Human Anatomy Final Review PDF

**FINAL EXAM REVIEW LEARNING OUTCOMES** Chapter 7&8, 10, 11, 13, 14, 16, 17, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26 Muscles to know: - Flex/extend, lateral flex, and rotate the vertebral column - Primary and accessory muscles of respiration - Protract/retract and elevate/depress the scapula - Flex...

**FINAL EXAM REVIEW LEARNING OUTCOMES** Chapter 7&8, 10, 11, 13, 14, 16, 17, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26 Muscles to know: - Flex/extend, lateral flex, and rotate the vertebral column - Primary and accessory muscles of respiration - Protract/retract and elevate/depress the scapula - Flex/extend, AD/AB, medially/laterally rotate the arm at the shoulder joint - Flex/extend the forearm at the elbow joint - Pronate/supinate the forearm - Flex/extend, AB/AD, and medially/laterally rotate the thigh at the hip joint - Iliopsoas muscle that acts on the vertebral column - Flex/extend, medially rotate the leg at the knee joint - Muscles that dorsiflex/plantar flex the foot at the ankle joint [Axial Muscles Learning Outcomes:] - State the body regions and muscle actions of muscles discussed in\ lecture: anterior neck, posterior neck and back, muscles of\ respiration, anterior abdominal wall, posterior abdominal wall - Recognize primary vs accessory muscles of breathing. - Recognize special structures of the abdominal muscles. NOTES: - For the splenius muscles, erector spinae muscles, and the\ transversospinale muscles -- you only need to know the group name\ rather than the individual muscle that makes up each group. [Joints of the Upper Limb Learning Outcomes: ] For the joints discussed in lecture: Fully classify each joint structurally and functionally. Explain factors that enhance or detract from stability/mobility. Recognize function of each ligament highlighted in lecture. FYI: the final exam will not include questions on joints of the wrist nor hand. REVIEW: - Consider how surfaces articulate (influence stability) - Remember that mobility often comes at the expense of stability - Stability is enhanced by muscle, ligaments, bursa, menisci, and other soft tissues [Muscles of the Upper Appendicular Skeleton] [Learning Outcomes:] 1. List the muscles that position the pectoral girdle and cause retraction, protraction, elevation, and depression of the scapula. 2. For all other joints (arm at shoulder, forearm at elbow) state the muscles that act as agonists vs antagonists for each respective action as well as important functions served by some muscle/muscle groups Muscles to Know Pectoralis minor\ Serratus anterior\ Subclavius\ Rhomboid major\ Rhomboid minor\ Trapezius (upper, middle, lower)\ Levator scapulae\ Supraspinatus\ Infraspinatus\ Teres minor\ Subscapularis\ Teres major\ Latissimus dorsi\ Pectoralis major\ Deltoid (anterior, posterior, whole)\ Coracobrachialis\ Biceps brachii\ Brachialis\ Brachioradialis\ Triceps brachii\ Anconeus\ Supinator\ Pronator teres\ Pronator quadratus [Joints of the Lower Limb Learning Outcomes:] 1\. Describe the key anatomical structures that make up the pelvic girdle, pelvis, and lower limb\ 2. Compare and contrast the stability and mobility of the hip joint vs the glenohumeral joint\ 3. Describe structures that enhance (or detract) the stability of the joints described in lecture\ 4. Be able to fully classify each joint discussed in lecture.\ 5. List the ligaments of each joint discussed in lecture with emphasis on stability provided by the ligament. [Muscles of the Lower Limb Learning Outcomes:] 1. For each joint (vertebral column, hip, knee, ankle) state the muscles acting as agonists and antagonists for each respective action as well as important functions served by muscle/muscle groups highlighted in lecture\ NOTE: The final exam will not contain specific questions on the joints of the foot nor related muscles (e.g., intertarsal, tarsometatarsal, metatarsophalangeal, and interphalangeal joints; flexors & extensors of the toes; intrinsic muscles of the foot; i.e., Table 11.10). Muscles to Know: adductor brevis/longus/magnus\ biceps femoris\ fibularis longus/brevis\ gastrocnemius\ gluteus maximus/medius/minimus\ gracilis\ Iliacus\ iliopsoas\ pectineus\ popliteus\ psoas major\ rectus femoris\ vastus medialis/intermedius/lateralis\ sartorius\ semimembranosus\ semitendinosus\ soleus\ tensor fasciae latae\ tibialis anterior/posterior [Nervous System Organization Learning Outcomes:] 1. Define ganglia, nerve, synapse, afferent fibre, efferent fibre, sensory neuron, motor neuron, interneuron, neuroglia. 2. Differentiate between the functional divisions of the nervous system and the structural divisions of the nervous system. 3. Compare the tissues and structures innervated by somatic efferent, somatic afferent, visceral efferent, and visceral afferent neurons. 4. Recall the functions of each type of neuroglia and differentiate between neuroglia found in CNS vs PNS. 5. Differentiate between electrical and chemical synapses. [Brain and Meninges Learning Outcomes:] 1\. Recognize the main functions of the following: cerebrum, primary motor/sensory cortex, cerebellum, thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, brain stem, pons & medulla\ 2. List structures that support, nourish & protect the brain and describe how each does so.\ 3. State the functions of the cranial meninges.\ 4. Compare and contrast the cranial and spinal meninges / meningeal layers in terms of function and structural characteristics\ 5. Recognize the arterial supply to the brain..