sutra by Jaimini 4. Shrauta sutra by Jaimini 5. Shulva sutra by Jaimini 6. Dharma sutra by Jaimini - Since Vedas have come from the breath of the unmanifested form of Brahma and not created by any human being, these are called "Apauresheya". - Braman is immortal so are Vedas, his breath, and exist for even in *shabda* form in the sky. - Even holocaust or pralaya does not destroy Brahman. - So, his breath (Vedas) is also not destroyed even in pralaya. - Vedas are immortal and "Apauresheya". - But Vedic rishis could see Veda mantra in meditation with a pure mind and intellect. - Their divine vision could see Veda mantras and divine ears could listen to the sound of Veda mantras. - Our Veda rishis are not creators of Vedas. - They are mantra *darshtas* only. - They have authored some part of Vedic knowledge. - They are considered authority on that part. - Now, we remember their names with their contribution. - In *Dwapar Yuga* of the present chaturyugi, Ved Vyasa (called as Shri Krishna Devpayana Vyasa), who was an incarnation of Bhagwan Vishnu, through that man of Kaliyuga will have limitation of time and capacity to learn one integrated Veda. - Therefore, he divided one Veda into four parts and appointed his disciples to be Acharya of each Veda, as shown below: | Sr. No. | Veda | Name of Disciple Rishi | |---|---|---| | 1 | Rigveda | Pall Rishi | | 2 | Yajurveda | Vaishamparyan Rishi | | 3 | Samveda | Jaimini Rishi | | 4 | Atharvaveda | Sumant Rishi | - These rishis appointed own disciples to further divide each Veda in different branches. - Every branch of a Veda has its own *Samhita*, *Brahmana*, and *Aranyaka*. - Each branch of a Veda has its own unique way of mantra chanting. - Now, we have one branch of Rigveda, two of Yajurveda, and three of Samveda only. - Veda's each branch of Philosophy (Darshana) has one rishi as Acharya or authority (shown in the following table): | Sr. No. | Name of Philosophy | Name of Rishi (Authority) | Main Work | |---|---|---|---| | 1 | Nyaya | Gautam Rishi | Gautam Nyaya Sutras | | 2 | Vaisheshika | Kanad Rishi | Vaisheshika Sutras | | 3 | Sankhya | Kapila Muni | Sankhya Sutras | | 4 | Yoga | Patanjali Rishi | Patanjali Yoga Sutras | | 5 | Purvamimansa (Karamakanda) | Jaimini Rishi | Sankhya Sutras | | 6 | Vedanta (Uttarmimansa) | | Mimansa Sutras | - Darshana six branches: 1. Advait Darshana: Adi Guru Shankaracharya 2. Dwait Darshana: Madhvacharya Jagadguru 3. Vishishta Dwait Darshana: Jagadguru Ramanujacharya 4. Shuddha Dwait Darshana: Jagadguru Vallabhacharya 5. Dvait-Advait Darshana: Jagadguru Nimbakacharya 6. Achinta Bheda-Abheda: Chaitanya Mahaprabhu - Regarding Vedanta Darshana, the concept of *Prasthanatrayi* is significant. - Prasthanatrayi means study and commentary on Brahma sutra, Bhagwadgita, and Upanishada. - This must have been done by a person who wants to become a *Jagadguru* of any branch of Vedanta Darshana. - The following table lists Vedanga authority rishis: | Sr. No. | Vedanga | Acharya Rishi | Work | |---|---|---|---| | 1 | Shiksha | Natraj Shiva | Sound of Damru | | 2 | Vyakrana (Grammar) | Panini Rishi | Panini Vyakarna | | 3 | Jyotisha | Parashara Rishi | Vrahad Parashari | | | | Guru Shukracharya | Bhrigu Samhita | | | | Garga Rishi | Garga Samhita | | | | Surya Siddhanta | Lord Sun | | 4 | Nirukta | Dhanvantari | | | 5 | Kalpa | Jaimini Rishi | | | 6 | Chanda | Pingala Rishi | | - Now, we describe briefly the contents of each Veda: 1. **Samhita:** It is a collection of *Suktas* (hymns), riches used at *yajna* and offering of libations in fire, the mantra on correct recital of which the efficacy of the rite depends. - The Samhita part of Rigveda contains 1017 Suktas arranged in 10 Mandalas. - *Suktas* are prayers of Vedic Gods/Goddesses, but are in the end of only one supreme God called "Brahman", *yajna purusha*. - Rigveda is a book of *Hota*, the priest who pour offerings into the fire. 2. **Brahmana:** It provides practical interpretations of Vedic rituals, including the construction of altars and the performance of sacrifices. It explains the philosophical basis of the rituals and their symbolic significance. 3. **Aranyaka or Upanishada or Vedanta:** It is a philosophical text that explores the nature of reality, the self, the universe, and the relationship between the human soul (Atman) and the ultimate reality (Brahman). ## Ancient Indian Thought, Wisdom, and Management **Ref. Research Paper, "Modern Management through ancient Indian Wisdoms: Towards a More Suitable Paradigm by Anindo Bhattacharjee** - The following table lists the prominent schools of thought in Ancient Indian ethos: | Scripture | Description | |---|---| | The Vedas | There are four Vedas viz. Rig-Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama-Veda, and Atharva-Veda. The primary thought in the Vedas is a mystic conception of the universe. The whole effort of the Veda is directed towards one goal - to achieve union of the individual Self (Atman) with the world Self (Brahma). | | Upanishads | The Vedanta seeks to know the ultimate reality (Brahman) and the cause behind everything. In this pursuit, it seeks to detach from the "Maya" and the material world and unite with Brahman (God or supreme consciousness). | | Bhagavada Gita | It is a poem which depicts lessons on spirituality and ethics through a dialogue between Lord