History of Philippine Press During the Spanish Era PDF

THE PHILIPPINE PRESS DURING THE SPANISH ERA The Spanish Period started in 1521 and ended in 1900. Crispin Maslog in his Philippine Mass Communications, a Mini-History stated that though the written works under this era were produced by the Spaniards and were written in Spanish as a tool to epitomi...

THE PHILIPPINE PRESS DURING THE SPANISH ERA The Spanish Period started in 1521 and ended in 1900. Crispin Maslog in his Philippine Mass Communications, a Mini-History stated that though the written works under this era were produced by the Spaniards and were written in Spanish as a tool to epitomize their powerful colonial rule over their colonies, this was still the period that marked the foundation of a press in our country – a press that we will someday call our own. I. Flourishing of Mass Media in the Philippines It was in 1521 when “ancient” kinds of mass media like Cenaculo, Patores, Pasyon, Awit Corido, and Balagtasan flourished in the country. II. Introduction of Printing and Colonial Policy Printing was introduced in the country and was spearheaded by the religious orders. The first printing press run by hand was introduced at the University of Sto. Tomas. A colonial policy arose and dictated that before being printed and sold books must receive the approval of the bishop and the Audiencia, the highest tribunal of justice. III. Doctrina Christiana The first book printed in the Philippines was chiseled on blocks of wood in 1593. This book contained the teachings of the Roman Catholic church. IV. Sucesos Filices Released in 1637 and was translated as “Fortunate Events” since it was the first Philippine newsletter that reported about the battles won by the Spaniards. This was printed by Thomas Pinpin, “The Father of Filipino Printing.” V. Hojas Volantes Also called the “flying sheet”, news dissemination via print was done by the Spanish government through this one-issue newsletter that was released in 1799. VI. Del Superior Govierno The first newspaper was published by a private initiative and was distributed free in the Philippines on August 8, 1811. It was devoted to news of political conditions in Europe as affecting the interest of Spain and was edited by the Spanish Governor-General himself. It last appeared on February 7, 1812. VII. Short-lived Newspapers The Noticias Sacadas was published on July 4, 1813, and narrated the battles of Moros in the south. Ramillete Patriotica Manilense was an eight-page monthly newspaper. It was the first frank newspaper and it means “a collection of choice things.” La Filantropia which was published in 1821 closed because of its lack of paying subscribers and advertisers. The Registro Mercantil was a publication established by an economic society. It was the longest life during the period but was cut due to lack of funds. La Opinion marked the beginning of political journalism in the Philippines and was the first opinion newspaper in the country. La Estella de Manila was published in 1847 and was devoted to religion, commerce, art, and literature. It was closed because of the poor management inside the publication. 1 VIII. La Esperanza The first daily newspaper released on December 1, 1846. It turned out to be dull since it dealt mostly with non-controversial subjects to avoid trouble as it tried to compromise with the pre-publication censorship during that time. IX. Diario de Manila Best edited newspaper of the era and has a foreign correspondent in Spain. It was staffed by “The Ablest Journalist of His Time”, Felipe Del Pan. After 38 years of existence, this was suppressed by a Spanish Governor-General for it allegedly incited Filipinos’ hate against Spaniards. X. Other Notable Newspapers of the Era El Catolico Filipino was the first Philippine religious newspaper and was published by a priest named Mariano Sevilla. El Pasig was a bilingual fourth nightly in Spanish and Tagalog. This signified the advent of the native press. Diariong Tagalog was the first daily newspaper that lasted from 3-5 months. El Hogar was the first publication of women that was published. La Semana Elegante was the first satire magazine in the country. El Comercio had the biggest circulation and longest life span of 56 years during the Spanish Era. XI. La Solidaridad Published in 1888 and was the most famous pre-revolutionary newspaper. Its editors were Jose Rizal, Graciano Lopez Jaena and Marcelo H. Del Pilar. THE REVOLUTIONARY PRESS There have been many arguments with regard to the time frame being used when one talks of the Revolutionary period. While many argue that it should strictly be from the 1896 Revolution to the 1899 American “insurrection”, others insist that it began and lasted longer than what those dates suggest. Crispin Maslog in his Philippine Mass Communications, a Mini-History particularly argued that events that triggered the Revolution should also be looked into as well as the last remaining effects it had during the first part of the American regime in the country. For this discussion, we shall follow Maslog’s time frame of 1890 to 1905. To better understand the revolutionary press of the country, it is also extremely important to understand the events during the period that coincided with its existence. Many such events had a big influence over what was to become the revolutionary press of the Philippines. The revolutionary press began serving its purpose of watching over the government and protecting the rights of the people it serves—in this case, the newly independent Filipino people. Professionalism amongst journalists, newsmen, and women ran high when one considers educational attainment, which was the highest possible in the period in question, and also considering their critical and objective approach toward what they think the public should know. Freedom of the press was also apparent in the early years of the period despite Aguinaldo’s pre-licensure policy in 1898 as proven by the variety of newspapers and dailies that were able to circulate both regionally and nationally. No censorship was implored against content which were nationalistic or political in nature and instead was able to nurture the newly found freedom of the people to express whichever they wished. The social impact that the revolutionary press had was immense when one considers the various turn of events it was able to influence—the biggest of which was the 1896 Revolution itself which earned us freedom from Spanish control. Although unable to suppress American intentions to colonize the country, the press served as an avenue for nurturing the nationalistic ideals of the country and kept its objective of representing the Filipino people. 