History Study Questions PDF

The Atlantic Revolutions 1775-1783 American Revolution 1789-1799 French Revolution 1791-1804 Haitian Revolution Question 1: What were the main causes of the American Revolution? a. High cost of Seven Years War 1755-1763 doubled the British National debt. b. Britain decided to maintain large army in North America to defend newly conquered territories and tax the colonies directly c. 1765 stamp tax, d. Colonist felt British parliamentary supremacy threat to existing American liberties e. Americans resistance was fed because they were used to great degree of independence. f. greater political and economic equality, no nobility g. 1773 Tea Act, East India Company monopoly tea trade, Americans excluded h. ideas of Enlightenment on liberty and sovereignty Question 2: Discuss the strengths and the limitations of the American Constitution and the Bill of Rights. Also refer to the text by De Dijn. Limits of Classical Liberalism Liberty meant individual freedom It meant representative government not democracy one man one vote Equality for the law not of wealth or political participation No equal rights for slaves, native Americans and women Causes interconnected American Revolution 1775-1783: Seven Years War 1756-1763, taxation, colonial oppression, Enlightenment ideas liberty and equality, no taxation without representation, Boston blockade French Revolution 1789-1799: Seven Years War/Austrian succession, debt and taxation increased, Enlightenment ideas liberty and equality, third state only one vote, American revolution Haitian Revolution 1791-1804: slavery, influence French revolution, Hatred against the slaves and free people of color from the white colonists. Question 3: Discuss the origins of the French Revolution. How important was social change? Also deal with: the influence of the Enlightenment, of the American Revolution, of war and financial crisis. Origins of French revolution 1. fundamental social and economic changes and political crisis eroded state authority 2. political ideas of the Enlightenment, liberty and equality 3. imperial competition and financial crisis generated by warfare, Seven Years War - social and economic change - nobility and clergy privileges, professionals, merchants, guild masters monopoly - increased agricultural production, population growth, urbanization, inflation, need to work harder, increased schooling, rise in literacy, new inequalities between rich and poor, poor struggled rising prices, investors grew rich from spread of rural manufacture and overseas trade, mixed cast elite, nobles began to trade, bourgeoisie bought titles Question 4: Discuss the major reforms introduced during the first (1789-1792) so-called liberal revolution in France. - August 4 1789 all the old noble privileges abolished - August 27 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen - June 1790 National Assembly abolished nobility - September 1791 French constitution: King is head of state, all law making power National Assembly elected by wealthiest half of French male, legalized divorce, broadened women’s right to inherit property and obtain support for illegitimate children, excluded women from political office and voting, 83 Departments, prohibition guilds, monopolies, worker’s associations, abolished barriers to trade within France, religious freedom for French jews and protestants, nationalized property Catholic Church and abolished monasteries, national church priest chosen by voters, priest oath of loyalty to state, - June 1791 royal family arrested, August fall of monarchy, Jan 1793 executed - September 1792 new assembly National Convention, universal manhood suffrage, France became Republic, nation held sovereign power not king. Question 5: What were the four major reforms of the 'most radical period of the revolution'? - spring 1793 summer 1794, Committee of Public Safety April 1793 Robespierre, planned economy fixed price bread, people had to work for war effort, emergency form of socialism - Reign of terror enforced compliance with republican beliefs and practices, special courts tried enemies of the nation for political crimes, 40.000 men and women were executed or died in prison, suppression of women’s participation in political debate, clubs for women were prohibited, women’s proper place was at home - cultural revolution, revolutionary art and songs, secular holidays to celebrate republican virtues, decimal system for weights and measures, calendar ten-day week, de-christianization - birth of modern nationalism, draft on all unmarried young men, common language and common tradition, popular sovereignty and democracy Question 6: What is meant with the 'Thermidorean reaction'? - 1795 moderate reaction, abolished economic controls, - restricted local political organizations - new constitution, only men of substantial means eligible to serve as deputy - executive power to a Directory of 5 men, to prevent a new Robespierre -1797 national elections return of large number conservative and even monarchist deputies, the Directory nullified the elections began to govern dictatorially, 1799 coup Napoleon 1. significance of declaration of the rights of man and the citizen: equality for the law, representative government for a sovereign people, individual freedom 2.limits to freedom: no liberty to harm others in their liberty, freedom of expression can be abused, 4. limits to equality: only for the law, not in wealth or political participation, no equal rights for women mentioned Question 7: Discuss the role of slavery and the role of France (including the French Revolution) in the leadup to the Haitian Revolution. French colony, huge profits ruthless system of slave-based plantation agriculture Code noir originally granted free people of colour the same legal status as whites, from 1760s colonial administration rescinded these rights free people of colour looked to French revolutionaries’ abolitionism and liberty, equality and fraternity White creole elite was determined to protect its way of life including slaveholding -National Assembly in Paris frustrated hopes, feared that support the free people of colour would lead to slave insurrections, Assembly refused to extend the French constitutional safeguards to the colonies and reaffirmed French monopolies on colonial trade angering planters. July 1790 failed rebellion Ogé free man of colour had returned from Paris, executed May 1791 National Assembly granted political rights to free people of colour born to two parents who possessed sufficient property. Governor Saint-Domingue refused to enact it. Revolt, slave revolt August 1791, April 4 1792 National Assembly enfranchised all free men of African descent Sept 1793 British troops invade Saint-Domingue, Spanish colony Santo Domingo supported rebel slaves, National Convention promised freedom to slaves who fought for France, 1793/1794 abolition of slavery and extended to al French territories, 1802 Napoleon reinstated slavery, 1848 slavery abolished 1802 expedition sent by Napoleon failed 1804 France recognized independence of Haiti, 1825 Haiti had to pay 150 million francs indemnity to compensate former slave holders Question 8: Why, according to Reinhardt, has the Haitian Revolution been “hushed up” particularly in the Western world? Napoleon was ambitious: Having acquired the vast Louisiana Territory from Spain in 1800, he wanted an empire from Rocky Mountains to India from north Russia to Sahara. And with Europe’s most powerful army at his disposal, who should stop him? Certainly not the United States, with their “pathetic 3,000-man regular army” (Fleming, 2001, p. 144). Napoleon decided, however, to let his troops make a small detour to end a tiresome little slave revolt in one of the French colonies in the Caribbean, Saint Domingue. Nothing serious. Or so he thought. Two years and almost 60,000 dead French troops later, a disillusioned Napoleon, fed up with reports about losses and defeats in the colony, abandoned his plans for a transatlantic France. The U.S. emissaries Monroe and Livingston, sent to Paris in a desperate attempt of the Jefferson administration to at least sign an agreement that allowed U.S. citizens to navigate the Mississippi and store their export goods in New Orleans, 5 must have been quite surprised when they were offered to buy the whole Louisiana territory instead. And for a ridiculously small amount of money. A real bargain that in one stroke doubled the size of the United States. Eight months later, on January 1, 1804, the former colony of Saint Domingue under its new leader Jacques Dessalines became independent and took on the ancient Amerindian name Haiti. Here was the West, equipped with a whole ontology based on the notion that Blacks are inferior to Whites, unable to take care of themselves, naturally designed for slavery, the bottom rung of the ladder of human evolution—and these Blacks kept winning battle after battle. They defeated the French, they defeated the British, they defeated the Spanish. This simply could not be. Impossible. Concepts Declaration of independence (631) The 1776 document in which the American colonies declared independence from Great Britain and recast traditional English rights as universal human rights. National Assembly (634) French representative assembly formed in 1789 by the delegates of the third estate and some members of the clergy, the second estate. Reign of Terror (638) The period from 1793 to 1794, during which Robepierre's Committee of Public Safety tried and executed thousands suspected of political crimes and a new revolutionary culture was imposed. Continental System (643) A blockade imposed by Napoleon in which no ship coming from Britain or its colonies was permitted to dock at any port controlled by the French. Creoles (646) People of European descent born in the Americas — Explicitly American interpretation of the term! Wiki: Creole peoples, ethnic groups which originated from linguistic, cultural, and often racial mixing of colonial-era emigrants from Europe with non-European peoples The revolution in Energy and Industry 1760-1850 1. Discuss the international variations in levels of industrialization from 1750 to 1913. -1750 all countries were fairly close together including non-Western areas like China and India - 1800 Britain notable lead per capita level of industrialization, gap widened 1830- 1860 - Belgium led in adopting Britain’s new technology, big surge 1830-1860 - France slow but steady economic growth and industrial output - spectacular rise Germany and USA after 1860, Second Industrial Revolution - in general eastern and southern Europa later than northern and western Europe - after 1880 real progress and growth Austria-Hungary, Italy and Russia - non-Western world decreases in China and India - after 1850 forced opening of Japan to the West, production boom late 19th century - differential rates of wealth and power-creating industrial development