\ 6. Describe the function, production, and flow of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) through the ventricular system.\ 7. Identify the components and functions of the Blood Brain Barrier (BBB). [Spinal Cord Tracts Learning Outcomes:] 1. Describe the somatic nervous system in terms of main functions, locations, types of sensory receptors, and types of effector organs. 2. Relate the major components of the spinal cord to topics discussed in lecture. 3. Recognize afferent and efferent pathways into and out of the spinal cord. 4. Recall functional differences between gray and white matter of the SC. 5. Compare and contrast general characteristics of sensory and motor tracts. 6. For the dorsal column and anterior/lateral spinothalamic tracts: a. Recall the type of sensation relayed by each pathway b. Differentiate between 1st, 2nd, 3rd order neuron c. State site of decussation and synapses. 7. For the the lateral/ventral corticospinal tract and corticobulbar tracts: d. Recall the muscles innervated. e. Differentiate between upper and lower motor neurons f. State site of decussation and synapses. 8. Relate SCI to interruption of sensory and motor tracts discussed in lecture Pain Reflex Arc Learning Outcomes: 1. Recognize the pain reflex arc as an example of structural and functional organization of the nervous system [Autonomic Nervous System Learning Outcomes:] 1\. Describe the autonomic nervous system in terms of its 3 divisions and the functions of\ each.\ 2. Compare and contrast the somatic and autonomic nervous systems with respect to site of origination, number of neurons involved in the pathway, and effector organs.\ 3. Identify the role of the hypothalamus in autonomic nervous system function.\ 4. Compare and contrast the two main divisions of the ANS (i.e., sympathetic and parasympathetic) with respect to the major functions of each division, the origination of the division in the CNS, the location of their preganglionic and postganglionic (ganglionic) cell bodies, the length of the preganglionic versus postganglionic axons, and type of neurotransmitter (NT) released.\ 5. List the 3 locations of ganglia for the sympathetic division.\ 6. Differentiate between intramural and terminal ganglia of the parasympathetic division.\ 7. Provide structure or viscera innervated by cranial nerves III, VII, IX, X and S2-S4.\ 8. Relate the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system to innervation of the heart, lungs, blood vessels, gastrointestinal tract, urinary system (Section 17.4.4). [Endocrine System Learning Outcomes:] 1\. Compare and contrast the autonomic nervous system and endocrine systems.\ 2. Define hormone and recognize how it causes a response.\ 3. Explain the interrelationships of the structure and functions of the hypothalamus, the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, and posterior lobe of the pituitary gland\ 4. State the endocrine function of the hypothalamus, anterior & posterior pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, adrenal gland (cortex & medulla), and pancreas. Recall the following:\ ▪ Name of hormone produced\ ▪ When relevant, name of the cells that synthesize the hormone\ ▪ General stimulus for hormone release, target cells, and typical response. [Blood Learning Outcomes:] 1\. State the main components of blood\ 2. Recognize the functions of blood and blood's tissue classification.\ 3. Differentiate between plasma and formed elements\ 4. Relate the structure of an RBC to its function\ 5. State the main functions of hemoglobin and describe hemoglobin structure\ 6. Differentiate between oxyhemoglobin and carbaminohemoglobin\ 7. Name the 4 blood types [Cardiovascular System 2 (Vessels) Learning Outcomes:] 1\. ON YOUR OWN: Outline the path blood would take as it passes from the right atrium of the heart through the major vessels of the pulmonary circuit and back to the left atrium.\ 2. ON YOUR OWN: Outline the path blood would take as it passes from left ulnar vein to the left ulnar artery by recalling the named blood vessels in the correct order. Use your lab manual to help.\ 3. Recall the three layers of blood vessels and the structural features of each layer.\ 4. Describe the function and histology of an elastic artery, muscular artery, arteriole, capillary, venule, medium-sized vein, and large veins. Use your lab manual to help.\ 5. Compare a muscular artery to a muscular vein.\ 6. State the histology of the precapillary sphincter and relate to its function.\ 7. Explain mechanisms that assist with venous return. [The Heart Learning Outcomes:] 1\. ON YOUR OWN: Trace the path of blood through the heart, including the chambers, valves, and great vessels. Categorize these structures as belonging to systemic or pulmonary circulation and as having high or low oxygen content blood.\ 2. List the layers and spaces of the pericardial sac in order, and describe the functions of each.\ 3. List the three layers of tissue that compose the heart in order.\ 4. Recall the external and internal features of the heart, including the chambers, great vessels, valves.\ 5. List the 4 valves of the heart and note the role of each. Also, state which valves are open or closed during systole and diastole.\ 6. Explain the importance of papillary muscles and chordae tendineae in contributing to valve function.