2 I. The Propaganda Movement (1888) The propaganda movement headed by the most famous Jose Rizal, Marcelo H. del Pilar, Mariano Ponce, and Graciano Lopez Jaena although took place before the time frame previously discussed had a huge bearing on the revolutionary press. Being the first of its kind to advocate for rights and reforms for the Philippine colony, it served as the spark of both the press and the Armed Revolution itself. La Solidaridad and the Propagandists First published on December 30, 1888, in Spain, La Solidaridad (The Solidarity) was the first newspaper to have advocated for Philippine reforms and rights for the Filipinos. Composed of an all-Filipino staff, Jose Rizal, Marcelo H. del Pilar, Mariano Ponce, and Graciano Lopez Jaena published a Spanish paper that consisted of essays and editorials that sought to improve the living standards of their fellow countrymen in the home country. Lopez Jaena served as the first editor of the paper and del Pilar was the one to inherit the position later on. It was written in a very intellectual style but unfortunately failed to gain a mass following due to the exclusivity of the Spanish language. It was read however by the leaders of the Katipunan who in turn were inspired to create their own publication that contained similar nationalistic ideals in a manner the Filipino masses would understand. It can be said that La Solidaridad helped spark the Revolution and other nationalistic movements such as those of the press that would eventually result in a brief period of independence before the Filipino-American war. II. 1896 Revolution The armed revolt of the organization known as the Katipunan (KKK) founded by Andres Bonifacio, spearheaded the country’s attempt to rid itself of the control of the Spanish crown and eventually towards independence. The movement succeeded in inspiring nationalistic ideals in the minds and hearts of many Filipinos of their time. Kalayaan and the Katipunan Inspired by the content and objectives of La Solidaridad, Andres Bonifacio, Emilio Jacinto, and Dr. Pio Valenzuela created Kalayaan, an all-Tagalog newspaper that advocated for complete Philippine independence. Its first and only issue became an immediate success in terms of readership which inspired other revolutionaries to come up with a publication of their own. However, it was forced to close right afterward due to the discovery of the Katipunan. The printing headquarters was destroyed by the Katipuneros themselves to avoid further damaging information that may lead to their capture. Despite being able to produce only one issue, many historians consider Kalayaan to be the “first really Filipino newspaper” because of its intention of publishing regularly and the immense effect it had on the people of its time. III. Battle of Manila Bay The battle wherein the Filipinos with the help of the American Asiatic Squadron led by Commodore Dewey defeated the last of the Spanish Fleets in Manila. Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo returned shortly afterward from his exile in Hong Kong during the Spanish-Filipino War. IV. Declaration of Independence & Birth of the First Philippine Republic On June 12, 1898, in Kawit, Cavite, Aguinaldo declared Philippine Independence and effectively became the first president of the First Philippine Republic. Aguinaldo and his advisers proclaimed a pre-licensure policy for the press on July 4, 1898, for fear that it may endanger the stability of the then-fragile Philippine government. 3 La Libertad and Aguinaldo’s Proclamation La Libertad was established on June 20, 1898, shortly after the Philippine independence was declared. It operated in an abandoned printing press in an orphan asylum in Malabon, Rizal previously owned by Augustinian friars. Its editorial staff was headed by Clemente J. Zulueta. It was considered to be the first newspaper to have exercised its press freedom under the Philippine republic and in turn published mainly articles under the theme of nationalism. Because of this, Aguinaldo and his advisors thought it risky to allow the press to freely publish anything it wished for fear of criticizing the then fragile Philippine government. To prevent such from happening, the administration led by the President declared and implemented a pre-licensure policy that required all publications to be authorized by the President himself. “While abnormal circumstances due to the war still prevail, all publications without permission from the government are strictly prohibited.” – July 4, 1898 La Libertad was forced to close. Its writing and editorial staff however were offered positions for the new publication to be spearheaded by the government (Heraldo Filipino) to compensate for its closing, but most joined La Independencia instead. Heraldo Filipino Heraldo Filipino was conceived with Aguinaldo’s July 4 proclamation. It served as the official mouthpiece of the administration, publishing official decrees, policies, and announcements in a bilingual manner (Spanish-Tagalog or Spanish-Ilocano) so as to appeal to both the educated elites and the rest of the masses. It published its first issue on September 29, 1898, in Malolos, Bulacan, and was handled and maintained mainly by the government itself. It changed its name to Indice Oficial (Official Index) and later on to Gacete