heightened disparities within Europe also greatly magnified existing inequalities within Europa and between Europe and rest of the world 2. What were the most important agents of industrialization on the continent? British technicians and skilled work slipped out of Britain illegally and were a powerful force in spread of early industrialization Talented European entrepreneurs such as Fritz Harkort 1793-1880. Served in England as a Prussian army officer during Napoleonic wars. He set up shop building steam engines in Ruhr valley, he succeeded in building and selling engines but failed to turn a profit National governments were even more important on Continent in supporting industrialization than in Britain. Tariff protection in France after 1815, Germany customs unions in 1818 and 1834 Zollverein. After 1815 continental governments paid the roads, canals and railroads, tunnels. Especially Belgium and France. Banks played a larger role Continent. Private banks avoided industrial investment as being too risky. Two Belgian banks 1830s got permission to be corporations enjoying limited liability which helped to attract investors. Became industrial banks. France and Germany the same in 1850s and 1860s. early 1870s Britain was still most industrial nation but some continental countries were closing the gap 3. Hanks et al. state: “The rise of industrialization in Britain, Western Europe, and the United States thus caused other regions of the world to become increasingly economically dependent” (p. 709). Explain this statement. industrial Revolution happed in Europe Japan and USA prior to 1860s Russia: not overall industrialization, Russia confirmed its role as provider of raw materials (timber and grain) to the hungry West Egypt industrialized but textile could not compete with lower-priced European imports. Like Russia Egypt fell back on agricultural exports such as sugar and cotton to European markets European governments maintained direct or indirect control ME, Asia and Latin America and kept colonial markets as sources of raw materials and consumers for European products. Indian textile workers lost their job. Britain high tariffs on Indian cottons but prohibited Indian tariffs on British imports Latin America disrupted by early 19th century wars of independence. Steam power first for agriculture and later industry result industrialization Britain, Western Europa and USA kept other regions increasingly economic dependent. Even deindustrialization or delayed industrialization made them vulnerable for imperialism China end of 19th century mechanized production based on traditional methods. Japan was more successful but China faced widespread uprisings and after 1900 Boxer Uprising Western powers forced China to pay heavy indemnities 4. Hanks 710-711: As economic conditions improved, only women in poor families tended to work outside the home. The ideal became separate spheres, the strict division of labour by sex. This rigid division meant that married women faced great obstacles if they needed or wanted to move into the world of paid employment outside the home. Well-paying jobs were off-limits to women, and a woman’s wage was almost always less than a man’s, even for the same work. What is meant with the term "separate spheres" (p. 711)? What were the causes of the gender division of labor? with the restriction of child labour and the collapse of the family work pattern in the 1830s came a new sexual division of labour. By 1850 the man was emerging as the family’s primary wage earner, while the married woman found only limited job opportunities. Generally denied high wage jobs, wives were expected to stay at home. the new and unfamiliar discipline of the clock and the machine was hard for women since it clashed with child care running a household in urban poverty was demanding job. No supermarkets, public transportation,shopping and feeding was challenging young and generally unmarried women who did work for wages outside the home were segregated from men and confined to certain women’s work. Factory system led to more unplanned pregnancies that led to segregation. Mines Act of 1842 prohibited underground work for all women and girls as well as boys under ten. domestic ideals emanating from middle-class women who embraced separate spheres ideology. Women should pay attention to their homes and families 5. What is meant with the term "The Great Divergence"? (Refer to the text by Peer Vries) Summarize the Eurocentric approach and the views of the California School. Western world industrialized and began to grow much faster than rest. Summarize the Eurocentric approach. 1. Max Weber: the West underwent rationalization that resulted in the emergence of capitalist market economies, bureaucratic states and a disenchanted culture that was ideally suited to produce science, technology and a methodical way of living. The rise of the market (Landes) 2. Marxist: capitalism as motor economic development is Western invention. Non-Western lacked internal dynamics to manage transition to capitalism on its own 3. dependency theory, world systems-analysis: capitalism is characterised by monopoly, collusion and coercion, rest passive, Eurocentric too Summarize the views of the California School. Pomeranz, Goldstone 1. from roughly 1400 to 1800 the most advanced economies of Eurasia formed a world of ‘surprising resemblances’ 2. and that the Great Divergence between ‘the West’ and ‘the Rest’ only originated with industrialisation and must be interpretated as a fairly contingent and recent phenomenon, basically due to differences in the availability of resources. 3. societies in Asia and the Middle East were the world leaders in economics; in science and technology; and in shipping, trade and exploration until about AD 1500. 4. Europe did not catch up until 1800 5. China from 1750-1800 biggest economy 6. Pomeranz and other "Californians" describe the economies of Western Europe and China in terms of a world of “surprising resemblances”. (p. 736) According to Pomeranz Britain was just fortunate in that it possessed "extra resources in the form of coal and colonies” (p. 737), that according to him provide the major explanation of its industrialization. What is the counter-argument Vries puts forward? What was the role of the "mercantilist state" (p. 739) according to Vries in the industrialization of Britain? Our current more positive view of China’s economy on the eve of Western industrialisation is not unproblematic. The more ‘Eurasian’ resemblances and equivalents are brought into prominence, the more miraculous if not downright inexplicable becomes the enormous gap that emerged during the nineteenth century between Britain and China. How can situations that are surprisingly similar produce huge differences? If resemblances really were so striking, as Pomeranz but even more Goody in his book of 2007 – where the author seems allergic to any kind of European exceptionalism – claim, then why did not China ‘take off’, or at least ﬁnd it easy to catch up when others did? 7. Mention one other argument against the idea of the Californians that Britain and China showed surprising resemblances. How important is "culture" (p. 744) in explaining the British industrial revolution according to Vries? Western Europe as a whole already from the Renaissance onwards in this respect was on a different trajectory than China. Knowledge accumulated and progress became normal there. In fact, not only was dynamism slacking in Mid-Qing China; there are various examples that technologies and forms of knowledge actually disappeared. Only three per cent of its population lived in cities of over 10,000 people. In Western Europe, this was over ten per cent. (de Vries 1984: 349) The contrast with Britain is striking. In 1750, more than sixteen per cent of its total population lived in towns of over 10,000 inhabitants; in 1800, over 20 per cent. China’s level of urbanisation between the Sung era and the beginning of the nineteenth century actually decreased. China had trouble defeating even quite small opponents like Vietnam, a country with a couple of million inhabitants. In the 1300s, China’s government could raise a ﬂeet of 400,000 soldiers and sailors. The ﬂeet of Zheng He in the beginning of the ﬁfteenth century consisted of enormous ships manned by thousands of sailors and it travelled half the globe. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, however, there no longer existed a Chinese navy to speak off. The contrast with Britain and its Royal Navy couldn’t be bigger. In comparison to what happened in Europe, where the size of armies had increased enormously and continuous change in organisation and armaments had become the norm, it became small and weak. Considering the growing complaints about corruption towards the end of the eighteenth century, one may also query its supposed efﬁciency. Chinese state did not become stronger over the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, in terms of ‘hard power’ at least. Important European states did. Overall, Qing China seems to have undergone far fewer institutional changes than Britain, which had its military and ﬁnancial revolutions. Paper money was invented in China under the Sung. Under the Qing, the state no longer issued it. Neither did it coin any silver or gold currency. In the eighteenth century, the importance of copper as currency increased. Again, developments in Britain went in an opposite direction. In the eighteenth century, the country was on a gold standard and had a central bank. In Britain wage labour became increasingly important. Whereas the percentage of proletarians in China’s total labour force was negligible, certainly less than ﬁve per cent, wage labour in Britain was becoming the rule rather than the exception. Landlords in China were not managers of large farms but ‘tenurial landlords. One ﬁnds this overwhelming predominance of small peasant cultivators everywhere We see no increase in the use of coal and iron, no improvement in the quality of iron utensils and implements, a decreasing importance of sophisticated machinery and a continuation of decentralised modes of production, with peasant households continuing to be by far the dominant productive entity. Coal, steam and factories did make a fundamental difference for Britain, as ‘Californians’ explicitly underline. Britain had a tradition of trying to harness energy in production. Up until the second half of the nineteenth century, ﬁfty per cent of all growth in productivity came from non-mechanised sectors of the economy. Such innovation was a precondition for industrialisation and had no parallel in China. Neither do we see the kind of interaction between scholars, engineers, tinkerers, artisans and entrepreneurs and the ‘Baconian’ efforts to try and apply science in China. 