IM412-HBO-Module PDF

Module 1 Human Behavior in Organization IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 1 of 151 Module 1 USMKCC-COL-F-050  An overview of Human Behavior in Organizat...

Module 1 Human Behavior in Organization IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 1 of 151 Module 1 USMKCC-COL-F-050  An overview of Human Behavior in Organization Chapter 1 Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of this chapter, the students are expected to: 1. Define human behavior and organizational behavior. 2. Discuss the benefits of studying organizational behavior. 3. Recognize the brief history of organizational behavior. 4. Compare and contrast ethics and organizational behavior. For so long, man-made serious attempts to be productive, economic or otherwise. He did it either individually or in group. In his quest for fulfilling his dreams he, is always confronted with the risk is most often associated with the human factor, i.e., him and the others. Even if it was a machine that disrupted the production process, the person who decided to buy or use the machine faces the risk of placing his character under suspicion. It has become clear that the quality and quantity of the output of the individual, the group, or the organization depend heavily on the actions of the person. It follows that those who have knowledge of human behavior are better equipped to interact with individuals, groups, or organizations. 1.1 WHAT IS HUMAN BEHAVIOR? Human behavior refers to the physical actions of a person that can be seen or heard such smiling or whistling. With his thoughts, feelings, emotions, and sentiments, the person exhibits behaviors similar or different when he is in or out of organization. Human behavior in Organization is more appropriately referred to as Organizational Behavior (OB). 1.2 WHAT IS ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR? Organizational behavior defined as the study of human behavior in organization, of the interaction between individuals and the organization, and of the organization itself. The three goals of OB are as follows: 1. to explain behavior; 2. to predict behavior, and 3. to control behavior. The person Behavior In the organization Out of the organization Fig. 1 The places where the person exhibits his behavior IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 2 of 151 Module 1 USMKCC-COL-F-050  In explaining behavior as goal, OB needs to systematically describe how people behave under a variety of conditions, and understand why people behave as they do. OB must be used to predict behavior so support can be provided to productive and dedicated employees, and measure could be instituted to control the disruptive and less productive ones. OB can offer some means for management to control the behavior of employees. As control is an important component of effective performance, the usefulness of OB must not be overloaded. Four elements operate in OB. 1. People 2. Structure 3. Technology 4. Environment People – The internal social system of the organization is composed of people consisting of individual persons and groups. The individual person is inducted as a member of a formal group, but soon, he or she may become a member of an informal group. Structure - defines the formal relationship of people in the organization. It describes how job tasks are formally divided, grouped and coordinated. Technology – refers to the combination of resources, knowledge and techniques with which people work and affect the task that they perform. It consists buildings, machines work processes, and assembled resources. Environment – refers to the institutions or forces outside the organization that potentially affect the organization performance. It includes suppliers, customers, competitors, government regulatory agencies, public pressure groups, and the like. 1.3 BENEFITS OF STUDYING ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR (OB) 1. Development of people skills; 2. Personal growth; 3. Enhancement of organizational and individual effectives and; 4. Sharpening and refinement of common sense Development of people skills There are two types of skills that a person will need to succeed in his chosen career: 1. the skill in doing his work; and 2. the skill in relating with people. A person who is much adept in the performance of his work may be successful up to a certain extent, but he will require another skill to make other people believe that he should be more successful than his current achievement. IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 3 of 151 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050  An example is the dentist who well-trained in his discipline but is avoided by many would-be patients. It is not surprising to see a number of dentists with insufficient number of patients. Many of these dentists would benefit from acquiring people skills through the study of OB. Personal Growth Personal growth makes a person highly competitive in the workplace. The chance to achieve personal growth is enhanced by knowledge of OB. For instance, knowledge of the behavior of others through the study of OB will help the person understand his own behavior. A person who strives to know himself better is entering the real of intrapersonal intelligence, which is a very useful type of intelligence for one who wants to achieve his personal goals. Intrapersonal thinking maybe be described briefly as one possessed by a person with highly accurate understanding of himself or herself. Enhancement of organizational and individual effectives Effectiveness is a major attribute of successful organizations, as well as individuals. When the right decisions are made, effectives follow. In decision making, knowledge of OB can be very useful. For instance, there are people when they work in the afternoons. It would be a mistake to make them work in the morning and expect that they will perform better. Such errors could be avoided if the one authorized to decide on work assignments have knowledge of OB. Sharpening and refinement of common sense People differ in the degree of common sense they possess. Improvements in this type of ability, however, can still be made and great benefits can be derived if this is done. For instance, common sense dictates that persons working in hot and humid places cannot perform well. Common sense, however, cannot easily provide information on the exact temperature that will make them work at optimum levels. In those types of concerns, knowledge of OB may be very useful. 1.4 HISTORY OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR (OB) History tells us that behind every major accomplishment of man is some sort of organization. Thousands of years ago, the pyramids of Egypt and the temples in Central and South America were built by workers recruited from among the populace. Whether or not there were attempts to make these types of workers perform better can be the subject of inquiry. It is modern history, however, that provide us with records of how concerned scientist and experts made studies which have direct or indirect bearing to OB. IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 4 of 151 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050 The origin of OB can be traced the following: The human relations approach a. the scientific management approach by Frederick W. Taylor b. the human relations approach by Elton Mayo and other The personality theories a. Freud’s model b. the behaviorist approach by Watson and Skinner c. the human approach by Carl rogers, Fritz Perls, and Abraham Maslow Frederick W. Taylor The well-known disciple of the scientific management movement. The primary purpose of scientific management was the application of scientific methods to increase the individual productivity. Taylor used scientific analysis and experiment to increase worker output. He did it by regarding individuals as equivalents of machine parts and assigned them specific repetitive tasks. Elton Mayo He conducted the Hawthorne effect studies in 1920 to determine what effect hours of work, periods of rests and lighting might have on worker fatigue and productivity. It was discovered that social environment has an equivalent if not greater than effect on productivity than the physical environment. Mayo concluded that social interaction is a factor for increased productivity. Sigmond Freud A psychologist who brought the idea people are motivated by far more than conscious logical reasoning. Freud believed that is irrational motivates make up the hidden subconscious mind, which determines the major part of people’s behavior. J.B. Watson He formulated the theory about behavioral approach. This theory indicates that a person can be trained to behave according to wish of the trainer. B.F. Skinner extended Watson’s theory with his own theory of behavior modification. He concluded that when a person receives a positive stimulus like money or praise for what they have done, they will tend to repeat behavior. When they ignore and receive no response to the action, they will not be inclined to repeat it. The humanist movement is another important aspect in the development of OB. It is composed of a group of psychologists and three prominent contributors -Carl Rogers, Fritz Perls, and Abraham Maslow. Rogers – believes that people should acquire their own values and attitudes rather than be committed to a fixed set of prescribed goals. Fritz Perls – contribution Gestalt psychology wherein the person is seen as being plagued by numerous splits, or conflicting desires needs, which dissipate energy and interface with that person’s ability to achieve his potential. Maslow – introduced process of self-actualization IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 5 of 151 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050 1.5 ETHICS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR What is Ethics? Ethics – refers to the set of moral choices a person makes based on what he or she ought to do. Organizational Ethics –These are moral principles that define right or wrong behavior in organizations. Ethical behavior – this refers to behavior that is accepted as morally good and right as opposed to bad and wrong. What constitutes right and wrong behavior in organization is determined by: 1. the public 2. interest groups 3. organizations 4. the individual’s personal morals and values Ethical Issues There are important ethical issues that confront organizations. They consist of the following: 1. Conflict of interest 2. Fairness and honesty 3. Communication 4. Relationships within the organization A conflict of interest exists when a person is in the position having to decide whether to advance the interests of the organization or to operate on his or her own personal interests. For instance, the purchasing officer of a university is in a situation where there is conflict of interest when he owns the shop that sells office supplies to the university. In organizations which practices ethical behavior, people do not accept bribes to influence the outcome of a decision. People in organizations are expected to be fair and honest Ethical behavior demands that, beyond obeying the law they should not knowingly harm customers, clients, and competitors through deception, coercion or misrepresentation. For example, a certain agency of the government would not normally release documents unless a certain amount of money is handed down to the releasing clerk. People can become victims of organizations that provide false and misleading information about their products and services. For instance, a recruitment firm makes it appear that the employment conditions they describe to the job applicants would be identical to what the foreign employer would offer. This practice is, of course highly unethical. Within the organization, people may still be performing unethical acts. For example, employee A developed an idea that will be very useful to the organization. IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 6 of 151 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050 Employee B steals the idea and presents it to the top executive before employee A could present it himself. This action is highly unethical and it is to the detriment of the organization if such actions are allowed to flourish. IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 7 of 151 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050 Chapter 1 Name: ____________________________________________ Activity No. 1 Program/Year: _____________ Date Submitted: _________ ____________________________ I. Fill in the blanks. 