de Filipinas (Philippine Gazette) in April and May of 1899 respectively. Due to the development of Filipino-American hostilities, Heraldo Filipino eventually shut down. V. Malolos Constitution The freedom of the press to publish and disseminate information it thinks the public should know is restored without further need for licensure. The constitution generally advocated for a democratic setup, hence freedom of expression, information, and of the press was given much importance. VI. Early 20th Century Under the American Regime When the United States started making its objectives of colonizing the Philippines clear, freedom of the press became but a theoretical idea. No censorship in content or pre-licensure policy was implemented but journalists and publications were often subjected to unjust libel laws. During those times, criticizing a high- ranking official or prominent figure became almost synonymous with possible imprisonment, a sizable fine, closing of the publication in question, and other crippling civil damages applicable. La Independencia Founded by Gen. Antonio Luna, La Independencia became known as the most prominent and widely-read newspaper of the entire period. After Aguinaldo’s proclamation on pre-licensure of the press, Luna immediately appealed for authorization and successfully gained presidential permission to set up the publication. The staff consisted of highly skilled journalists and prominent public figures of the time including writers Jose C. Abreu, Cecilio Apostol, Fernando M. Guerrero, Clemente J. Zulueta, and Rafael Palma. Its first issue was published on September 3, 1898 (weeks before Heraldo was published) and operated inside the heart of Manila, although it was publicly announced to be operating in Malabon for security purposes. Luna referred to Independencia as the revival of La Solidaridad and operated with the objective of capturing the voice of a free and independent Philippine Republic. He originally planned it to be named La Patria (Homeland) but was advised against doing so after consulting the American Provost General in Manila for 4 fear it might trigger Filipino-Spanish hostilities once more. It is important to note that during this time, the relationship between the Filipinos and the Americans was similar to those of allies—clearly before American intentions of colonization became evident. A regular issue of Independencia consisted of four (4) pages with one (1) solely devoted to advertisements. Its contents were mostly academic essays and editorials, and only a small portion was devoted to news stories (local and foreign). The quality of its contents was said to be of very high caliber hence it being given the reputation of being the best newspaper of the entire period. It spearheaded the campaign for Philippine Independence throughout the early parts of the American regime until its closing. When Filipino-American hostilities sparked, Gen. Luna was called for military duties, effectively transferring his editorial responsibility to Rafael Palma. Independencia was forced to move from its headquarters in Manila to one in San Fernando, Pampanga, and later on, opting to move into a mobile office via railway coach when the war itself began. Because of the hostile conditions, printing materials became scarce and the paper was reduced in half, with only two (2) pages left devoted to essays. The United States’ victory over their siege in Malolos triggered many writers and editors to leave the Independencia staff. Only Palma, Guerrero, and Apostol were left to keep it running. At this point, many of the paper’s contemporaries were forced to close and it became the sole newspaper advocating for Philippine independence by 1900. Because of the scarcity of resources and the difficulty of distribution, Independencia published its last issue on the 11th of November 1900 while the three remaining members of its staff escaped capture to Camiling, Taguig. But despite its untimely termination, Independencia maintained its nationalistic and revolutionary perspective to the very end as evident in the short excerpt from a translated version of its last issue: “We are near the mountain, there our look is directed; there our liberty will be secure. But to compromise with the enemy, to shake hands with him while with a gun he is opening for us in the future a new era of slavery and sufferings, no, one thousand times no…In spite of victories and because of them, the enemy will be abhorred, not feared…Not a moment of peace and tranquility shall we give to his soldiers.” – cited in Vivencio Jose, The Rise and Fall of Antonio Luna, 1971. La Republica Filipina Similar to Independencia, La Republica Filipina, under Pedro A. Paterno, was another nationalistic and revolutionary paper of its time. Functioning under the objective of achieving “national unity under a democratic Philippine Republic” (Jose, R. 2001), the publication ran from September 15, 1898, to the early months of 1899. El Renacimiento El Renacimiento was known to be the last revolutionary newspaper before the American occupation of the Philippines became fully apparent. It was founded and headed over by Teodoro M. Kalaw and Fidel Reyes. It shifted to tackling non-political news (or at least not against the American administration) in its latter years to avoid being shut down. Other News Dailies Diversity and freedom of owning a publication became extremely apparent during the Revolutionary period as proven by the considerably large number of dailies that then existed throughout the country. Apart from the aforementioned newspapers, regional publications were produced in various areas such as: – La Revolucion (Jaro, Iloilo) – Columnas Volantes (Lipa, Batangas) – La Oportunidad (Tagbilaran, Bohol) – Ang Kaibigan ng Bayan (Malolos, Bulacan) – El Nueva Dia (Cebu) – Ang Bayang Kahapis-hapis (Manila) – La Liberal: Kapatid ng Bayan 5 Most, if not all of the said news dailies reported on local and political themes within their region and the country in general. It