8. Explain: "... ongoing and fierce interstate competition [...] was the motor behind economic development and imperialism in the West." (p. 746) - Europe was made of states that competed with each other, China was centralized state 9. Compare the legacy of the political revolutions of the late eighteenth century (Chapter 22) with that of the Industrial Revolution (Chapter 23) The legacies of both the political revolutions of the late eighteenth century are mixed. The political revolutions introduced highly important modern ideas to the world: republicanism and democracy, sovereignty of the people, constitutionalism, rights of man and citizen, the abolishment of slavery. However the results were mixed. The US remained a republic, but fought a terrible civil war over slavery. France returned to monarchism, but would in the end become a staunch republic. (Smart students might refer to the reaction and Napoleonic backlash to the revolutionary ideas, those are not very explicit in chapter 22). Representative democracies returned to the European stage in the 1850s, but the revolutions also led to the advent of nationalism. The industrial revolutions consequences were mainly social and economic. Productivity increased enormously, wage earning replaced subsistence farming. Living standards were slow to increase and the rural poor suffered from disruption of their communities. Economic hardship and the advent of the working poor in the new urban areas led to the advent of socialism and the labour movement. The separation of the sexes into separate spheres and the abolishment of child labour followed. Through the industrial revolution Europe outdistanced the rest of the world in terms of productivity and living standards. Transportation and communication rapidly developed, decreasing the virtual size of the globe. The increased living standards of Europe came at a cost to the colonies and dependencies of European nations across the globe. Industrialisation cannot be seen separate from slavery. (Smart students will remark that the huge difference between Europe and the rest of the world led to imperialism). Ideologies of Change in Europe 1815-1914 1. Discuss the main political and economic ideas of liberalism in the first half of the nineteenth century. Political ideas of liberalism first half 19th century 1. Principal ideas of liberalism: liberty and equality were not defeated in 1815 2. Realized in part in French and Latin American revolutions 3. Liberalism demanded representative government and equality before the law plus individual freedoms (press, speech, assembly, arbitrary arrest 4. In Europe 1815 only liberalism in France (Louis 18) and Great Britain, only begun to succeed Economic ideas of liberalism 1. Unrestricted private enterprise 2. No government interference in the economy 3. Combined laissez faire 4. Doctrine associated corporate interests Critique on liberalism 1. Association with narrow class interests, representative government but qualifications attached to the right to vote and serve Parliament 2. Most liberals accepted monarchical rule. Republicans favoured Republic 3. Democrats desired universal male suffrage 4. Radical Republicans favoured greater economic and social equality 5. Democrats/republicans more radical than Liberals, more willing to endorse violence to achieve goals 6. Conclusion: liberals and radical republicans could join forces against conservatives only up to a point 2. How did "classical liberalism" in Britain change in the second half of the nineteenth and the first decades of the twentieth century? Pay attention to the suffrage and the doctrine of laissez-faire. 18th century English parliamentary system guaranteed basic civil rights, only 8 % population could vote French revolution threw aristocracy in panic After 1815 government put down protests over unemployment and high grain prices caused by Napoleonic Wars 1832 Reform Bill; new industrial areas more representation in House of Commons, increasing number voters with 50 % (middle class urban groups and substantial farmers 1834 New Poor Law: unemployed in harsh workhouses to relieve middle-class taxpayers and encourage migration to cities for industrial work 1838-1848 Workers joined Chartists universal male suffrage 1847 Tories Ten Hours Act, electorally inspired So, GB managed unrest, raising living standards (late 1840s), avoided 1848 revolution Ireland did not profit. Irish Catholic peasants rented Protestant landowners in England 1845-1851 potato crop failed. Great famine, 1,5 million died, 1 million fled, Irish nationalism 1882 British married women full property rights 1884 universal male suffrage 1906-1914 Ruling Liberal Party raised taxes on the rich to pay national health insurance, unemployment benefits, old-age pensions etc. 1913 Irish Home Rule, Irish protestants feared to fall under control majority Catholics, 1914 WW I postponed. 3. As of the French Revolution many governments engaged in what is called nation-building. How was German unification gradually achieved in the period 1862-1871 under leadership of Prime Minister Bismarck of Prussia? Why did Tsar Alexander II want to modernize Russia? How did Russia try to catch up with Europe from 1856 to 1907? Prussia and Austria seeking to block the power of the other in German Confederation 1853 All German states joined Zollverein except Austria Rising prosperity from industrialization after 1850 creation middle-class liberals 1859 liberals-controlled Parliament National uprising Italy convinced Wilhelm I political change and war Austria, France was possible 1862-1866 liberal parliament rejected military budget, Bismarck ruled without Parliamentary consent The first war of German unification was the 1862 Danish War, begun over the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. Bismarck allied with Austria to fight the Danes in a war to protect the interests of Holstein, a member of the German Confederation. 1864 Schleswig-Holstein occupied 1866 Austro-Prussian War, end German Confederation, new North German Confederation Liberals approved illegal spending 1862-1866, military glory trumped battle truly liberal institutions Bismarck created lower house elected universal male suffrage, to bypass the liberal middle class 1870-71 Franco Prussian war (Emscher Depeche), Sedan France defeated, Napoleon III exit, French Third Republic, starving Paris, South German states joined new German Empire 1850s Russia poor agrarian society with growing population, 90% Russians lived off the land, serfdom Russia lost Crimean War 1853-1856 (from France, GB, Sardinia, Ottomans) Defeat forced Tsar Alexander II rapid social change, modernization 1861 freeing Serfs, peasants received half of the land, high price, collective ownership limited innovation Independent courts, equality for the law, relaxed censorship, partial liberalization policies toward Russian Jews Subsidized railroad, Russian export grain, earn money for industrialization Industrial suburbs, Russia expanded into far eastern Siberia, Central Asia (north of Afghanistan), Islamic Caucasus 1881 anarchist assasinated Alexander II, end political reform until 1905, economic reform Sergei Witte (Finance Minister) doubled railroad, prection Russian industry 1903 Russian spere of influence Machuria, eyeing northern Korea 1905 Russia defeated Japan, Bloody Sunday, October 1905 general strike Nicholas II October Manifesto, promise full civil rights, popularly elected Duma real power 1907 rewrote electoral law in favour propertied classes 1914 Russia partially modernized, conservative constitutional monarchy, agrarian but industrializing 4. Why and how did the conservative Austrian chancellor Von Metternich oppose liberalism? Why did another conservative, German chancellor Bismarck, introduce universal male suffrage in Germany in 1871 and old age pensions and other social legislation in the 1880s? Metternich Holy Alliance: Prussia, Austria, Russia Legitimism, secure monarchies 1819 Karlsbad Decrees, root out radical ideas Metternich against liberalism and natiomnalism Liberalism had led to a generation of war Liberalists were stirring up the lower classes which desired peace 1848 Hungary revolution: national autonomy, full civic liberties, universal suffrage, Metternich resigned Monarchy abolished serfdom, peasants lost interest Conflicting national aspirations: Hungarian unification would harm minority groups like serbs, Kroats, Romanians. Czech clashed German nationalists Ferdinand I abdicated, Frans Joseph took over, Nicholas ! Send Russian troops to reconquer Hungary - German chancellor Bismarck, introduce universal male suffrage in Germany in 1871 and old age pensions and other social legislation in the 1880s to bypass the liberals - Liberals opted for military glory over battle for tryly liberal institutions 5. Define the socialist creed. Began in France, after 1815, disappointed outcome French revolution, alarmed by laissez faire and the impact of industrialization on equality. Government should control prices and prevent unemployment, regulate private property. Karl Marx 1818-1883, history of class struggles Materialist position, position in class struggle determines ideas not vice versa Bourgeoisie trumphed feudal aristatocracy, now proletariat would conquer borgeoisie Accumulation wealth, and Verelendung (Engels) will read to revolution Marx drew Adam Smith labour was source of all value, profits were stolen wages 6. On p. 723/644 Hanks mentions "revisionism". What is revisionism? Who were the main supporters? Why was there a "trend toward moderation" in the working class movement in Western Europe? Revisionism: need to update Marxism to reflect the realities of the time. Eduard Bernstein (1850-1932) proposed evolutionary socialism, Verelendung had not happened, hence evolution: legislation, unions, firther economic development Main supporters revisionism: German and British trade unions, Labour Party, Russian and Austrian socialists most radical, Spain/Italy anarchist Trend towards moderation: living standard >, quality life cities >, growth trade unions, collective bargaining 7. On p. 724/645 Hanks remarks: "Much of world history in the past two centuries can be seen as a struggle over the unfinished legacies of the late-eighteenth century revolutions in politics and economics." Illustrate this statement with two examples It is all about liberty, respresentative government and equality Only basis civil liberties or should the state also redistribute? (welfare state versus minimal state Who is allowed to vote? Negative freedom versus positive freedom Positive liberty is the ability to fulfill one's purposes. Negative liberty is the freedom from interference by others. 