1. __________ refers to the physical actions of a person that can be seen or heard such as smiling or whistling. 2. __________ is the study of human behavior in organizations, of the interaction between individual and organization, and of the organization itself. 3. __________ defines the formal relationship of people in the organization. 4. To succeed in his chosen career, the person needs the skill in doing his work and _________ 5. The elements of OB are people, structure, technology, and __________. 6. __________ is the well-known disciple of the scientific management approach. 7. __________ formulated the theory of learned behavior. 8. __________ refers to the set of moral choices a person makes based on what he or she ought to do. 9. __________ are moral principles that defines right or wrong behavior in organizations. 10. What constitutes right and wrong behavior in organization is determined by the public, interest groups, _________ and the individual's morals and values. II. Match column A with column B. A _____ 1.to explain behavior _____ 2. environment _____ 3. personal growth _____ 4. effectiveness follows _____ 5. Elton Mayo and others _____ 6. Sigmund Freud's idea _____ 7. B.F. Skinner's theory _____ 8. a society with low regard for morals _____ 9. organizational ethics _____ 10. an ethical issue B A when right decisions are made B. disciples of the human relations approach C. people are motivated by far more than conscious logical reasoning D. behavior modification E. will disintegrate after a period of time F. moral principles that define right or wrong behavior in organizations G. conflict of interest H. benefit of studying OB I. a goal of OB J.an element of OB IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 8 of 151 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050  Individual Differences, Mental Ability Module 2 and Personality IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 9 of 151 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050  Chapter 2 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES, MENTAL ABILITY, AND PERSONALITY Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of this chapter, the students are expected to: 1. Discuss the individual differences and the consequences. 2. Explain what makes people different from each other in terms of demographic diversity, aptitude and ability, and personality. 3. Discuss emotional intelligence and physical ability. Workers in most factories produce standardized materials that will make the final product easier to manufacture If this process of handling materials can be applied to the management of people achieving the objectives of the organization will be a much easier task. This cannot happen because of the big difference between materials and people. Materials do not complain even if they are cut into standardized pieces, or stored in a warehouse. People cannot be subjected to such treatment if they are to be useful to the organization. If one contemplates on the difficulty of the job of the person who has to relate with people, he will conclude that the job is more complicated. This is because people are different from one another and there is no single way to relate with them. This chapter is an attempt to provide some important clues on individual differences, mental ability and personality. 2.1 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES Individual differences refer to the variation in how people respond to the same situation based on personal characteristics The idea is that each person is different from all others and that these differences are usually substantial rather than meaningless. For instance, when management introduced the playing of soft music at the workplace, employee A was affected positively and he was able to perform his duties more efficiently. At the end of the first day the music was introduced, his output increased from 20 to 25 finished items. Employee B, however, was distracted, and his output decreased from 21 to 18 finished units. Employee C appreciates the music, but he feels that his output will increase by 25 percent if the music is a little louder and more upbeat. 2.1.1 CONSEQUENCES OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES Individual differences become serious concerns when people are situated in the workplace. Those concerned with managing people or simply those that want to relate well with people must be aware that there are consequences arising out of differences between people. These pertain to the following: IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 10 of 151 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050  1. people differ in productivity; 2. people differ in the quality of their work; 3. people react differently to empowerment; 4. people react differently to any style of leadership; 5. people differ in terms of need for contact with other people; 6. people differ in terms of commitment to the organization; and 7. people differ in terms of level of self-esteem. Productivity refers to the rate of output per worker. It differs from person to person. If the rate of output in a sales office is measured in terms of number of units sold by each salesman, it cannot be expected that everyone will sell the same number of units for a given period. This may be attributed to individual differences among the salesmen like experience, age, education, and the like. Because people are different form each other, it is not surprising that the quality of their work will also be different. Some individuals will not be contented in making products of mediocre quality, while others will just strive to produce outputs that barely passed standard requirements. Empowerment means giving someone the power to do something. For instance, an individual may be empowered to sign purchased contracts and with it the authority to determine what supplies and materials are needed to be purchase. Some person may feel happy if he is provided with such responsibility; others will feel uncomfortable and will prefer to just follow orders. DIFFERENCES PEOPLE WITH DIFFERENT BETWEEN PEOPLE quantities if output qualities if output reactions to empowerment reactions to given leadership style degrees of need for result contract with others to degrees of commitment to the organization levels of self-esteem Fig. 2 The consequences of differences between people IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 11 of 151 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050  If all subordinates in a given unit will respond well to a sing style of leadership, managing them or simply relating with the would be a much easier task. But this is not so, as some people will prefer a leader with a democratic style, while some will need close supervision from their superiors. These differences make it necessary for a leader to use different leadership styles even in a small unit. Regarding the need for social contact, people are also different from one another. Some will need more contact, while others can work alone the whole day. Other people cannot be productive unless they meet people as they work. The salesman's job, for instance, is well fitted for those in need of frequent interactions with other people. In contrast, there are those who can perform jobs in research laboratories where contact with others is minimal. Commitment to the organization varies among individua Some are so committed and loyal to the organization that they w the whole day without noticing that they are putting in more than the required working hours. Those who are highly committed to organization tend to produce high quality output, while those w are less committed are less concerned about output and attendance. People also differ in terms of self-esteem. Those with low self- esteem tend to be less productive. They also avoid accepting more responsibilities. They do so for various reasons, one of which is that they may think that their abilities do not match the requirements of the job. The opposite happens when people have high regard of themselves. Many great inventions, literary work, and discoveries were made by people with high self-esteem. 2.2 WHAT MAKES PEOPLE DIFFERENT FROM EACH OTHER? People are different from each other because they are different in terms of the following: 1. demographics; 2. aptitude and ability; and 3. personality. 