\ 7. Recall the origin of the 2 main coronary arteries and phase during the cardiac cycle when most blood is received to these arteries.\ 8. State the purpose of the coronary sinus and location within the heart where it drains.\ 9. Define pacemaker cells and contractile cells and consider the role pacemaker cells play in coordinating the cardiac cycle.\ 10. Recall the conducting pathway in the heart by listing the main structures in the pathway in the correct order.\ 11. Describe how heart rate is modified by autonomic innervation. [Respiratory System Learning Outcomes:] 1\. ON YOUR OWN: Distinguish between structures in the the upper vs lower respiratory tract and the conducting vs respiratory divisions. List respiratory structures in order from mouth/nose to alveoli.\ 2. Recall the main functions of the respiratory system.\ 3. Compare and contrast the structure and function of the respiratory epithelium as you move through the respiratory tract (e.g., consider specialized cells, type of epithelium, etc.)\ 4. Describe the respiratory defense mechanisms and how specific anatomical features help with it.\ 5. Recall structures found in the respiratory tract that are comprised of tissues such as smooth muscle or connective tissue.\ 6. Describe the functions and list the major features of the nose/mouth, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchial tree (including alveoli).\ 7. State the structures that make up the respiratory membrane and what facilitates effective gas exchange.\ 8. Provide the two types of alveolar cells and purpose of each.\ 9. Describe the structure and function of the pleural cavities and pleural membranes.\ 10. List receptors involved in regulating respiration.\ 11. Define pulmonary ventilation, eupnea, hyperpnea\ 12. ON YOUR OWN: List the primary & accessory respiratory muscles & actions of each.\ 13. State the function of the vagus nerve, phrenic nerve as it relates to the respiratory system.\ 14. Recall the location of the respiratory centres.\ 15. Describe effects of sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation on the bronchial tree and lungs. [Digestive System Learning Outcomes:] 1\. Recall the functions of the digestive tract and know specific functions of each organ highlighted in lecture as well as significant features.\ 2. Define and describe peristalsis and segmentation.\ 3. Provide the names of the layers of the peritoneum and the function of the serous fluid found in the peritoneal cavity.\ 4. Differentiate between intraperitoneal & retroperitoneal organs - give examples of each.\ 5. Describe the typical histological organization of the four layers of the digestive tract\ 6. Recall unique features of the histology of the oral cavity, salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small & large intestines, and rectum.\ 7. Describe the structure and function of the salivary glands and 4 digestive sphincters.\ 8. Provide the name/location/function of the main secretory cells found in the mucosa of the stomach (as discussed in lecture).\ 9. Recall key cells found in the mucosa of the small intestine\ 10. Describe the key cells/structures of the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas and relate to the function of each organ.\ 11. Discuss the key blood vessels of the liver and relate to hepatic portal vein.\ 12. Relate the production of bile by the liver to digestive functions in the small intestine and key structures involved in the transport and storage of bile. [Urinary System Learning Outcomes:] 1\. List the organs of the urinary system and their major functions.\ 2. List structures that contribute to protection of the kidney and describe the histology of each.\ 3. Relate the kidneys to the peritoneum.\ 4. Trace the path of blood flow through the kidney starting in the abdominal aorta and ending in the inferior vena cava.\ 5. Recognize how the autotomic and somatic nervous systems control urination.\ 6. Recognize the function of the nephron, specific structures that make up the nephron and the histology of each\ 7. Differentiate between cortical versus juxtamedullary nephrons.\ 8. Recall (in order) the structures involved in the production of filtrate/urine and describe the histology/function of each.\ ▪ Related, define filtration, reabsorption, secretion and relate each to specific\ structures that make up the nephron.\ 9. Describe the histology of the collecting system (listing structures in order) and its role in excretion\ 10. Compare and contrast the urethra of people assigned male & female. [Reproductive System (Females) Learning Outcomes:] 1\. Appreciate that biologic sex is not binary; but rather on a spectrum.\ 2. Recall the anatomical organization of people assigned male vs female at birth\ 3. State the functions and histological features of reproductive structures discussed in lecture (ovaries, ovarian tubes, uterus, vagina)\ 4. Differentiate between the layers of the uterine wall and specify which change during the uterine cycle.\ 5. Recall cells/structures that produce estrogens & progestins. [Reproductive System (Males) Learning Outcomes:] 1\. State the functions and histological features of reproductive structures discussed in lecture (spermatid cords, testes, seminiferous tubules, epididymis, ductus deferens, seminal glands, prostate gland, bulbo-urethral gland, etc.) 2\. Recall the structures passed by sperm from formation to ejaculation. 3\. Recall cells/structures that produce testosterone