7. How did the spread of radical ideas and the movements for reform and revolution explored in this chapter draw on the “unfinished” political and industrial revolutions of the late eighteenth century (Chapters 22, 23)? How did conservatism, liberalism, nationalism and socialism spawn from this dual political and industrial revolution? Conservatism: The backlash against the revolutionary (French) ideas of popular sovereignty and political participation of the people, heralded by the defeat of Napoleon in 1815. Restoration of the old monarchical ideas. Of course, it was impossible to revert to the situation before 1789, so a lot of new ideas remained in place. Constitutions were one of them, but a certain degree of separation of powers also remained in place. Socialism was a consequence of the deteriorating economic conditions in Europe, that were a consequence of the industrial revolution. The discontent among the poor rural and urban population led to several attempts at revolutions in the 1830s and most importantly in 1848, fuelled by hunger (repeated bad harvests). Liberalism can be seen as a consequence of the affluent middle class wanting to be part of the closed government and retain the ‘good bits’ of the French Revolution. Nationalism is probably the most important child of the revolutions. Mostly started among the liberal thinkers of the early Nineteenth century, the idea that people were powerful and creative and that a people should belong in a certain ascribed territory was the most potent new ideology of the nineteenth century (eventually culminating in the terrible wars of the twentieth). The superior force of the French nation, after a shaky start in the early 1790s, showed how powerful a symbol the nation could be. States realized that if they were to survive, nationalism was the key to success. Although starting of as a liberal movement, nationalism turned out to be the key to solving the discrepancy between conservative government versus the forces of liberalism and socialism. The most important consequence of this nationalism was the unification of first Italy and then Germany, thereby creating a colossal power in the heart of Europe. Each of the revolutionary ideologies of the early nineteenth century was in some respects connected to the dual revolution of the late eighteenth century. Obviously, conservatism was a very explicit attempt to reassert the powers of the aristocracy in Europe in an attempt to return to the status quo of 1789, abolishing the new-fangled ideas of the French Revolution. Just as much as conservatism, liberalism was a child of the French Revolution and made use of the ideas and thought of the French revolutionaries. Mostly in protest to the way conservatism seized power after 1815, liberalism tried to keep many of the ideas of the French Revolution (albeit less radically) alive. Concepts like equality for the law, the separation of powers in government and some forms of political participation of the people (albeit restricted) were all taken from the French Revolution. Socialism was also a protest movement against conservatism but should be seen more as a consequence of the industrial revolution. Nationalism, lastly, had reared its ugly head during the revolutionary wars. At first nationalism was mostly a liberal ideology which emphasized the worth and creativity of the people. All four main ideologies of the nineteenth century cannot, therefore, be seen separately from the revolutions that preceded the period. Week 3 class 1- source texts 1. What is nationalism? Nationalism: the nation should be congruent with the state. Each nation should govern itself, free from outside interference (self-determination), that a nation is a natural and ideal basis for a polity, and that the nation is the only rightful source of political power. It further aims to build and maintain a single national identity, based on shared social characteristics of culture, ethnicity, geographic location, language, politics (or the government), religion, traditions and belief in a shared singular history Patriotism = proud of country for what it does - feeling of responsibility. Nationalism = proud of country no matter what - feeling of blind arrogance. 2. Describe liberal views on the monarchy, the suffrage, free trade, and education. (Use Sperber in your answer). Did you notice any national varieties in liberalism? Liberal views on monarchy, hereditary monarch would provide continuity and stability as independent executive. Only in France, some liberals were republicans just like USA model Society was self-regulating: limited franchise, securing civil rights, mutual checks executive and legislative: restrict governmental activity Women dependent on men, employees on employers, so no vote Distinction between mob and the people Equality for the law: no feudal tenures agriculture, no strikes or trade unions took the lead in founding institutions that would allow workers to acquire their own property: savings banks, mutual benefit societies, and institutes of technical and vocational education. Free trade, economic growth and industrialization Zollverein 1834, Central Italy, southern Germany against British industrialization, lead to propertyless proletarians, protect guilds Friedrich List protectionist against free trade, Hungarian liberals adopted it, railroads, industry, seaport Liberals great supporters of education, anti-clericalism In the constitutional monarchies of western Europe, above all in France, under the Orléans dynasty, come to power following the revolution of 1830, liberalism became governmental. French liberalism was party status quo Rest Europe liberalism was oppositional political movement against absolutism. Absolutists in Prussia, Austria and Italy dead against constitutional monarchy Liberals were for equality for the law but not franchise Supported ideals French revolution but they were no democrats or republicans Notables, shunning violence, gradualism in fact, it took the drastic, unexpected and often unwanted step of violent revolution in 1848 to bring liberals, however briefly, to power. 1. What were according to Sperber the three main themes of conservatism? Explain. Conservatism: Reaction against Enlightenment ideas Three main themes dominated it, historical tradition (institutions living organisms), patriarchalism (state is father, love and chastise), and divine justification (Christian state) Used as criticism of bureaucracy If all men were equal why no women vote? Few wanted that. Alliance throne and altar, protestant revivalism Bismarck Von Putkammern, Catholics Jesuits and Redemptorists Hungarians nobles Catholics, Hungarian protestants liberal Against Laissez-faire, industrialization, and economic individualism, clashed divinely inspired hierarchy, railroads can have revolutionary effect Nobility Prussia, supported King, against constitution, free trade wool, grain timber exports 1840s conservatives on the defensive, Metternich despair France 1830 Orléans, liberal regime, conservatives struggled with it but sometimes rallied to the liberal regime since it protected property and bulwark against radicalism 2. The French state also practiced nation building in the nineteenth century. Discuss the diversity of France in the nineteenth century. Robert Tombs, Imagined community: the Nation When did an idea of Frenchness become a significant aspect of the identity of the peoples of France? 1870’s standard French was foreign language for half population Breton, Flemish, German dialects, Catalan, various forms of the langue d’oc, multitude dialects northern French, the langue d’oil Policemen, clergy, judges, soldiers needed interpreters Pays was not the nation but the home district, compatriot 1891 standard time, but locals had their own, local weight/measures long after French Revolution throughout 19th century Huge gulf between city and countryside Patchwork of local and regional economies, own fairs, banks, stock exchanges Weber: very late transition of peasants to Frenchmen, last quarter 19th century French identity theoretical, most maps were of the region Heritage French revolution: French nation Federalism speak Breton, hatred of the Republic German, counter-revolution Italian, fanaticism Basque 3. How did the French state try to create a unified nation? Use Tombs in your answer. Road system Napoleon to Louis Philippe late 1840s 1842 Railway law Railroad: France became more national, Banque de France>, local stock exchanges , cheap train tickets, affordable bicycles, expensive cars, special glories of France 1913 French language of good manners and being up to date, patois was for family 6. What was being French supposed to involve? Linguistic particularism discouraged by secondary and higher education Every political party stood for France one and indivisible, especially the Left What was being French supposed to involve? 1. la grande nation, with complete history 2. guardian of glorious heritage of ancient world 3. French was the most perfect language: precise, harmonious, sweet, clear 4. France uniquely complete beautiful, natural frontiers, symmetrical, well proportioned and regular 5. mission civilisatrice towards less lucky societies 6. French civilization was most polite and sophisticated, its women most elegant, French products highest quality, Debussy deplored the influence of Wagner, chauvinist Romanticism was a revolt against French classicism Nagging fears about decline and decadence 7. What was the attitude of the French conservatives to this vision? Catholicism, the eldest daughter of the Church Protector of the papacy Clovis conversion 496 Reims Droit Divin Bourbon, legitimists Joan of Arc 8. In what areas of France did regional separatism persist? Use Tombs. - 1870 half of France spoke French - Breton, Basque, Flemish, German dialects, Catalan, langue d’oc, langue d’oil (north) - Separatists: Basques, Breton, Catalan, Flemish, Corsican Africa, the Ottoman empire, and the new Imperialism 1800-1914 1. In what ways did the British try to fight slavery? Why did the British abolish slavery? After 1775 campaign abolition UK. Immorality of human bondage. British women. 1807 slave trade illegal (ban on slave imports). 1833 abolition slavery in most colonies British navy began seize slave runners’ ships. Less than 10 % of all slave ships caught. Slaves were set free in Sierra Leone and Liberia USA banned slave trade 1808, slaves children (natural increase) 1865 slavery abolished 13th amendment Demand slaves high Brazil, Cuba sugar and coffee plantations until 1860s Slave trade West Africa but in 1860s < Legitimate trade palm oil, peanuts, alternative for slave trade Most intensive use of slaves within Africa: mines, transport, grow crops, slave armies 2. What was the impact of the Islamic revival on the African continent? Sudanic savannah (below the Sahel), by early 18th century Islamhad ruled for 500- 1000 years Rural peasants and cattle raisers were animist Sokoto caliphate, Uthman dan Fodio, jihad 1804, 1809 new Sokoto Caliphate Government of laws not of men, stability Islam aproved slavery of non-muslims and heretics, 1900 Sokoto had between 1 million and 2,5 million slaves East Africa, Sayid Said, sultan of Oman conquered Mombassa (Kenya), Zanzibar, slave based plantations, control of East African coast (Swahili). 