2.2.1 DEMOGRAPHIC DIVERSITY Performance in the workplace and the behavior of workers are sometimes affected by the differences between the demographic characteristics of individual workers. The sources of demographic diversity include the following: 1. gender; 2. generational differences and age; and 3. culture. Gender Differences The differences in the perception of male and female roles are referred to as gender differences. Research findings indicate that there are very few differences between men and women that affect job performance. Specifically, men and women are not different along the following concerns: IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 12 of 151 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050 1. problem solving abilities; 2. analytical skills; 3. competitive drive; 4. motivation; 5. learning ability; and 6. sociability. GENERATIONAL AND AGE-BASED DIFFERENCES. A worker that belongs to a certain generation may behave differently from a worker who belongs to another. This difference is called generational difference. An example may be derived from the changes in values over generations. For instance, in a generation that values loyalty, it will not be difficult to find workers who have stayed in their respective companies for long periods. The opposite may be expected from a generation that values something else. REASONS WHY PEOPLE ARE DIFFERENT FROM EACH OTHER DEMOGRAPHICS APTITUDE PERSONALITY intellectual ability physical ability physical characteristics gender mental generational characteristics differences and age culture Fig. 3 What makes people different from each other IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 13 of 151 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050  Differences in the ages of workers also bring about expectations of differences in the behavior of workers. Most often, age is associated with experience, so we take it as a matter of course when a 61-year-old person says that he has 40 years of teaching experience, or when a 26-year-old employee has a 5-year teaching experience. This is not always true, however, because there are instances when people over 60 years old have less than 10 years of teaching experience. In general, however, we consider age and experiences as related. Culture Differences in job performance and behavior are sometimes caused by differences in culture. If, for instance, a Filipino employee is confronted by a superior for a perceived error committed by the employee at the workplace, it is not surprising if the employee keeps quiet even if he believes. he is not at fault. It may take some effort for someone to make him respond. This is so because Filipinos consider it impolite and discourteous to talk back to superiors or elders. This behavior is common to Filipinos and we cannot expect people from other cultures to behave in the same manner. Culture refers to the learned and shared ways of thinking and acting among a group of people or society. This definition implies that culture has two dimensions. Specifically, these are classified as follows: 1. Social culture which refers to the social environment of human-created beliefs, customs, knowledge, and practices that define conventional behavior in a society. 2. Organizational culture is the set of values, beliefs, and norms that is shared among members of an organization. 2.2.2 APTITUDE AND ABILITY People differ in terms of aptitude and ability and their behavior in the organization is affected. Aptitude may be defined as the capacity of a person to learn or acquire skills. Ability refers to an individual's capacity to perform the various tasks in a job. Aptitudes and abilities are very important considerations when people are considered for employment in an organization. The managers of business firms will be much concerned with the cost of training new employees before they become productive. Low aptitude and abilities would mean higher training costs. A person's overall abilities are made up of two sets of factors: physical and mental. Physical ability refers to the capacity of the individual to do tasks demanding stamina, dexterity, strength, and similar characteristics. Specifically, there are nine physical abilities needed to perform certain tasks. These are the following: 1. Dynamic strength - this is the ability to exert muscular force repeatedly or continuously over time. Trunk strength - this is the ability to exert muscular strength 2. using the trunk (particularly the abdominal muscles) muscles. 3. Static strength - this is the ability to exert force against external objects. IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 14 of 151 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050  4. Explosive strength-this is the ability to expend a maximum of energy in one or a series of explosive acts. 5. Extent flexibility- this is the ability to move the trunk and back muscles as far as possible. 6. Dynamic flexibility - this is the ability to make rapid, repeated flexing movements. 7. Body coordination - this is the ability to coordinate the simultaneous actions of different parts of the body. 8. Balance - this is the ability to maintain equilibrium despite forces pulling off balance. 9. Stamina - this is the ability to continue maximum effort requiring prolonged effort over time. Individuals will differ as to the extent by which they can perform any of the above-cited physical abilities. The intellectual or mental ability of a person (also referred to as intelligence) is one of the major sources of individual differences. Intellectual abilities refer to the capacity to do mental activities, such as thinking, reasoning, and problem solving. DIMENSIONS OF INTELLECTUAL ABILITY Intelligence is composed of four subparts which are as follows: 1. cognitive 2. social 3. emotional 4. cultural Cognitive intelligence refers to the capacity of a person to acquire and apply knowledge including solving problems. Social intelligence refers to a person's ability to relate effectively with others. Emotional intelligence refers to a person's qualities such as understanding one's own feelings, empathy for others, and the regulation of emotion to enhance living. Cultural intelligence refers to an outsider's ability to interpret someone's unfamiliar and ambiguous behavior the same way that person's compatriot would. INTELLIGENCE SUBPARTS AND INDIVIDUAL VARIATIONS The intelligence levels on the four subparts differ from person to person. For instance, an individual could get high ratings on two intelligence subparts, e.g., cognitive and social but low on emotional and cultural. Another person could be rated average on all four subparts, and the like. In real life situation, it is not surprising to see an individual who scores below average in school examinations but gets elected as student council president. Or a student who gets excellent scores in written examinations but is hampered by shyness in meeting other people. Both persons have dissimilar strengths and weaknesses, and it can be expected that their behaviors will also be dissimilar even inside organizations. IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 15 of 151 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050 THE TRIARCHIC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE An eminent researcher, Robert Sternberg, developed an approach to the study of intelligence, which is now known as the triarchic theory of intelligence. He maintains that there are three important parts of intelligence, namely 1. componential intelligence; 2. experiential intelligence; and 3. contextual intelligence. People can be good at any or all of the three intelligence parts. Componential intelligence, also referred to as analytical intelligence, it involves components (or mental processes) used in thinking. This is the traditional type of intelligence needed for solving difficult problems with abstract reasoning. People who score high in componential intelligence perform well in most school subjects. Experiential intelligence, also referred to as creative intelligence, is that type of intelligence that focuses on how people perform on tasks with which they have either little or no previous experience or else great experience. It is this type of intelligence that is required for imagination and combining things in novel ways. Contextual intelligence, also known as practical intelligence, is a type of everyday intelligence or street smarts. It requires adapting to, selecting, and shaping our real-world environment. Contextual intelligence incorporates the ideas of common sense, wisdom, and street smarts. MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES Another eminent researcher, Howard Gardner, developed a very useful means of understanding intelligence. It is referred to as the Theory of Multiple Intelligences. He proposes eight different components of intelligence which the individual possesses in varying degrees. A brief description of the components is provided as follows: 1. Linguistic. People who possess this component of intelligence is sensitive to language, meanings, and the relations among words. Linguistic intelligence makes people able to communicate through language including reading, writing, and speaking. This is a distinct characteristic of novelist, poets, copywriter, scriptwriter, editors, magazine writers, public relations directors, and speech writers. 2. Logical-Mathematical. This intelligence component covers abstract thought, precision, counting, organization, and logical structure, enabling the individual to see relationship between objects and solve problems such as those in algebra and actuarial concerns. This is a characteristic of mathematicians, scientists, engineers, animal trackers, police investigators, and lawyers. 3. Musical. This intelligence component gives people the capacity to create and understand meanings made out of sounds and to enjoy different types of music. The person endowed with such intelligence component is sensitive to pitch, rhythm, timbre, and the emotional power and complex organization of music. This characteristic is found in performers, composers, conductors, musical audience, recording engineers, and makers of musical instruments. 4. Spatial. This intelligence component enables people to perceive and manipulate images in their brain and to re-create them from memory, such as in making graphic designs. The person with spatial intelligence is blessed with abilities concerning keen IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 16 of 151 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050 observation, visual thinking, mental images, metaphor, essence of the whole, and gestalt. This intelligence is found in architects, painters, sculptors, navigators, chess players, theoretical physicians, and battlefield commanders. 5. Bodily-kinesthetic. This intelligence enables people to use their body and perceptual and motor systems in skilled ways, such as dancing, playing sports, and expressing emotion through facial expressions. This is found in athletes, dancers, actors, inventors, mimers, karate teachers, and the mechanically gifted. 6. Intrapersonal. The person with this kind of intelligence Surgeons, has highly accurate understanding of himself or herself. He or she is sensitive to his or her values, purpose, feelings, and has a developed sense of self. This is found in novelists, counselors, wise elders, philosophers, gurus and persons with deep sense of self. 7. Interpersonal. This intelligence component makes it possible for persons to recognize and make distinctions among the feelings, motives, and intentions of others, as in managing people and parenting children. This is found in politicians, teachers, religious leaders, counselors, salesmen, and managers. 