Krishna and the warrior Arjuna who is at a great crisis of his life. The Karma Yoga, Samkhya Yoga, Bhakti Yoga, and the notion of three Gunas (Sattwa, Rajas, Tamas) have very important implications in the context of ethical leadership, decision-making, and management, which we will discuss subsequently. | | Ramayana | It depicts the duties of relationships, portraying ideal characters like the ideal father, ideal servant, the ideal brother, the ideal wife, and the ideal king. Apart from this, the Ramayana also teaches how the temptation for lust can bring a powerful and well-established man's doomsday. | | Buddhism | (1) The founder of this school was Gautam Sidhhartha who later became Lord Gautam Buddha. The Buddhism is based on the four noble truths: (1) Suffering exists; (2) There is a cause of the suffering: (n) Suffering can be eradicated; (w) There is a means for eradication of that suffering. Buddha establishes that everything on the earth is non-permanent. And, nothing on earth is self. Hence everything on this earth is "anatta" or not-self. Finally, Buddha taught the eightfold-path to liberation from all suffering. | | Patanjali Yoga | It represents a form of personal discipline where we integrate the body and the soul, the individual self (Atman) with the Universal Self (Brahman). According to Patanjali, Yoga is the control of the modifications of the mind. It is mind that leads to or to liberation; that most human problems are mental and that the only remedy to solve them is mental discipline. | ## Relevance of Ancient Indian Thought in Current Management Practices - In the words of Albert Einstein, "Certainly we should take care not to make intellect our God. Intellect has, of course, powerful muscles but no personality. It cannot lead. It can only serve. It is not fastidious about its choice of leaders (Mind or Soul). The intellect has a sharp eye for tools and methods. Still, it is blind to Ends and Values". - Arnold Toynbee, Nobel Laureate, expressed, "It is already becoming clear that a chapter which had a Western beginning in business management will have to have an Indian ending when the world adopts rich thoughts of Indian ethos and wisdom if it is not to end in the self-destruction of the human race." - Indian ethos for Management means the applications of principles of Management as revealed in our ancient wisdom brought forth in our sacred books like "The Gita", "The Upanishads", "The Bible," and "The Quran." - Formally, the body of knowledge which derives its solutions from the rich and substantial Indian system of ethics is known as Indian Ethos for Management. - Management is a behavioural science, and it has to be culture-specific. - Indian ethos for Management has as its basis the cultural base of India, and as a country whose culture has its roots in religion, it draws its lessons from the religions of the land, be it Hinduism, Buddhism, or any other. - There are some basic ideas and thoughts revealed by our ancient scriptures which are applicable in today's management world. They are: - **"Atmano Mokshartham, Jagathitaya cha: "** All work is an opportunity to do well to the world and thus gain materially and spiritually in our lives. - **"Archetdanamanabhyam: "** Worship people not only with material things but also by showing respect to their enterprising divinity within. - **"Atmana VindyateViryəm: "** Strength and inspiration for excelling in work comes from the Divine, God within, through prayer, spiritual readings and unselfish work. - **"Yogahkarmashu Kaushalam, Samatvam yoga uchyate: "** He who works with calm and even mind achieves the most. - **"Yadishibhavanayasya siddhi bhavatitadrishi: "** As we think, we succeed, so we come. Attention to means ensures the end. - **"Parasparambhavayantahshreyahparambhavapsyathah: "** By cooperation, respect and fellow feeling, we all enjoy the highest good, material and spiritual. - **"Teshamsukhmtesham shanti shaswati: "** Infinite happiness and infinite peace come to them who see the Divine in all beings. - **"Paraspar DevoBhav: "** Regard the other person as a divine being. We all have the same consciousness, but our packages and containers differ. - **Basic Principles of Indian Ethos of Management** - Six basic principles come to light in the holy books that apply to today's management world. They are: 1. **Each soul is a potential God:** Immense potential, energy, and talents for perfection as a human being have the spirit within his heart. - A human being has a soul, a spark of the divine. - The Divine resides in the heart of a person. - The Divine means perfection of knowledge, wisdom, and power. - Therefore, a human has immense potential power or energy for self-development. - Thus, human efforts can achieve even an impossible goal and become a reality. - The association of God and human beings can show an extraordinary result, only if human beings willingly collaborate with God and actively participate in society by right action under the guidance and grace of God. ## Management as an art, science, and profession - **"Management is the art of getting things done through and with the people in formally organized groups."