Hydromet Reviewer (jojo).pdf

0.4% water vapor Reviewer: ABE 137 -jojo - The Argon (Ar): < 1%. Greenhouse Effect & Global Carbon Dioxide (CO2): 0.036% but crucial in regulating t...

0.4% water vapor Reviewer: ABE 137 -jojo - The Argon (Ar): < 1%. Greenhouse Effect & Global Carbon Dioxide (CO2): 0.036% but crucial in regulating temperature. Warming Other trace gases include methane, 1. Structure of the Atmosphere nitrous oxide, and ozone.Ne, He, Kr, H, O3 The atmosphere is multi-layered with little chemical interaction. 3. The Greenhouse Effect 50% of the atmosphere's mass is The Earth’s surface receives energy within 6 km of the surface. from the sun and the atmosphere. Atmospheric Pressure Decreases Greenhouse gases (GHGs) allow With Height shortwave radiation to pass through Most of the energy is captured close but trap longwave radiation, warming to the surface, That energy drives the Earth by around 33°C. climate and weather Thus the atmosphere stores Layers of the atmosphere (from energy lowest to highest): Without the greenhouse effect, the ○ Troposphere: Contains most Earth would be much colder. clouds and weather phenomena. ○ Stratosphere: Contains the 4. Greenhouse Gases ozone layer. ○ Mesosphere: Temperature CO2: Released from fossil fuel decreases with height. burning and deforestation; increased ○ Thermosphere/Ionosphere: by 30%. UV rays and cosmic rays Methane (CH4): Released from rice affect this region. cultivation, livestock, and landfills; ○ Exosphere: The outermost increased by 145%. layer where atmosphere Nitrous Oxide (N2O): Comes from transitions into space. agriculture and industry; increased by 15%. 2. Composition of the Atmosphere What is the chemical structure of the 5. Global Warming atmosphere? Global Warming refers to the rise in nitrogen by far the most common Earth's surface temperature due to element the increase in greenhouse gases. oxygen is second most common Enhanced Greenhouse Effect is greenhouse gasses are small in the result of increased GHGs which amount, but important! amplify the natural greenhouse Nitrogen (N2): 78% of the effect, leading to global warming. atmosphere. Oxygen (O2): 20.6%. 6. Possible Causes of Global Warming  Orbital Changes: Shifts in Earth's ○ Cumulus: Puffy clouds that orbit can affect climate. resemble cotton or Atmospheric Composition: cauliflower. Changes in the concentration of ○ Stratus: Uniform light or dark GHGs. grey clouds covering most of Ocean Circulation: Alterations in the sky; fog is a type of the transfer of heat in the oceans. stratus cloud. Sunspot Activity: Changes in solar ○ Stratocumulus: Irregular radiation. rolling or puffy clouds with Reflectivity (Albedo): Changes in occasional gaps between Earth's surface reflectivity, especially them. due to ice and snow cover. ○ Nimbostratus: Dark grey clouds at low to middle Reviewer: ABE 137 - Cloud Types altitudes that produce precipitation. The cloud base Cloud Classification may be hard to see due to rain. Clouds are classified based on their altitude: Special Cloud Type 1. High Altitude Clouds (Prefix: "cirro-") Cumulonimbus: Large, towering ○ Cirrocumulus: High clouds clouds with dark bases, often with a puffy, patchy accompanied by thunderstorms. appearance, often forming They can have an anvil shape. wave-like patterns. ○ Cirrostratus: Light grey or Reviewer: ABE 137 - Acid Rain and white thin clouds covering Eutrophication most of the sky, with the sun or moon visible through 1. What is Acid Rain? them. ○ Cirrus: Thin, wispy, and Acid rain refers to rain that has feathery clouds made of ice been made acidic by pollutants in crystals. the air, mainly sulfur dioxide (SO₂) 2. Medium Altitude Clouds (Prefix: and nitrogen oxides (NOₓ). "alto-") It occurs when gases react with ○ Altocumulus: Puffy, patchy water, oxygen, and other chemicals clouds with spaces between in the atmosphere to form acidic them, usually found at compounds. mid-level altitudes. Acid rain includes both wet ○ Altostratus: Light grey and deposition (rain, snow) and dry uniform clouds that cover deposition (acid particles/gases most of the sky. sticking to surfaces without 3. Low Altitude Clouds (Prefix: precipitation). "strato-")  Wet deposition 4. Effects of Acid Rain Wet deposition refers to the process by which acidic pollutants are Increases acidity of soils, affecting removed from the atmosphere plant life. through precipitation (such as rain, Acidifies rivers, lakes, and seas, snow, fog, or sleet). destroying their chemical balance. Dry deposition Erodes buildings and monuments -deposition in the absence of made from limestone. precipitation. 