8. Naturalist. A person with this intelligence possesses the ability to seek patterns in the external physical environment. As a result, the opportunity to enrich all the other seven intelligences is provided. VARIOUS THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE Dimensions of Triarchic Theory Multiple Intelligence Intellectual Ability Theory LINGUISTIC COGNITIVE COMPONENTAL LOGICAL / SOCIAL MATHEMATICAL EXPERIENTIAL MUSICAL EMOTIONAL CONTEXTUAL SPATIAL CULTURAL BODILY-KINESTHETIC INTRAPERSONAL Figure 4 INTERPERSONAL COMPONENTS OF THE VARIOUS THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE NATURALIST 2.2.3 PERSONALITY One aspect that makes people different from one another is personality. The differences translate into different behaviors, including those in the workplaces. IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 17 of 151 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050  Personality refers to the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others. The "ways" are the patterns of behavior that are consistent and enduring. Determinants of Personality The personality of an individual is a result of both hereditary and environmental factors. Heredity defines the limits by which environment can develop personality characteristics. Hereditary factors are those factors that are determined at conception. These include the following: 1. physical stature 2. facial attractiveness 3. gender 4. temperament 5. muscle composition and reflexes 6. energy level 7. biological rhythms Environmental factors are those that exert pressures on the formation of an individual's personality. It includes the following: 1. Cultural factor which refer to the established norms, attitudes, and values that are passed along from one generation to the next and creates consistency over time. 2. Social factor - which refer to those that reflect family life, religion and the many kinds of formal and informal groups in which the individual participates throughout his life. 3. Situational factors - which indicate that the individual will behave differently in different situations. For instance, a teenager will be less talkative when in the presence of strangers. He will be more relaxed, however, when he is among friends and relatives. Personality Factors and Traits There are certain factors that are considered in determining human personality. A person's personality traits could either be on the positive or negative side of the factors, and they will be in various degrees of development. It is not hard to think that two or more persons will have the same traits that are developed in different degrees. This alone provides sufficient indication that individuals are really different from one another. The traits are partially inherited and they will develop depending on the environment where the person is situated. For instance, an employee may have a natural tendency for risk taking like experimenting on entrepreneurial ventures. This tendency will have the opportunity to grow in an organization that encourages such activities. The eight factors are briefly described below: 1. Emotional stability. This personality factor characterizes one as calm, self- confident, and secure. Its opposite is emotional instability characterized by nervousness, depression, and insecurity. A person who possesses a high degree of emotional stability can be expected to withstand stress. IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 18 of 151 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050  2. Extraversion. This is the personality factor describing someone who is sociable, gregarious, and assertive. The opposite is introversion, which describes a person who tends to be reserved, timid, and quiet. 3. Openness to experience. This is a personality factor describing a person who is imaginative, cultured, curious, original, broad-minded, intelligent, and artistically sensitive. The opposite is the person who is conventional and finds comfort in the familiar. 4. Agreeableness. This factor refers to the person's interpersonal orientation. An agreeable person is cooperative, warm, and trusting. The person who is not agreeable is cold, disagreeable, and antagonistic. Table 1 PERSONALITY FACTORS AND TRAITS FACTORS FACTORS 1. Emotional stability a. Emotionally stable person - calm, self-confident, secure b. Emotionally unstable person - nervous, depressed, insecure 2. Extraversion a. Extravert - sociable, gregarious, assertive b. Introvert - reserved, timid, quiet 3.Openness to experience a. Open minded person - imaginative, cultured, curious, original, broad-minded, intelligent, artistically sensitive b. Closed minded person -conventional, finds comfort in the familiar 4. Agreeableness a. Agreeable person -cooperative, warm, trusting b. Disagreeable person -cold, disagreeable, antagonistic 5. Conscientiousness a. Highly conscientious person -responsible, organized, dependable, persistent b. Person with low score on -easily distracted, disorganized, conscientiousness unreliable 6. Self-monitoring behavior a. High self-monitor - pragmatic, chameleon-like actor in social groups, often say what others want to hear b. Low self-monitor IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 19 of 151 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050  -avoid situations that require him/her to 7. Risk taking and thrill-seeking adapt to different outer images, is often a. Risk taker inflexible b. Play safe Person - willingness to take risks and pursue thrills 8. Optimism -not willing to take risks and pursue thrills a. optimistic -tendency of experience positive emotional states and to believe that b. Pessimist positive outcome will be forthcoming from most activities -tendency to experience negative emotional outcomes will be forthcoming from most activities 5. Conscientiousness. This factor refers to a person's reliability. Those with a high degree of conscientiousness are responsible, organized, dependable, and persistent. Those with a low degree of conscientiousness are easily distracted, disorganized, and unreliable. 6. Self-monitoring behavior. This reflects a person's ability to adjust his or her behavior to external, situational or environmental factors. High self-monitors are pragmatic and are capable of putting on different faces for different audiences. Low self- monitors find it hard to act or behave as the situation requires. 7. Risk taking and thrill seeking. These refers to the person's willingness to take risk and pursue thrills that sometimes are required in the workplaces. Some jobs like those of movie stunts are dangerous and will require a high degree of risk taking and thrill- seeking sense. 8. Optimism. This refers to the tendency to experience positive emotional states and to typically believe that positive outcomes will be forthcoming from most activities. This is the opposite of pessimism which is the tendency to experience negative emotional states and to typically believe that negative outcomes will be forthcoming from most activities. 2.3 EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE Positive personality factors in combination with practical intelligence can work wonders for the person and for the most part will be limited only by how far his or her emotions will allow. This provides clue on the importance of managing one's emotions especially in the workplaces. This implies that success in any endeavor requires a certain degree of emotional intelligence. The concept of emotional intelligence or emotional quotient (EQ) was introduced by Daniel Goleman. EQ refers to the ability of the person to accurately perceive, evaluate, express and regulate emotions and feelings. The five components of EQ are the following: IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 20 of 151 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050  1. Self-regulation. This refers to the ability to calm down anxiety, control impulsiveness, and react appropriately to anger. 2. Motivation. This refers to the passion to work for reasons that go beyond money or status. 3. Empathy. This refers to the ability to respond to the unspoken feelings of others. 4. Self-awareness. This refers to the awareness of one's own personality or individuality. 5. Social skills. This refers to the proficiency to manage relationships and building networks. 2.4 MORE ON PHYSICAL ABILITY Most writers of OB limit their discussion of physical ability on traits like stamina, dexterity, and strength. They failed to mention other aspects that make individuals different from each other. This writer feels that the following factors are important in determining the reasons for differences in individual behavior: 1. Sense of sight. People differ in what they actually see. For instance, some persons are color blind. Clearly, these persons will find it difficult to perform jobs that require the ability to distinguish colors. 2. Sense of hearing. People differ in their ability to hear. Some people may not be able to distinguish one tone from another. This alone makes them different from other people in terms of hearing ability. Those considered tone deaf would not be able to perform as singers, musicians, conductors, recording engineers, and the like. 3. Sense of taste. A person's tongue may be sensitive to various tastes and this makes him or her different from another person who is less sensitive to taste. The degrees of taste sensitivity vary from person to person. 4. Sense of smell. People have different degrees of sensitivity to smell. Those with excellent sense of smell would fit in jobs related to the manufacture of perfume, soap, food, and some others. 5. Sense of touch. A person's sense of touch may differ in degree with another person. As such, their behavior will differ when confronted with similar situations. For instance, when five persons are blindfolded, and they are requested to touch an object, some of them may be able to identify correctly the object and some will not. A carpenter needs a fine sense of touch when doing finishing jobs on wood in house construction. Obviously, some people will not qualify in such types of jobs. IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 21 of 151 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050 Chapter 2 Name: ____________________________________________ Activity No. 2 Program/Year: ____________Date Submitted: ___________ I. Fill in the blanks. 1. __________refers to the variation on how people respond to the same situation based on personal characteristics. 2. People are different in terms of demographics, aptitude, and ability and __________. 3. The sources of demographic diversity are gender, generational differences and age, and __________. 4. The dimensions of culture are social and __________. 5. A person's overall abilities consist of physical and _________. 6. __________ is the ability to exert force against external objects. 7. The dimensions of intellectual ability consist of cognitive, social, emotional, and _________. 8. The three parts of intelligence are componential experiential intelligence, and __________. 9. The personality of an individual is a result of both hereditary and __________ factors. 