can be concluded that freedom, independence, and nationalism became the common denominator amongst the majority of the revolutionary press. PHILIPPINE MEDIA DURING THE AMERICAN OCCUPATION The Philippines was in a turbulent, quickly moving setting during the last decade of the 19th century. Revolutions had gained momentum, Spain was losing grip of its colonies, and ideas of democracy were quickly spreading (arguably from the West) to different nations. Moreover, America was quickly rising to become another superpower. After settling its own conflict with British and Spanish colonizers and eventually a civil war, the country managed to efficiently set up a democratic government and sustain one of the most prosperous economic markets in the world. Another significant change was the Philippines’ rapid press development. From the relatively slow output, due largely to the presiding Spanish friars and government, Filipinos made their way to quick publication which was of course in line with the revolutionary movement. By the 1890s papers in both the Spanish and Filipino languages were already in circulation. It was also around this time that not only the Philippines but Cuba as well was fighting for its independence from Spain. A main difference Cuba had from the Philippines however was the large involvement of the young United States in its affairs. American journalists such as Joseph Pulitzer and William Hearst used yellow journalism to criticize the Spanish administration of Cuba, which in turn agitated U.S. public opinion on anti-Spanish propaganda. Furthermore, Cuban rebels had connections with American senators, congressmen, and the press. This difference, however, will not last long as the Philippines will soon share this essential trait. The Spanish-American War On February 15, 1898, a mysterious explosion sank the US Maine, an American battleship in Havana, Cuba killing 266 of its crewmembers. On April 25 of that year, the U.S. Congress, seeing no other nation with that intention, voted for war against Spain. Thus, the Spanish-American war began, a war that inevitably demanded the Philippines’ involvement. On May 1, 1898, the American Asiatic Squadron under Commodore George Dewey engaged and destroyed the Spanish Pacific Squadron under Admiral Patricio Montojo. This attack is known as the Battle of Manila Bay, famous as the American’s first of many victories against Spain. The victory also gave the U.S. fleet complete control of Manila Bay and the naval facilities at Cavite and Sangley Point, thus ushering in a new incoming wave of mass foreigners. They would bring with them, among others, newspapers to both keep posted and entertained. On August 13, 1898, a scripted battle in Intramuros between the Americans and Spaniards resulted in the Spaniards surrendering the Philippines. The battle, known as the Mock Battle of Manila Bay, was jointly planned by the opposing Spanish and American forces to keep the city from falling to the Philippine Revolutionary Army under President General Emilio Aguinaldo. The script was agreed upon because the Spaniards wished not to be viewed as giving up without a fight. The intentions of this battle reflect how the countries viewed the Philippines, that is, incompetent and vastly inferior. While the American colonization had started even before any declaration or victory battle, it was on December 10, 1898, when the Treaty of Paris was signed, that matters became official. The treaty recognized the end of the Spanish-American War. Along with Spain’s defeat, it was to surrender its colonies Guam, Puerto Rico, and Cuba; the Philippines was bought for 20 million dollars. Prior to the ratification of this treaty, however, there were debates and many conflicting attitudes. The Mood of the Times The general Filipino population of course was wary of being colonized once more. The Americans however were more divided in their opinion of taking in a country. While some opposed it, saying that it was a violation of the nation’s democratic heritage to annex a country (anti-imperialist leagues), or hypocritical since the US wasn’t even trying to protect the rights of black citizens (civil rights activists), or even that a 6 “primitive race” should not join the U.S., most voiced agreements. Agreement opinions varied from economic stances (the Philippines could be a significant foothold for the Americans in the Asian markets) to less logical ones (Filipinos were viewed as savages, incapable of self-government, and therefore needing the U.S.’s help). And it was ultimately this pro-view that won. The Philippines As A Colony Once More On December 21, 1898, President McKinley issued the Benevolent Assimilation Proclamation. This stated the U.S.’ “altruistic” mission in acquiring the Philippines. The proclamation further claimed that “win the confidence, respect, and affection of the inhabitants of the Philippines by assuring them in every possible way that full measure of individual rights and liberties which is the heritage of free peoples…” Common attitudes the Americans possessed during all this was, for one, the White Man’s Burden or feeling obligated to teach those who are, to their view, not as learned as Westerners are. Similar to this, the second was a popular idealism at the time, especially in the US, called Manifest Destiny. This concept thought that Americans were not obligated but destined by fate and God to occupy more lands and spread their influence—or, as they saw it, their goodness and wisdom. Another prevalent attitude, this time among Filipinos, was a more subdued urge to rebel. This is explained by the fact that we were being handled with less severe hands and were in a transitory, as opposed to complete rule, government. Lastly, there was also a strong impression by the Americans of Filipinos being somehow primitive. American journalists characterized natives of the Philippines as “little brown” soldiers who will support the Americans or, they can be a warlike tribe who will devour each other