1870 prior Christian armies, most East and Central Africa would accept islam within a generation 3.What is the scramble for Africa? What was agreed at the Berlin Conference (1884-1885)? What were the most important imperialist powers? Get a piece of African cake France, Germany, Britain, Belgium, Spain, Italy Berlin Conference 1884-85: Africans not invited, claims African territory required effective occupation, treaties local leaders, economic development, suppress slavery 1880 Europeans controlled 20 % Africa, 1914 90 % Only Ethiopia and Liberia independent Missionaries publicized horrors of slave trade (Atl. Slavetrade abolished late 1860s) King Leopold II Congo Free State, promising civilization and Christianity 4. In what way did the development of South Africa diverge from the rest of sub-Saharan Africa? Discuss the relations between the main three parties in South Africa in the age of imperialism. Whites settled in large numbers, modern capitalist industry, British imperialist waged all-out war. British took posesion of the Dutch Cape Colony during Napoleonic Wars, After 1815 three cornered battle: African chiefdoms, Boers (Afrikaners), British colonial forces Shaka’s war led to Zulu, Tswana, Swazi, Ndebele, Sotho, by 1890 largely subdued by Dutch and British invaders 1834-1838 British abolished slavery, 1835 Afrikaners Great Trek North British ruled Cape Colony and Natal, Afrikaners Orange Free State, Transvaal, African people lost most of their land 1899-1902 Anglo-Boer War (gold was in hands Transvaal Afrikaner) 1910 Cape Colony, Natal, Orange Free State, Transvaal formerd new self-governing Union of South Africa, white minority power, Afrikaners outnumbered British and regained land, South Africa segregation, after 1945 racial separation 5. What is the Tanzimat? Why was it launched, and why did these "regulations" fail? Tanzimat: reforms 1839-1876, constitution, short-lived Parliament, equality for the law (muslims, christians Jews), security life and property, modern bureaucracy, slavery < Tanzimat partial success: 1. new generation well-trained officials did not exist 2. failed to halt growth nationalism christian subjects Balkans 3. European bankers took over 4. equal rights led to dispute secularists and conservatives Ottoman empire shrank 1816 Serbia local autonomy 1830 Greek independence 1830 French conquest Algeria 1877-1878 Russo-Turkish War, Congress of Berlin: independence of Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, Montenegro Ottomans lost territory Caucasus, Austria-Hungary occupied Bosnia-Herzegovina, Novi Pazar, GB Cyprus 1908 Young Turks revolution, overtrow Abulmahid II, Mehmed V (1909-1918), preparation modern secular Turkey. 6. How did Egypt try to modernize? What was the role of Muhammed Ali? Why was Egypt occupied by the British in 1882? Muhhamad Ali 1805-1849 Governor Egypt part Ottoman Empire Foundered when he invaded Syria and threatened Mahmud II, withdrew Syria, but got rule Egypt and Sudan Commercial agriculture for European markets Attracted bankers, army officers, engineers, doctors etc. His grandson Ismail, cotton, Suez canal 1869, expensive projects Anti-European riots Alexandria in response to foreign financial control, Britain took over 1882-1956 7. How large was the economic gap between the industrializing regions and the nonindustrialized or Third World regions in 1914? Describe the debate on the causes. What is Hanks's view? What is your view? 1750 average living standard ho higher in Europe as a whole than in rest of world In 1914 4 or 5 times as great (GB 9 to 10 times) Two schools: 1. West used science, technology, capitalist organization to create wealth 2. West used political, economic and military power to steal its riches through rapacious colonialism Wesseling 1. What is Social Darwinism? Describe its influence on society. Use Wesseling in your answer Social Darwinism: Social Darwinists believe in “survival of the fittest”—the idea that certain people become powerful in society because they are innately better. Social Darwinism has been used to justify imperialism, racism, eugenics and social inequality at various times over the past century and a half Herbert Spencer Examples forced religious conversions, imperialism Charles Darwin, who developed the theory of evolution that species improved over time with the strongest triumphing over the weak. the quality of human race should be improved by privileging the best human specimens Justification inequality and imperialism 2. Discuss the theory of imperialism of Hobson. What is the major difference with the theory of Lenin? Use Wesseling. Hobson: capitalism leads to under-consumption and over-production and to war Workers produced more than they received wages: Surplus capital could no longer be invested at home. Seeking foreign markets is the solution. 1916 Lenin: Imperialism the highest stage capitalism Lenin differed from Hobson: imperialism inevitable, Hobson there was an alternative of higher wages! Lenin argues that capitalism will inevitably collapse, and a revolution is bound to happen, because of the low wages of workers who will no longer be able to afford certain goods. Hobson-Lenin thesis: capitalism need markets, raw materials, created industrialization and the great depression 1873-1896 3. What were the views of Gallagher and Robinson on the origins of British imperialism? How did Brunschwigg explain French imperialism? What is the major debate concerning German imperialism according to Wesseling? Gallagher and Robinson attacked Hobson (1953) Late Victorians had to formalize their Empire due to crises, frontier situations and political vacuums This was strategic and not economic Their imperialism was reluctant and defensive Henri Brunschwig Impossible to explain French imperialism on economic grounds imperialism yielded no profit, most French imperialists had no economic motive. No connection between imperialism and protectionism Explanation was nationalism after the defeat of 1870 French economic imperialism was not in Africa but in Russia and Ottoman empire French colonialism was not imperialistic and French imperialism not colonial - France imperialism slow start Two colonial pressure groups: navy and the geographers Business world was not interested People did not want to emigrate, demography stagnating Foreign trade little economic consequence French industry was still waiting to get off the ground Paul-Leroy-Beaulieu colonial economic doctrine France should export capital 1881 he advocated swift annexation when Tunis tensions rose, France defeated Ottomans and took Tunisia. Colonies serve as an outlet for bad elements of society, and slow down the advance of socialism Jules Ferry modern colonization: export of goods and capital, to recover old French glory. Germany Propagating Deutschtum, apart from economic motives 1882 Kolonialverein 1884 Bismarck’s conversion colonialism Germany had no fleet, no commercial establishments, no need raw materials, colonies meant more power Reichstag (Bismarck disliked) - Why did Bismarck convert to colonialism? Primat der Aussenpolitik, to distract France from blue line Vosges, focus on distant horizons. divert attention from social question Bismarck’s resignation 1890 led Weltpolitik: colonies in order to be able to compete with Russia, British Empire, USA 4. According to Wesseling imperialism was a general European phenomenon, but still it was different for every country. Illustrate his view by discussing the imperialist policies of three different nations. France it was not colonial, not imperialistic, no profit, it was nationalistic Germany: divert attention from social question, colonies meant more power for Parliament Begium, king Leopold 5. Toward the end of his article Wesseling stresses that not only motives are important in explaining imperialism, but the available "means" as well. Explain this statement. Was imperialism only a response to changes in Europe in Wesseling's view? Give an example. Why the transition from a tranquil imperialism to a restless imperialism? It requires not only means but also power Means: medicine, machine gun, racism, steam ships, railroad etc. What induced Europeans to use these means of power? Nationalism, racism, development capitalism etc. But also changes overseas: shift in demand from slaves to agriculture led to internal shifts of power in Africa, conflicting financial interests between North Africa and Europe 6. What is new imperialism? What is the difference with the old imperialism? What are the causes of the new imperialism? One possible answer: modern imperialism does not exist. It is continual process of expansion. Only that tranquil expansion gave way to a more frenzied one. 7. What arguments were put forward by European and American imperialists in favor of their imperialist ambitions? How did critics respond? Feelings of superiority and racism, nationalism Critics: Marxists, Christian missionaries, the American anti-imperialist League: The anti-imperialists opposed forced expansion, believing that imperialism violated the fundamental principle that just republican government must derive from "consent of the governed." The League argued that such activity would necessitate the abandonment of American ideals of self-government and non-intervention Jonathon Swift opposed English imperialism of the British empire and its affect on the Irish economy by writing the satirical essay ''A Modest Proposal for preventing the Children of a Poor People from being a Burden to Their Parents or Country, and for making them Beneficial to the Public,'' Mark Twain objected to America's imperialistic ambitions after the Spanish American War because he felt that imperialism was antithetical to America's highest values of freedom and equality. In the Spanish American War of 1898, the U.S. acquired colonies in the Philippines, Puerto Rico and Guam In the 20th century, the Soviet Union represented themselves as the foremost enemy of imperialism and thus politically and financially supported Third World revolutionary organisations who fought for national independence. Asia and The Pacific in the Era of Imperialism 1800-1904 1. How was India ruled before the Great Mutiny 1857? What is the Great Mutiny? What were its causes? How did this affect British rule? Mention a few socioeconomic and political effects of British rule. Was British rule in India, on balance, a force for good? Mughal Empire 1526-1857, before British rule, muslim empire Great mutiny 1857, 1857 Great revolt sepoys (fat from cow and pigs to grease rifles, high taxation, incorporation low caste soldiers army) After 1858 India ruled by British Parliament, 3500 white civil servants India, population 300 million, direct British rule 1858-1947 Slavery outlawed, Sati (widow suicide) banned 1809, legal protection of widow remarriage 1856, infanticide (girls) banned 1870 