10. __________ is a personality factor that characterizes one as calm, self-confident, and secure. II. Match column A with column B. A _____1. people differ in productivity. _____2. demographics _____3. analytical skills _____4. culture _____5. physical and mental _____6. dynamic flexibility _____7. social intelligence _____8. componential intelligence _____9. naturalist _____10. personality B A. a person's overall abilities B. the learned and shared ways of thinking and acting among a group people. C. the person's ability to relate with others. D. also referred to as analytical intelligence E. persons with this intelligence possess ability to seek patterns the external F. the sum total of ways an individual reacts and interacts G. the ability to make rapid, repeated flexing movements H. a consequence out differences between people I. a reason why people different from each other J. men and women not different along this concern IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 22 of 151 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050  Module 3 Learning, Perfection And Attribution IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 23 of 151 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050  Chapter 3 Learning, Perfection, And Attribution Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of this chapter, the students are expected to: 1. Discuss learning, perception and attribution. 2. Compare and contrast factors influencing perception, and attribution, and the common attribution errors. 3. Describe the shortcuts used in forming impressions of others. Managers of organizations are expected to achieve the goal set forth by higher authorities. The individual workers, in turn, are expected by their respected managers to perform and achieve certain goals assigned to them. However, managers and individual workers operate in environments where other people can seriously affect their own individual performances. This reality brings out in the open the need to understand why people behave as they do. Dealing more effectively with people requires knowledge of the relevant aspects of behavioral change, specifically learning, perception and attribution. Whether the individual, manager or otherwise, will survive or succeed in the organization will depend not only with the proper application of conceptual and technical skills but also human skills which could be enhanced with knowledge of learning, perception, and attribution. 3.1 LEARNING Acquiring a complex set of sophisticated skills is a result of change that comes from learning. An understanding of how people learn is very important because it will help people explain and predict behavior. 3.1.1 What Is Learning? Learning may be defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge due to experience. When a person behaves differently from what he previously did, it can be said that there is change in the person's behavior. With change there is learning. A change in behavior happens due to any or both of the following: 1. Learning; or 2. Other causes such as drugs, injury, disease and maturation. A changed behavior is manifested by outward actions like frequent yawning. IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 24 of 151 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050  DIRECT EXPERIENCE (observation, practice, etc.) LEARNING INDIRECT (reading, watching, movies, etc.) CHANGE IN BEHAVIOR OTHER CAUSES (physical or change of (drugs, injury, knowledge) disease, maturation, etc.) SOCIALLY MISCONDUCT APPROPRIATE BEHAVIOR Fig. 5 Learning and Behavior Behavioral change starts with the mind when it accepts new knowledge. Sometimes, the mind "orders" the body to show some signs of behavior that is different from the previous one. Sometimes, the mind is just plain contented with the new knowledge and do not make attempts to "order" the body to show some outward manifestations of behavior change. Consider the following example: Mr. Leopoldo Amparo read a book about the dangers of smoking. He was convinced that smoking is not good for his health and he decided to quit. His circle of friends liked what he did and they gave him more opportunities for social contacts with them. Obviously, Mr. Amparo's behavior change is a result of an indirect experience, ie, reading books. Two aspects of behavior are apparent in Mr. Amparo's case: knowledge about the bad effects of smoking, and the outward manifestation of quitting smoking. Mr. Amparo had the option of just satisfying himself with the knowledge that smoking is bad, but he considered following up his knowledge with appropriate action. The result was a visible change in his behavior. 3.2 THEORIES OF LEARNING Eminent researchers have developed theories that help explain the learning process. These theories consist of classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning. IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 25 of 151 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050 Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning may be defined as a type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus. A stimulus is something that incites action. An example of stimulus is "demotion in rank". The respond could be "a law suit". An illustration of classical conditioning is provided as follows: When a horse is trained to pull a calesa or carromata, the trainer is confronted with the problem of how to regulate the speed of the horse. The trainer uses a whip to make the horse run faster. Before the trainer strikes the horse with the whip, he taps the wooden part of the rig as a preliminary move. The horse reacts positively whenever a strike is made by a trainer. Later, whenever the trainer taps the wood, the horse reacts quickly without waiting for the whip to perform its function. The reaction of the horse towards the wood tap is called "conditioned response" and the process is called classical conditioning. The application of classical conditioning in the workplace is too important to be ignored. For instance, it was one Monday morning in a typical factory when Mr. Honesto Lumauig was called by the manager to the office and he was asked why his last week's output was very low. All throughout the interview, Mr. Lumauig felt nervous and very uncomfortable. Seven days later, and it was Monday morning again and Honesto begins to feel nervous and uncomfortable. He can hardly concentrate on his job. In this case, the "original stimulus" is the Monday morning when Honesto was confronted by the boss. Honesto's "response" was that he felt nervous and uncomfortable. Any Monday is a "neutral stimulus", but it becomes a "conditioned stimulus" when paired with the original stimulus. When confronted with a "conditioned stimulus", Honesto reacts with a "conditioned response", i.e., he feels nervous and very uncomfortable. ORIGINAL RESPONSE STIMULUS NUETRAL STIMULUS CONDITIONED CONDITIONED RESPONSE STIMULUS Figure 6 IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 26 of 151 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050  OPERANT CONDIONING Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning may be defined as a type of learning where people learn to repeat behaviors that bring them pleasurable outcomes and to avoid behaviors that lead to uncomfortable outcomes. For instance, if an employee receives cash rewards every time he exceeds his assigned targets (e.g., 100 units of tables produced per month), it is very likely that he will repeat such behavior. In the same light, if a salesman who achieves the minimum sales requirement for a given period is allowed to use a company vehicle in his daily rounds, it is also very likely that he will avoid doing something that will reduce his sales output. Both the employee and the salesman have learned to behave through operant conditioning. At this point, a question may be asked: How is classical conditioning different from operant conditioning? Classical conditioning involves adjustment to events (or stimuli, whether conditioned or otherwise) over which the concerned person has no control. In contrast, operant conditioning involves adjustment to situations in which the actions of the person determine what happens to him. Social Learning Social learning may be defined as the process of observing the behavior of others, recognizing its consequences, and altering behavior as a result. One of the ways by which people learn is through social contacts with other people. For instance, an employee pays much attention to his boss, a highly successful person, whenever he speaks or just plain moving around the office. The brief encounters with the boss gave the employee the opportunity to understand and apply some ideas shared by the superior. An example is watching the boss perform the right way to communicate with customers. IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 27 of 151 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050 How Social Learning is Achieved Social learning may be done in three ways namely: 1. by observing what happens to other people; 2. by being told about something; and 3. through direct experience. 3.3 PERCEPTION When an accident happened in the workplace, two persons actually saw it. Later, when both were asked to provide details about the accident, their statements differ in several aspects. How may this discrepancy be explained? The answer is: different perceptions of the same event. When a situation, as in the above case, happens, it will be difficult for the decision maker to make an accurate evaluation of what really transpired, and the quality of his decision is affected. This underscores the importance of knowing the various concepts and theories ascribed to perception. Perception may be defined as the process by which people select, organize, interpret, retrieve, and respond to information from their environment. 