** - Harold Koontz - **"Management is the art of getting things done through people"** - Mary Parker Follet ### Art - Art refers to the application of knowledge & skill to obtain the desired results. - An art may be defined as personalized application of general theoretical principles for achieving best possible results. - Art has the following characters: - **Practical Knowledge/Intelligence:** Every art requires practical knowledge. It is important to know practical applications of theoretical principles. - E.g. to become a good painter, the person has to not only know different colors and brushes but different designs, dimensions, situations etc. - to use them appropriately. - A manager can never be successful just by obtaining a degree or diploma in management; he must have also know how to apply various principles in real situations by functioning in the capacity of a manager. - **Individual Approach/Personal Skill:** Every artist has his own style and mode of interpretation; similarly every manager has his own way of managing things based on his knowledge, experience, and personality. Success and quality of performance differs from one person to another. - E.g. there are several qualified painters but M.F. Hussain is recognized for his style. - Similarly management as an art is also personalized. - Every manager has his own way of managing things based on his knowledge, experience, and personality, that is why some managers are known as good managers (like Aditya Birla, Rahul Bajaj, Ratan Tata). - **Creativity:** Every artist has an element of creativity. That is why he aims at producing something that has never existed before, which requires a combination of intelligence & imagination. ### Science - According to F.W. Taylor, science is a systematic body of knowledge which is universally accepted. - Science can be divided into a) physical sciences and b) social sciences. - Physical sciences - physics, chemistry, mathematics, are exact and accurate; while social sciences are not as accurate and exact as they deal with human beings. - Management is a social science due to the following reasons: 1. It is a systematic decision-making process: Management is a systematic decision-making process as managers need to collect the right information at the right time. The collected data needs to be processed and analyzed systematically. 2. Output varies, inputs being the same: In physical sciences: output may vary, inputs being the same. - In social sciences, like management, output may vary with changes in input. Eg: Performance of workers improves when they are motivated. 3. Process of management is universally followed: Scientific principles represent basic truth about a particular field of enquiry. These principles may be applied in all situations, at all time & at all places. E.g. - law of gravitation which can be applied in all countries irrespective of the time. - Managers in all organisations - whether national or international - follow the process of management - to plan, organise, direct and to control activities. 4. Principles of management are universally accepted: Management principles such as division of work, unity of command, spirit de corps etc. in all types of organisations - business or non-business - which when followed by the organisation brings success. However, the degree of application varies from one manager to another. 5. Experimentation and Observation - Scientific principles are derived through scientific investigation & researching i.e. they are based on logic. E.g. the principle that earth goes around the sun has been scientifically proved. Management principles are also based on scientific enquiry & observation and not only on the opinion of Henry Fayol. They have been developed through experiments & practical experiences of large no. of managers. E.g. it is observed that fair remuneration to personal helps in creating a satisfied work force. 6. Cause & Effect Relationship - Principles of science lay down cause and effect relationships between various variables. - E.g. when metals are heated, they are expanded. The cause is heating & result is expansion. - The same is true for management; therefore it also establishes cause and effect relationship. - E.g. lack of parity (balance) between authority & responsibility will lead to ineffectiveness. If you know the cause i.e. lack of balance, the effect can be ascertained easily i.e. ineffectiveness. - Similarly, if workers are given bonuses, fair wages, they will work hard, but when not treated in a fair and just manner, reduces the productivity of the organization. 7. Test of Validity & Predictability - Validity of scientific principles can be tested at any time or any number of times i.e. they stand the time of test. Each time these tests will give the same result. Moreover, future events can be predicted with reasonable accuracy by using scientific principles. - E.g. H2 & O2 will always give H₂O. - Principles of management can also be tested for validity. - E.g. principle of unity of command can be tested by comparing two persons - one having a single boss and one having 2 bosses. The performance of the 1st person will be better than 2nd. - It cannot be denied that management has a systematic body of knowledge, but it is not as exact as that of other physical sciences like biology, physics, and chemistry etc. - The main reason for the inexactness of science of management is that it deals with human beings, and it is very difficult to predict their