when American troops leave the Philippine soil. It is important to understand the mood of the time because it always affects public opinion, which makes up a large part of the press. An important paper established during the pre-American period was the La Independencia. In January of 1899, just after McKinley’s proclamation of the Benevolent Assimilation, Independencia published the following words: “Our troops are owners of the land. We are not merchandise that can be treated this way.” In March 1899, The American acknowledged this public argument and said “The only way to treat these savages is to show them who is superior.” American vs. Spanish Ways The difference between the colonial policy of the U.S. and Spain led to the remarkable growth of Filipino publishing and literature. If during the Spanish occupation, the language was kept from Indios to preserve its prestige, the American occupation saw a passionate, if not forceful, education of the English language to the public. Setting up public schools with American or English-speaking teachers helped boost the use of English. The establishment of Silliman University in 1901 and then the University of the Philippines in 1908 furthered this cause. Furthermore, there was the coming of English periodicals such as Manila Daily Bulletin (1900), Cablenews (1902), and Philippines Free Press (1907). Despite the language being new, as early as 1905 there were large efforts by Filipinos to create publications in the English language. In this year, the Filipino Students’ Magazine was published by Filipino pensionados in Berkeley, California. In 1910, UP released its first College Folio and in 1912 The Coconut, a school paper by Manila High School, started regular publication. Because of the proliferation of English, Spanish dallies would soon die down and be replaced by the more domineering, more pervasive English. As Buhain (1999) puts it, “The difference between the colonial policy of the U.S. and Spain led to the remarkable growth of Filipino publishing and literature.” But this is not to say that we were allowed total freedom in these areas. Senator Claro M. Recto (as cited in Maslog, 1960), said of the press during the American occupation, 7 “Freedom of the press was only true in the sense that there was no previous censorship, but the libel laws were so strictly enforced by the courts that to criticize a high government official meant a stiff prison term and a sizeable fine, not to mention crippling civil damage.” The U.S. encouraged, in theory, a free market. In reality, however, only a certain amount of freedom was allowed, and this was only as long as it didn’t damage the Americans. This reality was nicely covered up in a pretense of freedom, so as not to appear hypocritical. Any paper could be put up, any writer could be, but once it damages the government, it’s over. Offending writers could be put to jail, most times unfairly, just as much as an anti-Spaniard is previously killed. More parallels include that of press restrictions. If in the Spanish era censorship was dependent mainly on the Governor General, in the American era, censorship was based on the law or policy of the constitution. If in the Spanish era De policía de imprenta o Gullón (Printing Order or Gullón) we had Reglamento de Asuntos de Imprenta (Rules of Printing Matters), during the early American era two laws ruled Philippine publication: Sedition Law (Act No. 292) and the Libel Law (Act No. 277). Censorship during the American Occupation Merriam-Webster defines censorship as “The suppression of speech, public communication or other information which may be considered objectionable, harmful, sensitive, politically incorrect or inconvenient as determined by governments, media outlets, authorities or other groups or institutions.” It is with this standard definition then I am able to say that indeed, censorship was practiced during the American period. The Sedition Law of 1901, enacted by the Philippine Commission headed by Governor General William Howard Taft, declared: “It shall be unlawful for any person to advocate orally, or by writing or printing or like methods, the independence of the Philippine Islands or their separation from the United States, whether by peaceable or forcible means, or to print, publish, or circulate any handbill, newspaper, or other publication advocating such independence or separation.” It can be said that this law was set up to suppress Filipino nationalism, a feeling which prevailed early during the occupation, after the betrayal and threat of another oppressive colonizer and the immediate loss of a won and short-lived independence. Plays more than any publications suffered from this law the most. Hindi Aco Patay by Juan Cruz, Tanikalang Guinto by Juan Abad, and Kahapon Ngayon at Bukas by Aurelio Tolentino are examples of plays condemned as seditious. Though the themes were in Tagalog and heavily layered and hidden, Americans were able to see through this. Each author was sent to prison for two years and fined 2,000 pesos. The Libel Law of 1904 soon followed, with Taft’s reason for implementation being that the Filipinos were in his view “a strange people unused to the freedom of the press.” A landmark libel case was the El Renacimiento vs. Worcester Libel Case. The El Renacimiento vs. Worcester Libel Case In 1908, US Secretary of the Interior Dean Worcester filed a libel suit against the pro-independence newspaper El Renacimiento for its editorial “Aves de Rapina” (Birds of Prey) by Fidel A. Reyes. This editorial used metaphors. It said that the eagle, an obvious American symbol, was the most “rapacious” bird of prey, and that these birds, while pretending to be studying the Igorots, were actually looking for gold deposits in the mountains of Luzon. Reyes criticized certain US colonial government officials “who, besides being eagles, have the characteristics of the vulture, the owl, and the vampire.” Though Worcester nor his title was not named, he felt alluded to and offended, and so filed for libel in the American-ruled court, and won. El Renacimiento editor Teodoro Kalaw and publisher Martin Ocampo were convicted. Kalaw spent 12 months in prison and had to pay about 25,000 for “moral and punitive damages”, while Ocampo was required a total fine of 60,000. Furthermore, El Renacimiento and Muling Pagsisilang (Ocampo’s Tagalog daily) were awarded to Worcester. 