3.3.1 FACTORS INFLUENCING PERCEPTION Perception influenced by the characteristics of the following: 1. the perceiver 2. target 3. the Perceiver The Perceiver The person who perceives the target the perceiver. perception the target influenced by factors that are unique him, like the following: 1. his experiences 2. his needs or 3. personality 4. his values and attitudes A person's experiences the past have some bearing current perceptions. For instance, a child who had unpleasant experience with surgeon will not maintain good perception physicians when he grows older. IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 28 of 151 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050 The Target The person, object, or event that is perceived by another person is the target. Perception may be modified by the following factors which are typical characteristics of targets: 1. contrast 2. intensity 3. figure-ground separation 4. size 5. motion 6. repetition or novelty The foregoing characteristics may be briefly described as follows: If during the perception process, the target is situated in a background of contrast, perception is affected. For instance, when a boy is seen with five girls, perception will be different than when he is with five boys. Intensity varies in terms of brightness, color, depth, and sound, and because of these, perception is affected. For instance, a person will be seen differently when the illumination is different form the usual one, say from an incandescent bulb to a bright blue fluorescent bulb. Another example is the singer who is well appreciated by the audience because his voice is projected well by an appropriate sound system. He will not be so regarded when he uses a poor device. The figure and its ground are a factor that may affect visual perception. The figure is the one being looked at, and the ground is the background against which it stands. For IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 29 of 151 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050 example, you saw your best friend speak before a crowd on two occasions: one is when he delivered his piece in an oratorical contest in school and second, when he was speaking before a crowd of rallies situated near Malacañang. Your perception of your friend on those two occasions will differ, thanks to the differences in the nature of the backgrounds. The size of the target is also a factor that may affect perception. Those that are smaller or larger than the average is perceived differently. For instance, it is expected that the farmer who harvested a mango fruit twice the size of the average mango will handle the fruit with a little more concern. Size matters even in the placement of company personnel. A research undertaken some years ago indicates that the taller persons have better chances of promotion. In terms of motion, moving objects are perceived differently from stationary objects. For example, a housewife who is doing her routine buying in the market perceives fish that is aggressively jumping as fresher than the one that is alive but is barely moving. Repetition affects perception. For example, when a person is repeatedly exposed to a particular music, that person gets used to it and chances are, he becomes fond of it. When love at first sight does not work, familiarity may do the trick. The Situation Perception is also affected by the surrounding environment. For example, a person who is enjoying a meal with tribal people in the hinterlands may be well received even if he uses his bare hands. He will be perceived differently when he does the same in the dining halls of the privileged class in the city. IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 30 of 151 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050  The situational factors that affect perception are: time, work setting, and social setting. As people's moods vary from time to time, perception also varies depending on the time the perception is made. Workplaces differ from one another. As such, perception also differs from workplace to workplace. For instance, the playing of soft music may be perceived favorably in a certain workplace but differently regarded in another workplace. The social setting is also a factor in perception. For instance, a person will perceive a Caucasian girl as very pretty when both of them are situated in a remote place in the Philippines. However, when both are situated in a movie studio in Hollywood, U.S.A., the girl will be perceived differently. 3.4 ATTRIBUTION There are other theories that may be useful for a better understanding of human behavior. One of these refers to attribution. Attribution theory is the process by which people ascribe causes to the behavior they perceive. An example is provided as follows: An employee always feels very nervous whenever the office manager calls her to present her weekly report in the manager's office. Her anxiety affects her very much, including the delivery of her report. Her unit supervisor sympathizes with her and would like to help her overcome her fears. The supervisor started to monitor her moves so he can determine the reason for her behavior. The supervisor is clearly adapting the attribution theory to help her subordinate. 3.4.1 COMMON ATTRIBUTION ERRORS When people make attempts to determine the causes of other people's behavior, errors commonly happen. These errors may be classified into the following types: 1. the fundamental attribution errors, and 2. the self-serving bias. The fundamental attribution errors refer to the tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal or personal factors in the behavior of others. For instance, the area manager of a retailing firm blames one of the store managers for failing to attract a sufficient number of customers rather than the poor location of the store. The self-serving bias is that type of attribution error whereby people tend to attribute their achievements to their good inner qualities, whereas they attribute their failures to adverse factors within the environment. An illustration is provided as follows: Dr. C. Agao is an employee of a state university. He and his superior are members of a fraternity. This relationship became a major factor in his recent promotion. When pressed by his colleagues for a comment on his promotion, he declared that he thinks he is better qualified than the others. Within the span of five years, Dr. Agao failed miserably in his job. When his superior was replaced, he was demoted. Dr. Agao blames his co-employees. IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 31 of 151 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050  3.4.2 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE ATTRIBUTION When people try to determine the cause of a person's behavior, etc., whether the cause is internal or external, some factors influence such effort. The factors refer to the following: 1. distinctiveness 2. consensus 3. consistency Distinctiveness The consideration given to how consistent a person's behavior is across different situations is referred to as distinctiveness. An example is provided as follows: Mr. Nick Cargada was recently hired by the university as driver. When he was asked to deliver a letter to someone in a nearby barangay, he used the school's motorcycle. Along the way he hit a stray dog. The next day, he was ordered to fetch five professors who attended a seminar in a nearby town. This time, he used the school's newly purchased van. On the way back, he hit a carabao resting on the right side of the road. On the third day, he was directed to transport 50 student athletes to participate in a competition at a nearby province. The university bus was filled to capacity when he started driving. The bus was not yet ten kilometers from the university when it bumped an old man along the road. Mr. Cargada's performance was declared disgusting and his co employees attributed it to an internal cause, i.e., his personality. Consensus This refers to the likelihood that all those facing the same situation will have similar responses. For instance, if Mr. D. Ocleng and the other five employees in his unit failed to arrive in time, Mr. Ocleng's late arrival will be attributed to an external factor. Consistency This refers to the measure of whether an individual responds the same way across time. For example, Mr. D. Ocleng's performance in his previous assignments was declared unsatisfactory First, when he was given the job as records clerk in the registrar's office of the university, he made a considerable number of wrong entries in the students' records. Second, when he was assigned as typist in the accounting office, he made incorrect entries in a number of checks he was processing. Third, when he was transferred to the supply office as inventory clerk, he failed to record a number of incoming stocks. Based on Mr. Ocleng's behavior in the above-mentioned he was declared a consistent incompetent by his superiors. 3.5 SHORTCUTS USED IN FORMING IMPRESSIONS OF OTHERS For whatever reason, we form impressions of others. Those impressions constitute a database in our minds that we later use as aides in making decisions concerning others. For instance, Andres will not confide secrets to Pedro if Andres consider Pedro as a gossip. IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 32 of 151 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050  People's perceptions may or may not be accurate, but accuracy. is not a serious concern when opinions are found. Most often, people are not even aware that they are already judging others. Making sure that impressions of others are accurate is taxing and burdensome. It is impractical to collect through observation or otherwise information about a person covering many aspects of his activities. And so, people end up making shortcuts. Most often, these shortcuts produce misleading conclusions and this should serve as a warning to people who make use of these shortcuts. The shortcuts refer to the following: 1. selective perception 2. halo effect 3. contrast effects 4. projection 5. stereotyping Selective Perception Selective perception happens when a person selectively interprets what he sees on the basis of his interests, background, experience, and attitudes. It is impossible for a person to assimilate everything he sees, hears, smells, touches, or tastes. Only a limited number of stimuli can be taken in. As a result, people engage in selective perception, but the process is affected by personal interests, background, experience, and i attitude of the perceiver. For example, if a person had an unpleasant experience with food in a Thai restaurant, it will not be hard for him to perceive Thai people negatively. Another example may be cited as follows: When he was a teenager, Mr. Ocleng was mugged by dark- skinned persons. When he grew older, he found it difficult to relate with co- employees who are dark-skinned. His past experience would not allow him to make a positive impression of those kinds of people. Of course, it is wrong to judge people with insufficient information. Halo Effect Halo effect occurs when one attribute of a person or situation is used to develop an overall impression of the person or situation. For instance, a brilliant criminal lawyer may also be perceived by many to be also brilliant when he engages in selling real estate. "Halo" refers to that ring of light just above the head of a saint as we see it in pictures or paintings. The "halo" signifies that everything about the saint is holy. A person's outstanding achievement in one area may serve as his "halo and he may be perceived as outstanding in other endeavors as well. Of course, this is not IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 33 of 151 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050 always true. A person who is good at selling must not be perceived outright as also good in training, recruiting, and collecting accounts. Even if the perception process is slow, it is still wrong if it is tainted with