5. Eutrophication Responsible for as much as 20 to 60% of total acid deposition. This Eutrophication is the increase in occurs when particles and gases primary productivity in ecosystems stick to the ground, plants or other due to an increase in nutrients surfaces. (mainly nitrogen and phosphorus). This process can occur on land or in 2. Chemical Reactions Leading to Acid water. Rain It often leads to excessive plant growth (e.g., algal blooms) and hydrolyses decreases water quality. -favors certain weedy species over Sulfur dioxide (SO₂) reacts with others water: Ecological Impacts: SO₂ + H₂O ⇌ H⁺ + HSO₃⁻ ⇌ H⁺ + ○ Decreased biodiversity. SO₃²⁻ ○ Changes in species Nitrogen oxides (NO and NO₂) composition. react with water to form nitric acid: ○ Toxicity effects and reduced 2 NO₂ + H₂O ⇌ HNO₂ + HNO₃ water quality. 2 NO + H₂O ⇌ 2 HNO₃ Reviewer: ABE 137: Atmospheric Optical Phenomena 3. Causes of Acid Rain. Introduction to Atmospheric Optics Human Activity: Burning of fossil All atmospheric optical phenomena fuels (oil, gas, coal) releases SO₂ occur when sunlight is obstructed. and oil and petrol in motor vehicles Sunlight can be scattered, reflected, releases NOₓ. refracted, diffracted, or absorbed, Natural Causes: leading to various optical ○ Emissions from volcanoes. phenomena. ○ Biological processes on land, Scattered wetlands, and oceans (e.g., when it passes microscopic particles dimethyl sulfide from such as aerosol particles or even air oceans). molecules  Reflected from the surface of larger diffraction by tiny water particles such as raindrops and ice droplets in clouds. crystals. ○ The smaller the droplets, the Refracted (bent) gradually as it larger and more colorful the travels through the atmosphere, or corona. abruptly as it passes between water ○ Cloud Type and Coronas and air. -Wave Clouds:produce the Diffracted into a field of patterned most spectacular waves as it skirts around tiny cloud coronas.because the droplets. droplets in wave clouds are Finally, it can be absorbed by almost uniform in size, matter and extinguished. allowing the diffraction of light 2. Key Atmospheric Optical Phenomena: -Convective Clouds: 1. Rainbows Rarely produce beautiful ○ Occur when sunlight shines coronas ,-the size of water on water droplets, producing droplets varies significantly, a spectrum of light. which disrupts the formation ○ Primary rainbows have red of clear and vibrant corona on the outer edge and violet patterns. on the inner side. ○ Secondary rainbows are less 4. Glories or Brocken Specter bright with reversed colors. ○ Circular rings around the with the dark band observer’s shadow, seen on (Alexander’s Band) clouds or fog. between the bows. ○ Caused by diffraction of light ○ Often form when light is in small, uniformly sized refracted, reflected, and water droplets. dispersed through water 5. Auroras droplets. ○ Bright displays in polar ○ Rainbows may also form in regions caused by the mist, such as that of a interaction of solar particles waterfall with Earth's magnetic field. 2. Halos ○ Aurora Borealis (Northern ○ Rings of light around the sun Lights) or moon caused by reflection ○ Aurora Australis (Southern or refraction of light through Lights). ice crystals. 6. Mirages ○ Most common is the 22° ○ Optical illusions caused by halo. the refraction of light in layers 3. Coronas of air with different ○ Small, colored rings around temperatures, creating the sun or moon due to displaced images of distant objects. 7. Crepuscular Rays ○ clouds in the winter polar ○ Sunlight rays streaming stratosphere at altitudes of through gaps in clouds, 15,000–25,000 metres appearing to radiate from a (50,000–80,000 ft). single point. ○ Their effects on ozone 8. Green Flash depletion arise because they ○ A rare phenomenon seen support chemical reactions just after sunset or right that produce active chlorine before sunrise, caused by which catalyzes ozone the refraction of sunlight destruction, through the atmosphere. ○ they remove gaseous nitric 9. St. Elmo's Fire acid, perturbing nitrogen and ○ A bright glow appearing on chlorine cycles which pointed objects during increases ozone destruction thunderstorms, caused by 14. Lightning ionization in the air. ○ Is an atmospheric discharge 10. Will-o’-the wisp or Jack o’ Lantern of electricity, which usually, or Fool’s Fire but not always, occurs during ○ Refers to the ghostly lights rain storms, and frequently sometimes seen at night or during volcanic eruptions or twilight that hover over damp dust storms ground in still air. It looks like ○ Cloud to cloud lightning a flickering lamp, and is ○ Rocket lightning sometimes said to recede if ○ Cloud to ground lightning approached. ○ Volcanic-triggered lightning 11. Sundogs (Parhelia)/Mock Suns ○ Bright spots appearing on Reviewer: ABE 137: Meteorology either side of the sun, caused and Climatology by sunlight being refracted by ice crystals in the 1. Meteorology and Climatology atmosphere. 