Large plantations, tenant farming led to landlessness logging deforestation, simpler property laws, rail road, irrigation, British textile machinery destroyed the Indian weavers, cholera >, high caste Hindus. were educated, inequality examinations 2. Discuss causes, course and consequences of the Opium war. Do the same for the Taiping rebellion. The roots of the Opium War (or First China War) lay in a trade dispute between the British and the Chinese Qing Dynasty. By the start of the 19th century, the trade in Chinese goods such as tea, silks and porcelain was extremely lucrative for British merchants. The problem was that the Chinese would not buy British products in return. They would only sell their goods in exchange for silver, and as a result large amounts of silver were leaving Britain. In order to stop this, the East India Company and other British merchants began to smuggle Indian opium into China illegally. This was then used to buy tea and other goods. By 1839, opium sales to China paid for the entire tea trade. In May 1839 they forced the British Chief Superintendent of Trade in China, Charles Elliott, to hand over the stocks of opium at Canton for destruction. This outraged the British and was the incident that sparked conflict. The British believed the Chinese had always been uncooperative, having allowed only one port, Canton, to be used by western merchants since the 18th century. There were many British politicians and merchants who viewed the dispute as an ideal opportunity to open up China. Naval engagements Macao, Chusan, Tinghai Negotiations began between the British and the Chinese Emperor. British demanded compensation and the granting of an island off the coast for use as a trading station. The Chinese refused and on 7 January 1841 the British captured the Bogue forts of Chuenpi and Tycocktow that guarded the mouth of the Pearl River. Chinese fleet destroyed, Hong Kong became British territory The war ended on 17 August 1842, with the Treaty of Nanking. The treaty committed the Chinese to free trade, including the trade in opium. Hong Kong was ceded to Britain, and the Treaty Ports of Guangzhou, Amoy, Foochow, Shanghai and Ningpo were opened to all traders. Taiping rebellion The ease with which the British had defeated the Chinese armies seriously affected the Qing dynasty's prestige. This contributed to the Taiping Rebellion (1850-64). For the victors, the Opium War paved the way for the opening up of the Chinese market. The rebellion began under the leadership of Hong Xiuquan (1814–64), a disappointed civil service examination candidate who, influenced by Christian teachings, had a series of visions and believed himself to be the son of God, the younger brother of Jesus Christ, sent to reform China The Taiping Rebellion is also well known for its charismatic leadership, Christian ideology, anti-Manchu nationalism, and radical social reform. Peasants hated the Qing government because of corruption. After fighting the bloodiest civil war in world history, with over 20 million dead, the established Qing government won decisively, although at a great price to its fiscal and political structure. Taiping Rebellion has negative impacts on population density, but positive effect on industrialization and urbanization through change in endowment, human capital, and official stricture. Mao Zedong regarded the Taiping Rebellion (1850-1862) as an unfinished revolution. 3. How did China respond to the Western challenge? Pay attention to the Self- Strengthening movement, the response of the Manchu dynasty to the defeat against Japan in 1894 / 1895, the Boxer rebellion and the 1911 revolution. The Qing dynasty was established in 1636 by the Manchus to designate their regime in Manchuria, in what is now northeastern China. It became the imperial dynasty of all of China in 1644 after the reigning Ming dynasty called upon the Manchus for military assistance Self-strengthening movement (1861–95) in which the Qing dynasty (Manchus 1644– 1911/12) of China introduced Western methods and technology in an attempt to renovate Chinese military, diplomatic, fiscal, and educational policy. The Self-Strengthening Movement succeeded in securing the revival of the dynasty from the brink of eradication, sustaining it for another half-century. The considerable successes of the movement came to an abrupt end with China's defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War in 1895. Self-Strengthening failed due to a lack of Qing support, the decentralised nature of government and its narrow focus. Qing leaders wanted military and economic modernisation but without accompanying social or political reforms. The Manchus launched the Self-Strengthening Movement to bring back the glory of their dynasty after the Taiping Rebellion. Aimed to merge modern Western industrial technology with China's Confucian institutions and values. need for China to learn from the Europeans through the study of modern Western science and languages. The Self-Strengthening movement included: Arsenals, shipyards, coal mines, a steamship company to contest the foreign domination of coastal shipping, schools for learning foreign ways and languages. Also dispatched schoolboys to America for "western education". New industries, railway lines, steam navigation companies, coal mines, telegraph, cotton spinning and weaving factories Newspapers, Chinese embassies Western World 1894 Sino-Japanese War, Japan acquired Korea 1898 Western powers wanted to divide China among themselves The First Sino-Japanese War (1 August 1894–17 April 1895), primarily over the control of Korea. Both the Chinese and European public initially believed that China would defeat Japan, but the modernized Imperial Japanese Army overpowered them. After six months of desperate fighting, the Qing government sued for peace. The war shattered the illusion in China and abroad about the country's dominant position in East Asia and proved Japan to be the rising power. The Qing dynasty was also forced to cede Taiwan, Penghu, and the Liaodong Peninsula to Japan, and it transferred its vassalage of the Joseon dynasty to Japan. republican revolution 1898 reformers warned Qing emperor fate of Poland Stressed triumph Meiji reformers Japan China constitutional monarchy modern finance and education Manchu and empress imprisoned emperor 1898 natural disasters, flooding Yellow river, droughts, Boxers blamed them on foreign and Christian influence 1900 Boxer revolt, blamed ills foreigners, anti-colonial, anti-christian Dozen nations intervened, cancel civil service examinations, indemnity 1911 revolution Western style republic 4. The Meiji restoration in Japan is often called "one of history's most remarkable chapters." Describe the rapid transformation of Japan. Pay attention to the political, military, economic, social and cultural aspects. 18th century Trade limited Nagasaki only for Dutch, Japanese forbidden travel abroad European threat forced Japan to modernize 1853 USA Gunboat diplomacy, opened two ports Emperor Kyoto no effective power, real power Tokugawa shogun in Edo No social mobility peasant to merchant, or merchant to samurai Due USA intrusion: Samurai act against shogun and revere emperor and expel foreigners, terrorism 1858 Western Powers allied fleet to demolish Japanese forts 1867 reform-minded daimyo ousted Shogunate Restored power of the Meihi emperor (not practised 600 years) Real power remained in hands oligarchs Reform Japan along Western lines, centralization: Everyone equal, no samurai privileges Schools discipline, patriotism, morality, National police force 1889 constitutional government German model, no democracy Emperor sacred and inviolable, right appoint cabinet Industrialisation Railroads, mines, factories Mechanical reeling silk Indemnity China 1895 into Yawata iron and steel works Import substitution cotton mills Zaibatsu, great industrial conglomerates political connections Peasant riots but rice production grew, death rates dropped From 33 million 1868 to 45 million 1900 Taiwan and Korea became colonies of Japan Korean external and internal threats (Tonghak movement) 1867 Japan opened three ports Korea 1894 religious massive revolt Korea, China and Japan came to aid Korean government 1904-1905 Sino-Japanese War, Japan won, got Taiwan and Korea 1905 Japanese victory Russo-Japanese War 1899 abolition extraterritoriality, 1911 control own tariffs 5. What were the causes of the Meiji restoration? The Meiji Restoration was a coup d’état that resulted in the dissolution of Japan’s feudal system of government and the restoration of the imperial system. Members of the ruling samurai class had become concerned about the shogunate’s ability to protect the country as more Western countries attempted to “open” Japan after more than two hundred years of virtual isolation. They wanted to unite the country under a new, centralized government in order to strengthen their army to defend against foreign influence. 6. We can conclude that in the period under review Japan was quite successful in meeting the Western challenge and China was not. Explain why Japan's modernization was a success why China in the nineteenth century remained what we to-day would call a failed state. 1. British opium was smuggled into China. Opium trade caused the silver flow into China to end. China lost the opium war and were forced to open more cities to the European merchants 2. Internal Chinese problems. Population growth led to smaller farms. Depressed wages and female infanticide causing men to leave home for better options. Led to Taiping rebellion establishing their capital at Nanjing. Manchus and Chinese armies defeated the Taiping rebels. China reforms and improved industrial abilities. China lost the war with Japan over Korea. Lost Taiwan. Boxers rebellion. Foreign Nations crushed the Boxers rebellion. Idea of reform lost momentum. 1911 revolution ended the monarchy The Americas in the Age of Liberalism 1810-1917 1. In what ways did the United States come to resemble European powers in building an overseas empire? Pay attention to: the Monroe doctrine, the Roosevelt corollary to the Monroe doctrine, (p. 810) 1823 Monroe Doctrine: US would keep European influence out of Latin America US as a civilized nation would correct the chronic wrongdoing of its neighbours. 