the halo effect. Contrast Effects A beautiful lady may be declared as the third prettiest in a certain place, but she could be number one in another place. A job applicant may be rated very well in an interview because mediocre applicants were interviewed before him. The same applicant may be rated "poor" when he is preceded by bright ones in the interview. Contrasting situations, oftentimes, lead to inaccurate evaluation of a person's character and ability. With the examples cited above, contrast effects may be defined as evaluations of a person's characteristics that are affected by comparisons with other people recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics. Projection Projection is attributing one's own thoughts, feelings, or motives to another. It is likely to occur in the interpretation stage of perception. An example is the manager who is motivated to work mainly by the pay he collects each fortnight. He thinks that his subordinates share the same motivation, so whenever he had the chance to talk with his boss, he mentions the need to increase the salaries of people working in his unit. The manager is actually projecting his needs to his subordinates and his actions are inappropriate. His subordinates really need the money but not as the main reason for working. Stereotyping Stereotyping refers to judging someone on the basis of one's perception of the group to which that person belongs. For instance, a manager may think that older people are no longer productive. Based on that belief, he declined the job application of a 60-year-old person. The basis for the decision is unfair because he thinks that the applicant is a stereotype of what he believes. It may be true that many older people are no longer fit to work, but not all of them. The hiring of older persons by big retailing firms to entertain customers is proof of the ability of some older persons. IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 34 of 151 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050 Chapter 3 Name: ____________________________________________ Activity No. 3 Program/Year: ____________Date Submitted: ___________ I. Fill in the blanks. 1. A change in behavior due to __________ causes such as drugs, injury, disease, and maturation. 2. A __________ is something that incites action. 3. __________ is a type of learning where people learn to repeat behaviors that bring them pleasurable outcomes and to avoid behaviors that lead to uncomfortable outcomes. 4. Social learning may be achieved by observing what happens to other people, or by being told about something, or __________. 5. __________ is the process by which people select, organize, interpret, retrieve, and respond to information from their environment. 6. The person, object, or event that is perceived by another person is __________. 7. The situational factor that affects perception is time, work setting, and __________. 8. __________ is the process by which people ascribe causes to the behavior they perceive. 9. Common attribution errors consist of the fundamental attribution error, and __________. 10. _________ is attributing one's own thoughts, feelings, or motives to another. II. Match column A with column B. A _____1. Learning _____2. Social learning _____3. Perceiver _____4. Motion _____5. Work setting. _____6. Self-serving bias _____7. Consistency _____8. Selective perception _____9. Projection _____10. Stereotyping B A. judging someone on the basis of one's perception of the group to which that person belongs B. attributing one's own thoughts, feelings, or motives to another C. a shortcut used in forming impressions of others D. factor that influences attribution E. a common attribution error F. a situational factor that affects perception G. typical characteristic of targets H. the person who perceives the target I. observing the behavior of others J. change in behavior IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 35 of 151 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050  Module 4 Values, Attitudes and Job Satisfaction IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 36 of 151 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050  Chapter 4 Values, Attitudes, And Job Satisfaction Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of this chapter, the students are expected to: 1. Describe what is values, how people learn it and its types. 2. Compare and contrast individual and organizational values, espoused and enacted values, and instrumental and terminal values A company which advertises that its milk products come from contented cows implies that the products are of good quality. It is easy to understand the logic behind it. In the same light, when someone says "workers who are satisfied with their jobs tend to produce quality outputs," it is also easy to understand why it is so. Job satisfaction is an important concern for both employer and employee. This is so because of the benefits it brings to both. This chapter is an attempt to explain job satisfaction and the various concerns that make it happen, such as values and attitudes. Values generally influence attitudes and behavior. In turn attitudes form the basis for determining how satisfied people are with their jobs. 4.1 VALUES Values refer to the importance a person attaches to things ideas that serves as guide to action. Values are enduring beliefs the one’s mode of conduct is better than the opposite mode of conduct. An example of a belief is the importance placed by a person on academic titles or degrees and the doubt casted on the ability of person without sufficient academic qualifications. IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 37 of 151 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050  The definition implies that values are made of a set of beliefs. Values may be attached to things or ideas like loyalty (to the company or friends), teamwork, honor, obedience, honesty, and the like. 4.1.1 HOW PEOPLE LEARN VALUES ? Values are not inborn, they are learned. As they grow, people learn values through any or all of the following: 1. modeling 2. communication of attitudes 3. unstated but implied attitudes 4. religion Modeling Parents, teachers, friends, and other people oftentimes become models to persons who would later exhibit good behavior in t workplace. For instance, a person who worked as a mechanic for many years in his own yard was a stickler for cleanliness and getting up early to work. He saw to it that his customers were happy with t service he provided, and he never charged them with unreasonable service fees. His son saw him in action almost everyday. The son did not notice that he was slowly imitating the good work ethic of his father. It is no wonder that he behaves much like his father when he is doing his work as a mechanic in a large automotive sales and service firm. Communication of Attitudes One of the ways in which values are learned is through communication of attitudes. When a person often hears for acquaintances the risk of buying products imported from a certain country, the person may develop negative values about that country. Unstated but Implied Attitudes Values may also be affected by attitudes that are not stated but are implied by way of action. For instance, if a person sees joy and happiness in every member of his family whenever another member graduates from college, the person will develop the values impliedly exhibited. Religion Values are also learned through religion. For example, the just and fair treatment of people is a value that is taught by priests and ministers of various religious sects. Persons who are exposed to the teachings develop values that support such beliefs. 4.1.2 TYPES OF VALUES Values may be classified in various ways. A classification that is most relevant to the workplace indicates that values are of the following types: 1. Achievement - this is a value that pertains to getting things done and working hard to accomplish goals; IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 38 of 151 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050  2. Helping and concern for others this value refers to the person's concern with other people and providing assistance to those who need help; 3. Honesty - this is a value that indicates the person's concern for telling the truth and doing what he thinks is right; and 4. Fairness - this is a value that indicates the person's concern for impartiality and fairness for all concerned. 4.1.3 INDIVIDUAL VERSUS ORGANIZATIONAL VALUES Organizations have values that may or may not be compatible with the values of the individual workers. There is value incongruence if the individual's value is not in agreement with the organization's value. As a result of such incongruence, conflicts may arise over such things as goals or the manner in which the goals will be achieved. For instance, a person who values honesty will find it hard to work in an organization where graft and corruption is a common practice. If the person stays in that environment, he will be susceptible to experience the difficulty of “person-role conflict" which may be briefly described as the condition that occurs when the demands made by the organization or a manager clash with the basic values of the individual. 4.1.4 ESPOUSED VERSUS ENACTED VALUES What the company promotes as its own values may be different from what is practiced by the organization's individual members. As such, values may be classified as either (1) espoused, or (2) enacted values. Espoused values are what members of the organization say they value. A business organization, for instance, may state that it highly IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 39 of 151 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050 values its good relationship with customers. However, if the employees of the said company give priority to calls from relatives and friends rather than responding immediately to customer's inquiries, they are not actually practicing the values espoused by the company. Those that are reflected in the actual behavior of the individual members of the organization are referred to as enacted values. 4.1.5 INSTRUMENTAL AND TERMINAL VALUES Another classification of values may be presented as follows: 1. 