12. Noctilucent Cloud or Polar Meteorology: Study of the Earth's Mesopheric Clouds atmosphere and atmospheric ○ bright cloudlike atmospheric processes. phenomena visible in a deep twilight. Branches of Meteorology ○ "night shining" in Latin -Dynamic Meteorology: study of winds and ○ observed in the summer weather patterns and the forces that months at latitudes between produce them. 50° and 70° north and south -Physical Meteorology: use of radar and of the equator satellites 1. and the study of the 13. Nacreous Clouds or Polar phenomeneon precipitations, pollution, etc. Stratospheric Clouds -Synoptic Meteorology: study of day-to-day weather ○ Earth's declination, rotation, and revolution affect radiation, land temperature, Climatology: A branch of day length, and tides. meteorology focusing on the ○ Solstice: Sun is farthest from long-term atmospheric conditions the Earth. averaged over time. ○ Equinox: Day and night are equal as the sun is directly 2. Weather vs. Climate overhead. 2. Land and Water Masses: Weather: Refers to short-term ○ Land heats and cools faster atmospheric conditions (hours to than water. days), including temperature, ○ Oceans moderate humidity, wind, and precipitation. temperature changes due to Climate: Describes long-term their higher heat capacity weather patterns in a region, and deeper penetration of generally averaged over decades. sunlight. 3. Kinds of Climate 3. Surface Features of the Land (Terrain): 1. Macroclimate: Covers large regions ○ Mountains, valleys, and other of the Earth's surface (e.g., landforms influence local continents). weather patterns, cloud 2. Mesoclimate: Refers to localized formation, and precipitation. areas, such as valleys, basins, or ○ Temperature decreases urban areas. 100C per 1,000 m increase 3. Microclimate: Pertains to small, in elevation. localized zones, such as a garden or ○ Formation of clouds and plant surroundings. precipitation in the windward side of the mountain ranges. 4. Atmospheric Parameters 4. Wind Systems and Pressure Belts: Temperature ○ The global circulation of air, Pressure influenced by high and Air density low-pressure belts, drives the Wind speed and direction development of wind patterns Humidity and weather disturbances. PV=nRT 1. Position of the earth Insolation – incoming sunlight 5. Major Factors Affecting Terrestrial Albedo – fraction of the incident Climate radiation that is reflected by an object 1. Position of the Earth: An average of 1/3 (34%) of the isolation is reflected back,  19% absorbed by the atmosphere 2. Land and water masses and 47% absorbed by the earth’s -Land surfaces are heated or cooled by surface. changes in radiation to much greater degree Common albedo values: and more rapidly than ocean snow = 0.81 clouds = 0.17-0.81 Radiation penetrates water more forests = 0.03-0.10 than in soil, dark dry sand = 0 – 0.18 Turbulence mixes heat through the upper 100 m of the ocean Water has greater heat capacity than soil,. Solstice and Equinox. Almost half the heat falling on water is used in the evaporation Solstice – the period when the sun is farthest from the earth (δ=23.450 ) Monsoon Equinox – sun’s position makes day and night equal – arge-scale, seasonal version of the - sun is directly above the observer diurnal sea/land breeze that occurs (δ=0) along many coast, especially Arabian Sea and Indian Ocean 6. Winds and Pressure Systems Trade Winds (Tropical Easterlies): Winds blowing from subtropical highs to the equatorial lows. Prevailing Westerlies: Winds flowing from the subtropical highs Spring Tide toward the poles. Monsoon Winds: Seasonal winds Stronger high and low tides that change direction based on During new and full moon pressure gradients. Moon’s pull is supplemented or Jet Stream: High-speed air currents offset by sun’s gravity. found in the upper atmosphere. Neap Tide 7. Clouds and Precipitation Smaller high and low tides Cumulus Clouds: Fair-weather Moon is in the 1st and 3 rd quarter clouds resembling fluffy cotton. (forms 900with the sun) -They may change to nimbo-stratus Moon’s pull is stronger but the sun’s if wind is blowing from NE to S. gravity lessens it  Stratus Clouds: Low, featureless Trade Winds (Tropical Easterlies) clouds that can