behaviour accurately. - Since it is a social process, therefore it falls in the area of social sciences. - It is a flexible science & that is why its theories and principles may produce different results at different times and therefore it is a behaviour science. ### Profession - Over a large few decades, factors such as growing size of business unit, separation of ownership from management, growing competition etc. have led to an increased demand for professionally qualified managers. - The task of a manager has been quite specialized. - As a result of these developments the management has reached a stage where everything is to be managed professionally. - A profession may be defined as an occupation that requires specialized knowledge and intensive academic preparations to which entry is regulated by a representative body. - The essentials of a profession are: ## Defining Management in Modern India - The evolution of management dates back to the time when civilisation was developed. - Many well-accepted principles of Management of today can be found in historical records of various civilizations. - Ancient Indian civilisation is also reported to have known management principles. - The cities of Harappa and Mohen-jo-daro, found in excavations, show evidence of management skills in ancient India. - The holy Vedas, the Ramayana, and the Gita are the main Indian epics that highlight the practice of managerial principles. - Kautilya's Arthashastra by Chanakya describes the principles and practices of economics and politics, but also drives ideas concerned with Management. - The modern growth of management education and institutes in India has been driven by globalisation and the establishment of MNCs, which require professional and qualified managerial personnel. - The management concepts in India are derived from Western concepts and theories of Management. - The principles of Management, as laid down by Henry Fayol, Principles of Scientific Management, as laid down by F.W. Taylor, Management by Objectives, Management by Exception, Japanese Management Concepts, etc., are being adopted by organizations in India for efficient and effective operations. - Indian universities and institutes have framed and designed courses in Management based on Western education models to develop the requisite qualities of a modern managerial person. - Management education has evolved since the time of education development in India. - Traders coming to India from all over the world also brought their cultures and also impacted the education system. - With time, universities were established in Delhi, Lucknow, and Allahabad. - It paved the way for the progress of the education system in India, which lasted till 1848. - With the establishment of British Rule in India, a new education system was started, which became the base for education in independent India and even in modern times. - After independence, there was a need to integrate and transfer resources worldwide for growth in capital and markets in India. - This integration and exchange also affected the education system in India. - The first business school at the college level was founded in 1913 in Mumbai, Sydenham College. - Till then, there has been a tremendous increase in the establishment of management institutes in India. - Management education in India is mainly based on the Western management education system. - After the globalisation of business, management education in India is also changing. - After the early twentieth century, management education significantly improved organisations' skills and efficiency. - The growth of management education has also developed management theory over time. - During the last three decades, Western management concepts have been widely adopted in Indian organisational settings. - The concepts range from Taylor's scientific Management, Management by objective (MBO), Fayols's fourteen principles of Management, Management by Exceptions, business process reengineering (BPR), Japanese Management concepts, etc. - Indian universities and institutes have framed and designed courses in Management based on Western education models to develop the requisite qualities of a modern managerial person. - Management can be summarized as the process of effectively coordinating and integrating resources—including human, financial, and material—to achieve a common goal. It is a necessary function in all aspects of life—from personal to corporate—and is continually evolving. - The origins of management thought can be traced back to ancient civilizations; however, its modern development has been heavily influenced by Western thought. - The emergence of multinational corporations (MNCs) and globalization has spurred the growth of management education and institutes in India, leading to a more widespread adoption of Western management concepts and principles. - While Western management models have been adapted to the Indian context, Indian ethos, wisdom, and ancient scriptures contribute a unique perspective to the field of management. - Indian ethos places emphasis on holism, selflessness, and a focus on the well-being of all beings. - These concepts have the potential to be adopted and integrated into modern management practices, leading to a more sustainable, ethical, and holistic approach to management.