8 El Renacimiento was certainly not alone in this treatment. Other newspapers such as La Justicia, Cebuano, La Independencia, and El Nueva Dia were suspended because of their nationalistic views. Different news about movements against the presence of American forces in the country were suppressed. Journalists who exercised the freedom of the press, which we supposedly inherited from America, were deported or imprisoned. It is in this way that the Philippine press during this time worked in an environment of both free market and censorship. Philippine Newspapers During the American Occupation The Americans, who poured in by the shipload as the war progressed, brought with them among others (such as canned food and new music), their newspapers. Soldiers had their own publications to look forward to and read during spare time such as the Bounding Billow and the American Soldier, the latter known as the first English-language paper in the country. There was also the Cablenews and the American, which later on, in 1908, merged to become Cablenews American, a well-known and respected English daily. These papers contained mostly news from abroad and the war, and updates on international and as well as Philippine economic growth. On their more subjective side however, they also held a common and strongly predisposed view of the Philippines. These publications viewed the average Filipino as a non- thinking, perhaps non-human, savage. These soldier-centric papers however are minute compared to the circulation of the dailies to come. In 1898 Thomas Gowan, an Englishman living in the Philippines, founded the Manila Times, the Philippines’ first English-language daily. This was done as a response to an observed “keen demand for an American newspaper with a daily supply of American news.” The paper had the motto “Pioneer American Daily in the Far East” and underneath it, “Published every day since 1898.” The Times changed hands, in terms of ownership, many times. In 1917 it was sold to Quezon. In 1927, it was bought by Alejandro Roces, Sr., and was included in his growing newspaper chain (to strengthen his own Tribune). It was however disbanded in 1930, as Roces saw no need for more than one English paper. In 1900 Americans H.G. Harris and Carson Taylor founded the oldest existing newspaper in the Philippines, the Manila Daily Bulletin (now known simply as the Manila Bulletin). The Bulletin started as a shipping journal and was published and distributed for free. In 1912, it decided to widen its scope to include general interests and became a paid paper. Because of its origins, the paper had a reputation for being the mouthpiece of the American community even after the Philippines was granted independence—as long as Taylor was still its owner. Hans Menzi, known tycoon, bought the Bulletin in 1957 and reorganized it as a modern Filipino paper. In 1920, the most significant step in Philippine newspaper history was made. Up until then, all English newspapers were American or foreign-owned. But this was about to change. Instigated by then-Senate President Manuel L. Quezon, the Philippines Herald made its way to the public. It was set up “by a group of wealthy Quezon followers…to help the Senate President to counteract the anti-Filipino slant in the foreign-owned press. (Feliciano, 1967)” These very wealthy followers, to name a few, included Vicente 9 Madrigal, Manuel and Thomas Earnshaw, Ramon Fernandez, Carmen Ayala Roxas, Juan Alegre, and Teodoro Yangco. There was a need to gather all these millionaires because American businessmen and investors did not embrace the Herald’s pro-Filipino goals, and it was arguably they who were the ones who traditionally had the money, the capital, to start something as big as this. Obviously, Quezon did not allow this to bog him down and thus called on his wealthy companions for help. The Herald bought the Cablenews-American to acquire its equipment and immediately began. Quezon was driven by a specific and passionate cause. Apart from wanting to have his own political platform, he also was in deep want (as were many nationals) of a platform for Filipino and nationalist sentiment. He also feared the biased reporting of American-inclined papers. Feliciano (1967), further explains Quezon’s motives: “A U.S. congressional committee has been appointed to look into conditions in the Philippines, and Senate President Manuel L. Quezon, for all practical purposes the head of a nation in being, thought that the public ventilation of problems might get a one-sided treatment in the pages of the American-owned newspapers.” The Herald then became known as a pro-Filipino paper that presented nationalistic views. In an American- dominated press, this paper allowed Filipino sentiments to shine; it was the Filipino voice in a media heavily influenced by American-owned newspapers. And the paper, optimistically, heralded the coming independence. It should be noted that while the Americans did not fully welcome the Herald, it allowed its continuation. One may be because of its theoretical implementation of the free market in the Philippines, and two is perhaps because, by this time, the mood was friendly between the Philippines and the U.S., since both had the same end, which was to liberate the Philippines. Furthermore, it was a quality paper that was hard not to appreciate. Conrado Benitez became its first editor, and Carlos P. Romulo was one of the early editors. However, in 1923 the Herald had gone into receivership. Alejandro Roces, Sr. was appointed as receiver and had plans of acquiring the paper. But Vicente Madrigal, the main benefactor (sometimes even referred to as the owner) of the Herald, recapitalized the paper. It prospered enough to even start the Monday Mail, a news magazine. Roces was disappointed with this loss, but definitely not deterred. He would, after all, find the first and one of the most successful newspaper chains in the country. Philippine Newspaper Chains During the American Occupation Alejandro Roces, Sr. became the first newspaper chain owner in the Philippines when he established the Taliba-Vanguardia-Tribune or TVT chain. The Taliba and La Vanguardia, a Filipino and Spanish daily respectively, were bought from Martin Ocampo in 1916, while in 1925 the Roces launched the Tribune, with a pirated Herald Romulo as its editor-in-chief. The success led many to call TVT not just a newspaper chain, but a newspaper empire. Its main competitor, El Debate-Mabuhay-Herald-Monday Mail or DMHM was formed around 1933 when Joaquin Elizalde bought the Herald. He acquired Pagkakaisa, a Tagalog daily, and renamed it Mabuhay, and then bought El Debate, a Spanish-language daily. Though it boasts a respectable roster, it could not reach TVT’s level of success. Some critics even took the acronym to mean “Dito Muna, Hanggang Meron” to poke fun at the less popular chain. Philippine Magazines During the American Occupation In 1904 the Philippine Magazine was established. It was the first publication to be called a magazine in the Philippines, and according to Maslog (1960), “the first periodical to carry miscellaneous information.” The publication started as the Philippine Teacher, a semi-government publication for public school teachers but was renamed Philippine Magazine in 1905 and then became privately owned the next year. In 1929, A.V.H. Hartendrop took over as editor and broadened its scope. He dedicated the magazine to the cultural development of the Philippines. The Philippines Free Press was originally founded in 1907 by Judge W.H. Kincaid, as a bi-lingual English and Spanish newspaper. However, the paper proved to be only of very little success. So in 1908 Robert McCulloch Dick, a former editor at the Manila Times, bought the paper for a peso and then used up his life savings of 8 000 as operating capital. It was re-released, still as a bi-lingual (English and Spanish) 10 publication, but this time as a weekly magazine up until World War II. The Free Press’s staff and contributors included the likes of journalists Teodoro Locsin, Leon Maria Guerrero, and Nick Joaquin. Aside from political commentary, it also fostered literature through the publication of short stories. The paper is also known for its smartly drawn editorial cartoons. The released Free Press was a success as much as its initial run wasn’t. By 1941 it had a circulation of 80, 000 copies a week. Feliciano (1967) said, “Always lively, critical, and carefully edited, the Free Press is an example of a magazine that has drawn vitality from its staff and its widely spread readers.” Indeed, it became the most influential English-language weekly. Another magazine, this time Tagalog, enjoyed much of the same success (perhaps even more) that the Free Press had, and this was the Roces-owned Liwayway. Liwayway was a Tagalog publication founded in 1923 by Ramon Roces, son of Alejandro Roces Sr., which he co-edited with the novelist Severino Reyes. Liwayway had a rocky start. It was actually a re-issue of the less popular Photo News, also founded by Roces and co-edited with Reyes. Photo News was written in trilingual sections—English, Spanish, and Tagalog—was published fortnightly, and contained news, essays, prose, and poetry. Though an ambitious magazine, it failed to popularize, largely, according to critics, due to its trilingual attempt (Maslog, 1960). For example, customers who wanted to read only the Spanish section did not see it fit to pay for two other languages. Needless to say, Photo News failed to sell and had to stop publication almost immediately. After a retreat to Mindanao, Roces returned to Manila to revive the magazine, this time in pure Tagalog. He called it Liwayway as it meant “dawn” and therefore, a “new beginning.” Roces and Reyes made every effort to ensure that the Liwayway would not suffer the same fate of their ill-fated Photo News. The revamped magazine was published weekly. It was sold at 12 centavos and had up to 40 pages each (Photo News had only 20 and cost more). The editors added more pictures and illustrations. It contained local and foreign news and an expanded section of essays, short fiction, and poetry. Liwayway proved to be a critical success. Even though Liwayway was basically intended as a magazine for the man on the street, its prose, and poetry were considered the best Tagalog literary output of the era. Severino Reyes’ own “Mga Kuwento ni Lola Basyang” appeared regularly in the magazine much to the delight of many of its readers. Severino and Roces also recruited the country’s leading literary giants at that time. It had as contributors, poets Jose Corazon De Jesus, Florentino Collantes, Julian Cruz Balmaseda, Cecilio Apostol and writers Lope K. Santos, Rogelio Sicat, Inigo Ed Regalado, Romualdo Ramos, Francisco Laksamana and Fausto Galaura. Some serialized stories were even published later on as novels. There was also a commendable focus on design, art, and layout. Liwayway was also to be a commercial success. It gained the support of regular sponsors like Coca-Cola, Pepsi Cola, Chesterfield cigarettes, Zamora’s Tiki-tiki, Chrysler-Plymouth cars, Esco shoes, Ang Tibay shoes, and Botica Boie products. These advertisements ensured the magazine’s survival in the future. Due to Liwayway’s success, Roces ventured out to different dialects. He published Bisaya (1932) for the East Visayan region, Hiligaynon (1932) for the West Visayan region, and Bannawag (1940) for the Ilocano region. Apart from these, there were many other notable magazines. The Graphic, founded in 1927, for example, was often pitted against Liwayway as a worthy opponent. Edited by Vicente Pacis a