create fog when -blow from the horse latitudes touching the ground. (30°-35° N and S) toward the Cirrus Clouds: Wispy clouds made doldrums near the equator. of ice crystals. ‘Mare’s tail’. -Average speed: 10-16 knots Nimbus Clouds: Rain-producing -strongest over the Atlantic and clouds, including Pacific Oceans, where they are less Cumulonimbus, which are affected by continental pressure responsible for thunderstorms. variations. Prevailing Westerlies - Wind Wind system and pressure belts (general system from the subtropical high circulation of the atmosphere) pressure belt directed poleward, southwesterly or westerly due to the Coriolis Effect - additional force or Coriolis Effect. acceleration acting on the motion of bodies Monsoon Winds - Winds whose in a rotating system of reference direction reverses with the season, requiring a reversal of the pressure Planetary Pressure Belts gradient. The Equatorial Calms Jet Stream - Narrow, fast-moving air (Doldrums)-a belt of low pressure (50-300 mph.)currents in the upper surrounding the earth in the atmosphere, flowing from west to equatorial zone (10o N and 10o S) east. Belts of Subtropical Calms (Horse -Found at altitudes above 10,000 Latitudes) – Characterized by very feet, between 30° to 60° latitude. light winds or calms but high Subtropical Jet Stream: Located pressure (also called subtropical around 30° latitude. highs) (30o ~ 35o N and S) Polar Front Jet Stream: Found Sub-Polar Low Pressure Belts - around 60° latitude. Characterized by low pressure, Gulf Stream - A powerful and stormy, variable winds associated enormous ocean current that flows with traveling cyclone (50o ~ 55o N up the eastern edge of North and S) America and branching into two Polar High Pressure Belts - High separate streams toward pressure areas over both polar Scandinavia and Southern Europe. regions with intensities and location It develops when the sun heats the of centers known to shift nod rarely earth unevenly, giving more warmth on the center of the geographic at the equator than at the poles. As poles. the warmer wind moves toward the poles, it creates prevailing winds that Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) - can affect ocean movement. Low pressure area around equator where prevailing winds are calm. 8. Fronts and Cyclones Planetary Wind Systems: Fronts - are air-mass boundaries that lie november to april wet during the along line of low pressure rest of the year Type IV - rainfall Is more or less Cold Front: Cold air advances, evenly distributed through the causing warm air to retreat. year Warm Front: Warm air advances, pushing cold air away. Cyclone/Typhoon/Hurricane - storm in a Occluded Front: A mix of warm and region of low surface pressures cold fronts. Stationary Front- temporarily fixed Development of Tropical Cyclone: boundary between polar and tropical air masses Tropical Disturbance Tropical Cyclones (Typhoons, Tropical Depression – 38-62 kph Hurricanes, Cyclones): Tropical Storm – 63-87 kph ○ Large, rotating storms with Severe Tropical storm – 88-120 strong winds and heavy rain. kph ○ Develop from tropical Tropical cyclone/typhoons – winds disturbances and can velocity 121-240 kph escalate to typhoons or - are large rotating storms ranging hurricanes with wind speeds from 100-1,600 km in diameter and up to 240 kph. accompanied by violent, destructive winds, heavy rains, and high tide Philippine Climate is based on the Supertyphoon – sustained winds of Modified Coronas Classification at least 240 kph based on amount, distribution and Eye of the Typhoon: patterns of rainfall and humidity - essentially two distinct seasons: Dry Lowest barometric pressure (15% and Wet less than pressure outside the Dry month: ˂ 50 mm rainfall : ˂ 100 storm) mm rainfall after 3 or more surrounded by a ring of towering succeeding dry months of ˂ 50 mm thunderstorm eyewall – most severe weather condition TYPES 30~65 km φ Type I - Two Pronounced Storm Surge: A rise in ocean levels due to Seasons- Dry (November- April) strong winds from tropical storms or Wet( the rest of the year) hurricanes, often causing coastal flooding. Type II - No Dry season with a very pronounced rainfall from Landfall - is when a hurricane reaches the november t april and wet during coast and begins to travel over land after the rest being over water. Type III - Seasons are not very *A tropical cyclone is classified as making Pronounced, Relatively dry from landfall when the center of the storm moves across the coast; in strong tropical cyclones Additional Warnings: this is when the eye moves over land. Storm Surge: Coastal flooding risk Direct hit- A direct hit is where the core of Heavy Rainfall: Flash floods and high winds (or eyewall) comes onshore but landslides warning the center of the storm may stay offshore. Color Coded Rainfall Advisories PAGASA Revised Tropical Cyclone Wind Signals (TCWS) Yellow Warning: ○ Rainfall: 7.5-15 mm in 1 hour Signal No. 1: ○ Impact: Possible flooding in low-lying areas Winds: 30-60 km/h ○ Action: Monitor weather Light damage to structures and updates, prepare for crops evacuation Lead Time: 24 hours Orange Warning: ○ Rainfall: 15-30 mm in 1 hour Signal No. 2: ○ Impact: Flooding is threatening, especially in Winds: 61-120 km/h flood-prone areas Moderate damage to light structures ○ Action: Be alert, prepare for Lead Time: 24 hours evacuation Signal No. 3: Red Warning: ○ Rainfall: More than 30 mm in Winds: 121-170 km/h 1 hour Heavy damage to structures, ○ Impact: Severe flooding moderate damage to crops expected, dangerous Lead Time: 18 hours conditions ○ Action: Evacuate Signal No. 4: immediately Winds: 171-220 km/h STORM SURGE WARNING Severe damage to high-risk structures Green- No Threat Lead Time: 12 hours Yellow - 0.5 - 1 meter Orange - 1- 3 meters Signal No. 5: Red - Greater than 3 meters Winds: Over 220 km/h Catastrophic damage, total destruction Lead Time: 12 hours or less  The new names will be allotted to developing tropical storms by the Tokyo Typhoon Centre of the Japanese Meteorological Agency which is the RSMC for the basin. THE NORTHWEST PACIFIC & SOUTH Reviewer: ABE 137: Meteorology CHINA SEA TROPICAL CYCLONE and Climatology 2 NAMES 1. Naming of Typhoons in the Philippines 1945: the military weather forecasters (U.S. Navy and U.S. Air Force) In 1963, PAGASA started naming typhoons with Filipino women’s * The names utilized were almost names ending in "ng". exclusively English feminine names through In 1997, the Senate (led by Sen. 1978 Ernesto Herrera) questioned 1979 men's names were used with PAG-ASA about the use of females women's names in an alternating fashion names for typhoons In 1999, PAGASA launched the “Name a Bagyo” Contest, resulting in new names that reflect Filipino 2. Typhoon Categories (by PAGASA) culture. *The new names was adapted in Tropical Depression: Winds less 2000. than 61 km/h. A typhoon's name is Tropical Storm: Winds of 62-88 decommissioned if it causes: km/h. ○ At least 300 deaths. Severe Tropical Storm: Winds of ○ At least PHP 1 billion in 89-117 km/h. damages. Typhoon: Winds of 118-220 km/h. ○ Association with a public Super Typhoon: Winds over 220 figure that could lead to km/h. ridicule. 3. Retired Typhoon Names On 1 January 2000, tropical cyclones in the Northwest Pacific basin are named Typhoons that cause significant from a new and very different list of deaths and damages have their names. names retired. For example: ○ Yolanda (Haiyan): One of The new names are Asian names and were the most destructive contributed by all the nations and territories typhoons, retired after that are members of the WMO's Typhoon causing PHP 89.6 billion in Committee. damages and 6,300 deaths. 4. Weather Disturbances El Niño: ○ Occurs when warm ocean Tornadoes: Violent winds caused by conditions appear along the updrafts and downdrafts during western coast of South storms. America. -top speed of 110 kph near the ○ Disrupts trade winds and ground and stay about 10 minutes alters global weather Super cells- a super cell has only patterns. one updraft and only one downdraft. ○ El Niño Southern This way the super cell allows itself Oscillation, or ENSO. to feed off itself, giving it a long and intense life Humboldt Current is a cold ocean cuurent which flows north along the coast of Chile Mesocyclone- When the and Central Pacific. combination of wind speeds and changing directions in a super cell is La Niña: right the air will rotate, causing a ○ Marked by unusually cold mesocyclone to form. ocean temperatures in the equatorial Pacific. Thunderstorms: Form when moist, ○ Strong trade winds increase unstable air is lifted into the rainfall and shift warm water atmosphere, leading to westward condensation and heat release. The strong trade winds propagates cold Causes: waters to the west via the Rossby Waves ○ unequal warming of the surface of the Earth ○ orographic lifting due to topographic obstruction of air flow ○ dynamic lifting because of the presence of a frontal zone Types of Thunderstorms: ○ Air Mass Thunderstorms: Common in mid-latitudes during summer and the equator year-round. ○ Mid-latitude Cyclones: Associated with cold fronts and severe weather. 5. El Niño and La Niña