2. terminal values, and instrumental values Terminal values represent the goals that a person would like to achieve in his or her lifetime. Examples of terminal values are happiness, love, pleasure, self-respect, and freedom. Instrumental values refer to preferable modes of behavior or means of achieving the terminal values. Examples of instrumental values are ambition, honesty, self-sufficiency, and \courageousness. INSTRUMENTAL TERMINAL VALUES VALUES ambition happiness honesty pleasure self-sufficiency self-respect courage freedom forgiving nature world peace helpfulness equality self-control achievement independence inner peace obedience beauty in art and nature open-mindedness family security cleanliness salvation affection/love friendship politeness mature love rationality wisdom responsibility prosperity competence national security cheerfulness social respect intelligence exciting, active life imagination Fig. 12 Instrumental and Terminal Values 4.2 ATTITUDES Attitudes are important in the study of human behavior. This is so because they are linked with perception, learning, emotions, and motivation. Attitudes also form the basis for job satisfaction in the workplace. Attitudes are feelings and beliefs that largely determine how employees will perceive their environment, commit themselves to intended actions, and ultimately behave. Attitudes reflect how one feels about something. For instance, a person may think working over- time is necessary if the situation requires it, or may consider work as an important ingredient of one's physical and mental well-being. 4.2.1 THE MAIN COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDES Attitudes consist of the following components: IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 40 of 151 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050  1. cognitive 2. affective 3. behavioral The cognitive component of an attitude refers to the opinion or belief segment of an attitude. An example is the opinion indicated in the statement "my boss is fickle- minded; he cannot stick to his decision." 4.2.2 DIFFERENCES IN PERSONAL DISPOSITION People differ in their personal disposition. Some have attitudes that are positively affective, while some have negatively affective attitudes. Positive affectivity refers to personal characteristic of employees that inclines them to be predisposed to be satisfied at work. People who have positive affectivity are optimistic, upbeat, cheerful, and courteous. Negative affectivity is a personal characteristic of employee that inclines them to be predisposed to be dissatisfied at work. People who have negative affectivity are generally pessimistic, downbeat irritable, and sometimes, abrasive. Managers and supervisors will benefit from knowing the persona disposition of their subordinates. Their decisions regarding training, hiring, and promotion could be made better. IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 41 of 151 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050  4.2.3 HOW ATTITUDES ARE FORMED Attitudes are formed through learning. The two methods that mostly influence attitude formation are direct experience and indirect means of social learning. Among the information stored in the huma mind, those that were gathered through direct experience are t most accessible. So, if one had an unpleasant experience with another person, his attitude regarding that person would be negative regardless of any other information obtained from indirect means. Although indirect means affect the formation of attitudes, their influence is r as strong as direct experience. Attitudes that are formed in an indirect way are the result of soc interactions with the family, peer groups, religious organizations, a culture. For instance, if parents behave in a manner showing disdain towards smokers, the children will have a strong tendency to adapt attitude of indifference towards smokers. 4.2.4 MOST IMPORTANT ATTITUDES IN THE WORKPLACE Work behavior is of utmost importance to managers superiors. Since work attitudes affect work behavior, the requisite concerns are focused on them. The most important attitudes in the workplace are: 1. job satisfaction; 2. job involvement; and 3. organizational commitment. 4.2.5 EFFECTS OF EMPLOYEE ATTITUDES Attitudes provide clues to the behavioral intentions or inclinations of an employee. The manner in which a person will act can be gleaned from his attitudes. Employee attitudes may be classified as either: 1. positive job attitudes; or 2. negative job attitudes. IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 42 of 151 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050  Positive job attitudes indicate job satisfaction and are useful in predicting constructive behaviors like serving customers beyond official working hours, and performing excellently in all aspects of their jobs. An example of a positive job attitude is "I enjoy wearing my office uniform." Negative job attitudes are also useful in predicting undesirable behavior. Negative job attitudes include those concerning job dissatisfaction, lack of job involvement, low commitment to the organization, and strong negative words like "the office assigned to me does not speak well of my position." When employees are dissatisfied with their jobs, they will have a strong tendency to engage in any or all of the following: 1. psychological withdrawal like daydreaming on the job; 2. physical withdrawal like unauthorized absences, early departures, extended breaks, or work slowdowns; and 3. aggression, like verbal abuse or dangerous actions against another employee. 4.2.6 MAKING POSITIVE ATTITUDES WORK FOR THE ORGANIZATION People with positive work attitudes make it easy for the organization to achieve its objectives. As such, recruitment officers must require positive work attitudes before IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 43 of 151 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050 employment offers are made. Those who are already employed by the organization but whose attitudes are negative must be made to participate or become beneficiaries of programs designed to change negative work attitudes of employees to positive work attitudes. In the process of recruiting people to fill the various job vacancies in the organization, proven methods of selection must be made. Applicants found to have positive work attitudes should be considered for hiring if other job requirements are met. There are various ways of changing employee attitudes. One is making the reward system closely tied to individual or team performance. 4.3 JOB SATISFACTION The attitude people have about their jobs is called job satisfaction. In a strict sense, however, job satisfaction refers to the positive feeling about one's job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics. When the feeling about one's job is not positive, the appropriate term is job dissatisfaction. When people are satisfied with their jobs, the following benefits become possible: 1. high productivity 2. a stronger tendency to achieve customer loyalty 3. loyalty to the company 4. low absenteeism and turnover 5. less job stress and burnout 6. better safety performance 7. better life satisfaction 4.3.1 FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH JOB SATISFACTION There are certain factors associated with job satisfaction. They are the following: 1. Salary-adequacy of salary and perceived equity compared with others; 2. Work itself - the extent to which job tasks are considered interesting and provide opportunities for learning and accepting responsibility; 3. Promotion opportunity - chances for further advancement; 4. Quality of supervision - the technical competence and the interpersonal skills of one's immediate superior; 5. Relationship with co-workers - the extent to which co- workers are friendly, competent, and supportive; 6. Working conditions-the extent to which the physical work environment is comfortable and supportive of productivity; and 7. Job security- the beliefs that one's position is relatively secure and continued employment with the organization is a reasonable expectation. 4.3.2 WAYS OF MEASURING JOB SATISFACTION Job Satisfaction may be measured by using any of the following approaches: IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 44 of 151 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050  1. the single global rating method; and 2. the summation score method. The single global rating method refers to that approach where individuals are asked to respond to a single question, such as, "How satisfied are you with your job?" The respondents indicate their answers by putting a check (V) before any of the numbers from 5 to 1 as indicated below: __________1. highly satisfied __________2. moderately satisfied __________3. indifferent __________4. moderately dissatisfied __________5. highly dissatisfied The summation score method is an approach where individuals indicate their feelings regarding each key factors of their job. The factors would normally consist of the work, supervision, current salary, promotion opportunities, and relations with co- workers. A standard scale is used to rate the factors and then the overall job satisfaction score is derived. An illustration of the summation score method is provided below. Exhibit 1 A SAMPLE QUESTIONNAIRE FOR THE SUMMATION SCORE METHOD OF JOB SATISFACTION Please indicate on the blanks provided below how satisfied you are (in terms of percentage) in each of the following factors of your job: __________% 1. work itself __________% 2. salary (or pay) __________% 3. promotion opportunities __________% 4. supervision __________% 5. co-workers Note: To be filled by the enumerator: ________% overall percentage score 4.4 JOB INVOLVEMENT Job involvement is another positive employee attitude. It refers to the degree to which a person identifies with the job, actively participates in it, and considers performance important to self-worth. People who are really "involved" in their jobs view work as a central part of their overall lives. A positive self-image is a result of a person's holding a meaningful job and actively performing it. IM 412|Human Behavior in Organization Page 45 of 151 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050  People with a high degree of job involvement will seldom be late or absent. They are willing to work long hours if necessary, and they will strive to be high performers. 4.5 ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT Organizational commitment is the third positive employee attitude. It refers to the degree to which an employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals and wishes to maintain membership in the organization. Organizational commitment often reflects the employee's belief in the mission and goals of the organization, willingness to expend effort in accomplishing them, and intentions to continue working in the organization. Employees who are organizationally committed have good attendance records, show willingness to adhere to the firm's policies, and lower turnover rates. Organizational commitment may be categorized into three dimensions. They are as follows: 1. affective commitment; 2. continuance commitment; and 3. normative commitment. Affective commitment refers to the employee's emotional attachment to the organization and belief in its values. For example, an employee may be affectively committed to his company because of its employment policy of hiring people regardless of their educational attainment. Continuance commitment refers to the employee's tendency to remain in an organization because he cannot afford to leave. In fact, many employees continue to