1898 Spanish American War, USA occupies Cuba, Guam, Puerto Rico, Philippines 1899-1902 Philippines American War, no independence Philippines. By 1890 US claimed contiguous territories through purchasement, war and displacement Eyes on Cuba, Puerto Rico in Caribbean, and Philippine islands and Guam in Pacific Claiming control of land and people that served its economic interests Justifying its domination by arguing that it was advancing civilization 1898-1932 US intervened 34 times in ten nations in Caribbean and central America to extend its economic interests The easiest way to connect East and West North US was often through Latin America 1855 Panama Railway, Panama Canal 1914 Abolitionists against expanding slavery westward 1856 William Walker deposed government Nicaragua, reinstated slavery, overthrown by armies Costa Rica, El Salvador, Honduras 1857 1893 Santo Domingo Improvement Company bought foreign debt Nicaragua Roosevelt Corollary to Monroe Doctrine: US as a civilized nation would correct the chronic wrongdoings of its neighbours such as failure to protect US investments 1903-1904 Marines to Dominican Republic, again 1916-1924, dictator Trujilo ruled 1930-1961 support USA 1915-1934 marines occupied Haiti, 1912-1934 same Nicaragua 2. How did the US acquire the Panama Canal Zone? 1869 Suez Canal US encouraged insurrection Panama city New Panamanian government gave US permanent control canal 1904, Canal Zone Panama canal Opened 1914 Workers segregated 3. Explain why in the period 1810-1917 the United States achieved greater political stability than Mexico? Mexico was independent but unstable 1810-1821 War of independece from Spain 1822 Emperor Augustin de Iturbide, deposed a year later 1823 Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, El Salvador and Costa Rico broke away Mexico rival factions competed, unstable, most powerful caudillo Lopez de Santa Anna USA more stable 1789 constitution Disagreement federal versus state, slavery Civil War 1861-1865 Economically USA integrated British Empire North grew faster, immigration, banking, industrialization South: slavery, tenant farming, not good immigrants cannot compete slaves 4. How did the USA take advantage of its greater political stability at the cost of Mexico’s territory? 1810-1821 Mexican War of Independence with Spain USA believed Manifest destiny, Mexico was weak 1836 Texas independent from Mexico President Polk: need to "re-annex" Texas, Mexican-American War of 1846 to 1848 1848 Treaty of Guadelupe Hidalgo: Rio grande became border not the Nueces river. Mexico lost about 1/3 of its territory, including nearly all of present-day California, Utah, Nevada, Arizona and New Mexico. 5. Explain how Mexico finally managed to implement land reform. Export agricultural and mineral commodities, not around internal market: Export Commodities disrupted by independence process Mexico Silver mine La Valenciano destroyed War of Independence 1810-1821 Mexico vicious cycle: no capital, tax revenues shrank, political instability 1836 Texas independent, Texas 1835 US state 1864-1848 Mexican American War, Mexico lost half territory USA Liberal reform Mexico 1853 Mexican president Santa Anne Gadsden purchase, land sold to USA: Liberals were against it, called for reform 1855 Juarez Law, abolition privileges military officers, clergy, 1856 Lerdo Law barred corporate holdings (Catholic church) 1857-1861 Wars of Reform, conservatives invited Napoleon III, Maximilian Habsburg emperor Mexico. USA supported Juarez, defeated French troops and conservatives The Porfiriato and Liberal Stability in Mexico 1876 Porfirio Diaz president of Mexico Porfiriato regime 1876-1911, pan o palo (bread or the stick) Haven for foreign investment, foreign trade increased, railroad, third largest oil producer Scientificos, lavish rewards, indigenous considered racially inferior Land valuable, large landowners usurped small ones 1910 80 % rural peasants had no land Porfiriato favoured foreign investors over its own citizens Mexican revoltuion Portofirio won election 1910, Madero said it was illegal Civil war peasants support Madero, drove out Diaz USA conspired Madero’s army commander to assasinate Madero 1912 Emiliano Zapata called for the return of all land, Plan de Ayala Constitutionalists Venustiano Carranza and Alvara Obregon prevailed but included parts Plan de Ayala 1917 constitution all land to the nation, 80 million acres redistributed, ejidos, workers right to unionize, strike, 8 hours workday, minimum wage, maternity leave Political stability 100 years 6. What were the limitations of US political stability? Constitution individual states autonomy slavery Slavery abolished Northern states, westward expansion tested political compromise North and South 1860 Lincoln elected President, against slavery Southern political leaders Confederate States of America Civil War 1861-1865 1862 Emancipation Proclamation, abolished slavery in all states opposed to the Union 1865 Southern rebel states surrendered 1865 Thirteenth Amendment fully abolished slavery Slavery in USA different Latin America Gradual abolition North America made slavery regional rather national institution Civil War lasting regional backlash codified racial segregation Racial prejudice perpetuated through informal practices (employment, housing, lending) US South erected a distinct legal edifice preserving white privilege (like South Africa) Immigration to the USA Railroads built by immigrants, Chinese, Scandinavian, Irish Carnegie steel Corporation: Slavs, Italians Urbanization Bad working conditions, women lower salaries, children Racism: old Protestant prejudice against Catholics, Anti-Semitism, 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act 1907 restrictions Japanese immigrants Latin America these ‘whiter’ immigrants are better black indigenous workers The First World War, the Russian Revolution and the Age of Anxiety, 1914-1929 1. The First World War has been called the "Mother of all Catastrophes", or the "seminal catastrophe of the twentieth century". Mention two consequences of the war that were disastrous. Explain your answer. Can you mention a positive result of the war? WW II Terrible loss of human life Economic growth < Stab in the back legend Colonized: Europeans are not super humans but can be defeated Nationalism and individual freedom is universal, for colonized too Planned economy Positive: woman emancipation, right to vote, unions>, entry socialist leaders in war governments, promoted social equality 2. Discuss German foreign policy: - What was Bismarck's first concern and what was his second concern? How did he deal with them? - Why did emperor William II end the reinsurance (or non-aggression) treaty with Russia? - Why and how did Anglo- German rivalry develop? - How did the Germans test the strength of the Entente in 1905? What was the result? Bismarck: 1. keeping was to keep rival France diplomatically isolated and without military allies. 2. to prevent Germany from being dragged into a war between the two rival empires, Austria-Hungary and Russia Bismarck brokered a series of treaties and alliances, all meant to ensure the balance of power in Europe and to prevent the outbreak of war. Wilhelm II believed his own personal relationship and blood ties with the Russian Royal family would be sufficient to ensure a further genial tie between the two countries. Many Germans and some Britons felt that the ethnically related Germanic and Anglo- Saxon peoples were natural allies. However, the good relations that had prevailed between Prussia and Great Britain since the mid-eighteenth century gave way after 1890 Commercial rivalry Desire Kaiser Weltpolitik Flottenbau - 1905 Morocco Germany’s leaders decided to test the entente’s strength by demanding an international conference to challenge French control over Morocco. At the Algeciras (Spain) Conference in 1906, Germany’s crude bullying only forced France and Britain closer together, and Germany left the meeting empty-handed. The Moroccan crisis was something of a diplomatic revolution. Britain, France, Russia, and even the United States began to view Germany as a potential threat. At the same time, German leaders began to suspect sinister plots to encircle Germany and block its development as a world power. In 1907 Russia and Britain settled their outstanding differences and signed the Anglo-Russian Agreement. This treaty, together with the earlier Franco-Russian Alliance of 1892 and Anglo-French Entente of 1904, served as a catalyst for the Triple Entente, the alliance of Great Britain, France, and Russia in the First World War 3. 3. Describe the rise of the Triple Entente. Pay attention to: - the French -Russian alliance (1892) - the French-British Entente Cordiale (1904) - the Anglo-Russian agreement (1907). Prompted by end of the non aggression pact 1890 between Germany and Russia 1892 French Russian alliance. French loans and arms to the Tsar In 1907 Russia and Britain settled their outstanding differences and signed the Anglo- Russian Agreement. This treaty, together with the earlier Franco-Russian Alliance of 1892 and Anglo-French Entente of 1904, served as a catalyst for the Triple Entente, the alliance of Great Britain, France, and Russia in the First World War 4. Why did Austria annex Bosnia in 1908? How did this influence Russia? The Slavic Serbs looked to Slavic Russia for support of their national aspirations. In 1908, to block Serbian expansion, Austria formally annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina, with their large Serbian, Croatian, and Muslim populations. Serbia erupted in rage but could do nothing without Russia’s support Panslavism. Blanco cheque support 5. Deal with the July-crisis. Pay attention to: - the assassination of Franz Ferdinand, 28 June - the German "Blank Check" to Austria. - the Austrian Ultimatum to Serbia, 23 July - the Austrian declaration of war on Serbia, 28 July - the Russian response - the subsequent declarations of war. Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, and his wife, Sophie, on June 28, 1914, during a state visit to the Bosnian capital of Sarajevo. Austria-Hungary’s leaders held Serbia responsible and on July 23 presented Serbia with an unconditional ultimatum that included demands amounting to Austrian control of the Serbian state. When Serbia replied moderately but evasively, Austria declared war on Serbia on July 28. Of prime importance in Austria-Hungary’s fateful decision was Germany’s unconditional support. Kaiser Wilhelm II and his chancellor, Theobald von Bethmann- Hollweg realized that war between Austria and Russia was likely, for Russia could not stand by and watch the Serbs be crushed. Yet Bethmann-Hollweg hoped that while Russia (and its ally France) might go to war, Great Britain would remain neutral. Anticipating a possible conflict, Europe’s military leaders had been drawing up war plans and timetables for years, and now these, rather than diplomacy, began to dictate policy. On July 28, as Austrian armies bombarded Belgrade. Russia had assumed a war with both Austria and Germany, and it could not mobilize against one without mobilizing against the other. Therefore, on July 29 Russia ordered full mobilization and in effect declared general war. The German general staff had also prepared for a two-front war. Its Schlieffen plan, first drafted in 1905, called for first knocking out France with a lightning attack through neutral Belgium to capture Paris before turning on a slower-to-mobilize Russia. On August 3 German armies invaded Belgium. Great Britain declared war on Germany the following day. In each country the great majority of the population rallied to defend its nation and enthusiastically embraced war in August 1914. Philip Bell, Origins of the War of 1914 1. Why did according to Bell the search for an explanation of the First World War become almost an obsession? Search for the underlying causes for the war, replace responsibility with causality In France and Britain: Germany is the culprit German government: Germany has not sought war, Russia (Straits) and France (Alsace-Lorraine) wanted war, President France Poincaré and Russian ambassador Iswolski conspiring war Case against imperialism by socialists Case against secret diplomacy and alliance system 2. What four main interpretive trends are there in the controversy over the origins of the First World War according to Porter and Armour? Which one of the four interpretations is most convincing in their view? Why? Porter and Armour Four trends controversy origins of WW I 1. Fischer thesis, Germany deliberately unleashed a war for Welt hegemony, 2. preventive defence, Bethmann Hollweg deliberately provoked a diplomatic crisis which it knew might lead to war because it feared German isolation and growing Russian strength (Anglo-Russian naval talks and German escape forwards 3. all nations responsible, Britain could have made at an early date what it would do in case of war, Germany’s Mittellage 4. Germany responsible, war was acceptable since it would be short and winnable July crisis bears out fourth interpretation: Bethmann was obsessed with Russian growth, he thought that he could diminish continental threat without British hostility Secret carte blanche to Austria, defensive reaction to a Russian threat 3. (Refer to Bell) What are the most important characteristics of Fritz Fischer's thesis? What is Bell's position on Fischer's thesis? How important were Germany's actions nevertheless according to Bell? What was according to Bell the role of Austria, of Russia, of France of Britain in the July-crisis? On the basis of what you have read: What is your view of Fischer's thesis? Fritz Fischer 1961 Griff nach der Weltmacht Germany bore large part responsibility outbreak of WW I German ruling elite (bankers, professors, army, industry, landowners long held expansionist views, willing to go to war Germany was willing to risk general war by supporting Austria, amd encouraged Austria to attack Serbia Bethmann Memorandum 9 Sept 1914 German war aims: complete German domination of Europe Economic growth strenghened new elite of commerce and industry, they asked for world policy led to naval competition and they hoped to crush socialist party by starting war SDP was largest party, rejected Prussian constitution which gave special privileges to aristocracy, SPD was antimilitarist, primacy internal politics Bell’s position on Fischer thesis Tension between nationalism and multinational Habsburg empire Underlying forces of economics and imperialism: as much opposition to war as jingoism It was not the arms race as such but strategic planning: Schlieffen Plan: attack France first Alliance system is important but Italy ignored it Need to remove threat of Serbia: Germany gave carte blanche to Austria Less clearcut are Fischer”s Weltpolitik and need crush SDP Underlying forces had little impact decision making during war crisis but greatly affected the war which actually came about France had to support Russia otherwise isolation (alliance system) Britain and Germany: Imperial rivalry and naval race 4. Discuss the significance of the Russian Revolution for the history of the twentieth century. Give two examples. Rise of communism as a rival political belief system Start of the Cold War later on Took Russia out of WW I Contributed to the tragedy of the inter war years: Stalin was greater threat than Hitler, appeasement 5. (on Wiesner-Hanks) What factors led to the March Revolution? Why was it difficult for the Provisional Government to restore order after March 1917? What mistakes did it make? What were Lenin's political slogans in 1917? How did these slogans contribute to the Bolshevik takeover of power in October 1917? March Revolution 1917: Russian losses WW I, stupid Tsar Nicholas II, bread march, strikes, Duma declared provisional government March 1917 Prov. Government 2 mistakes: refused land reform and continued the war Formidable rival Petrograd Soviet gave power to elected committees common soldiers Lenin: 1. only violent revolution can destroy capitalism, 2. socialist revolution is possible agrarian society 3. revolution is determined more by leadership than vast historical laws Bolshevist take over oct 1917 All power to soviets, Peace, land and bread, Bolseviks cane to power 3 reasons: 1. anarchy, popular masses no longer supported provisional government 2. Lenin and Trotsky were superior leaders who were determined to provoke Marxist revolution 3. Bolsheviks appealed to soldiers, urban workers and peasants who were exhausted by the war and eager for socialism 6. The introduction by Rabinowitch presents an account of developments in Petrograd following Lenin’s return in April 1917. The chapter “Lenin’s campaign for an insurrection’ presents a quite detailed account of deliberations among the Bolsheviks in September and October 1917. What are the contrasting viewpoints on the course of action, expressed particularly in the October 10 Central Committee meeting? At the end of his article Rabinowitch states: "Few historical episodes better illustrate the sometimes decisive role of an individual in historical events." (p. 208) How has Rabinowitch argued his case? Do you think the October revolution would have taken place without Lenin? Contrasting viewpoints: Kamenev and Zinoviev ere more prudent than Lenin. They stressed the importance of the petty bourgeois.They were closer to the bourgeoisie than to Bolsheviks. K and Z also worried that Bolsheviks had insufficient support. Lenin did not want to wait for the Constituent Assembly but go for direct action: insurrection by the Soviets Lenin won the day, he cajoled, threatened and pressured his colleagues 7. Discuss the terms of the Versailles treaty briefly. Why were the French disappointed? How did the US in the end respond? The primary goal of the treaty of Versailles was to prevent further wars through collective security and disarmament measures. In addition, international disputes should be settled through negotiation and arbitration. Specifically, it dealt with the disarmament of Germany. French disappointed: because they believed that the treaty did not adequately punish Germany. American Senate rejected Treaty of Versailles 1922 German stopped paying reparations, French occupied Ruhr 1923 1924 Dawes Plan, reduction reparations and American loans Aristide Briand and Stresemann Treaty of Locarno 8. How did the mandate system established by the League of Nations reflect the Social Darwinian ideas of the late nineteenth century (Ch 24)? Mandate and trusteeship system set up by the victors over much of the colonized world utilized arguments that derived from Social Darwinism. Darwinism was put at the service of imperialism, as a new instrument in the hands of theorists of race and civilizational struggle. Competition with other European states urged the securing of colonies to prevent raw material, land, and potential markets from being seized by rapacious rivals. In Theodore Roosevelt's "The Strenuous Life" (1899), the future American president warned against the possibility of elimination in an international struggle for existence. America, he said, could not shrink from "hard contests" for empire or else the "bolder and stronger peoples will pass us by, and will win for themselves the domination of the world" (Hofstadter 1955, p. 180). Successful imperial ventures thus were perceived to indicate the vitality, and hence "fitness," of a nation. Social Darwinism also proved to be a justification for the subjugation of non- European peoples, who were deemed less "fit" than Europeans. Nature, theorists argued, intended the rule of superior European nations over inferior colonial races. R 9. Why did it seem that from 1925 to 1929 "peace and stability were within reach?" (p. 842/750) 1925 European leaders met in Locarno, Switzerland. Germany and France solemnly pledged to accept their common border, and both Britain and Italy agreed to fight either France or Germany if one invaded the other. Stresemann also agreed to settle boundary disputes with Poland and Czechoslovakia by peaceful means, and France promised those countries military aid if Germany attacked them. Other developments also strengthened hopes for international peace. In 1926 Germany joined the League of Nations, and in 1928 fifteen countries signed the Kellogg- Briand Pact. The signing nations “condemned and renounced war as an instrument of national policy.” The pact fostered the cautious optimism of the late 1920s and also encouraged the hope that the United States would accept its international responsibilities. 10. Characterize the intellectual climate in the West before 1914. Discuss the subsequent Age of Anxiety. Give two concrete examples. Many people hoped that happier times would return after the war, along with the familiar pre-war ideals of peace, prosperity, and progress. The war had caused such social, economic, and psychological upheaval, however, that great numbers of men and women felt themselves increasingly adrift in an age of anxiety and continual crisis. Uncertainty in Philosophy and Religion Before 1914 most people in the West still believed in Enlightenment philosophies of progress, reason, and individual rights. As the century began, progress was a daily reality, apparent in the rising living standard, the taming of the city, the spread of political rights to women and workers, and the growth of state-supported social programs. Just as there were laws of science, many thinkers felt, there were laws of society that rational human beings could discover and wisely act on. The First World War accelerated the revolt against established philosophical certainties. Logical positivism, often associated with Austrian philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein (VIHT-guhn-shtighn) (1889–1951), rejected most concerns of traditional philosophy — from God’s existence to the meaning of happiness — as nonsense and argued that life must be based on facts and observation. Others looked to existentialism for answers. In contrast, the loss of faith in human reason and in continual progress led to a renewed interest in Christianity. After World War I several thinkers and theologians began to revitalize Christian fundamentals, and intellectuals increasingly turned to religion between about 1920 and 1950. They felt that religion was one meaningful answer to terror and anxiety.

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