Tribune editor, the Graphic was known to have a “leisurely and sophisticated tone, and a generally literary character” (Feliciano, 1967). It also gained popularity because of its pictorial pages and literary sections, a big portion of which was dedicated to Tagalog literature. There was also the Woman’s Home Journal, founded in 1919 by Paz Marquez-Benitez, the Independent which rivaled the Free Press in its content, and Lamdag which was a Cebuano weekly magazine that ran in the same vein as the mentioned magazines. Philippine Movies During the American Occupation As the country was placed under U.S. rule, it enjoyed many of the U.S.’s technological advances in real- time. One of the most significant was film and all of the equipment that produced it. On January 1, 1897, six movies were exhibited for the first time on a 60-mm Gaumont Chronomatograph projector at the Salon Pertierra, Escolta. This ushered in what Maslog (1960) calls the Silent Pictures Era of Filipino Film. 11 The Silent Pictures Era (1897 to 1929) Three other parts, the first of which was what Maslog calls the Dominance of Documentary, in turn, dominated this era. Indeed, American filmmakers went to the Philippines to shoot local scenes and events such as the Eruption of the Taal Volcano in 1911, fiestas at the Obando, or trade at Binondo. Foreign documentaries were also commonly shown in small parts of the city. Documentaries such as those that narrated the life of Napoleon or the assassination of President McKinley. These were usually accompanied by an orchestra. The second part of the Silent Picture Era is the Rise of Feature Films. La Vida de Rizal is the country’s first feature film, directed and produced by the American Harry Brown, and based on a popular stage play by Edward Meyer Gross. It starred the original zarzuela actors, including the playwright’s wife Titay Molina- Gross, who managed the dramatic troupe from which the stars of this film were from. El Fusilamiento de Rizal was a competing feature film, produced by another American Albert Yearsley. Again, the initial development of this kind of media was at first dominated by Americans and different foreigners. And again, Filipinos would try and change this by participating more for their voices to be heard. In 1917, brothers Jose and Jesus Nepomuceno sensed this, and thus founded the film company Malayan Movies, which had the self-proclaimed goal of adapting the current movie industry “to the conditions and tastes of the country.” This was obviously in reaction to foreign movies that were Americanizing Filipino tastes. With this, in 1919 Jose Nepomuceno produced the first Filipino-made film—Dalagang Bukid, another zarzuela adaptation. Nepomuceno would go on and produce many films such as La Venganza de Don Silvestre (1920), Noli Me Tangere (1930), and Makata at Paraluman (1933). Malayan Movies could be compared to today’s indie film companies in that they wanted to produce as many quality films as possible without pandering to commercial tastes. It was also similar to them in that it didn’t have a very strong budget to support this. To fix this, the Nepomucenos organized partnerships with other film companies. It established the company Filipino Films with Vicente Salumbides, Frank Harris, and Edward Tait—the latter Americans brought from their home country the necessary and technologically advanced equipment for Malayan to use—and X’Otic Films with Jesus Cacho. Even early on, Filipino film faced many problems, the first of which was that Filipino capital tended to be small. This obviously affected necessary production steps and thus, Filipino films compared unfavorably with Hollywood movies. Another problem, according to Maslog (1960), was that the first movies were based on common plays and hired stage performers, so the effect was that the actors had a tendency to “over-act”. Also, the stories were peopled by stereotyped characters, followed the clichéd bida vs. kontrabida, and had convoluted, formulaic plots and predictable, “correct” endings. Nevertheless, the public was enthralled and film at this point was quickly becoming a Filipino favorite—this would be further boosted by the next era, which added the elemental sound in films. The films spoke in the vernacular and often depicted regular people (but played by fantastic stars) as characters, thus securing the fancy of its audience. Talking Pictures Era (1929 to 1970) In 1929, George P. Musser produced the first Filipino talking picture, Ang Asuwang, just two years after the first “talkie” or talking picture was shown in the U.S. And in the following decade, the 1930s, Jose Nepomuceno made the first complete Filipino talking picture, Punyal na Ginto. The film was actually based on a Liwayway novel by Antonio Sempio, and was produced with help from Harris and Tait (of Filipino Films). They were able to help Nepomuceno bring in American technicians and sound cameras to the Philippines. Just like the previous era, the Talking Pictures Era has its own divisions, the first of which Maslog called the Rise of Commercial Film Companies. Indeed, as many saw the big business potential of film, it was slowly but surely transformed from a small art form into a big industry with a short span of time. In 1937, Sampaguita and Excelsoir Pictures were established. In 1938, LVN Pictures, and in 1939 X’otic Films. By 1941, the big companies had their own studio lots and production facilities. 12 Another division of this era was the Commercialization of Film, which immediately followed the previous division. This saw the rise of the “star system.” Instead of hiring actors based on merit, film companies usually chose their actors based on their appeal (charming and glamorous) and looks (most resembled American actors and were mestizahin). It followed the Hollywood practice of building up stars. These growing film companies tended to focus on marketable faces and stories, mostly of love. Actors were usually coupled in many films to produce fanfare and a loyal following, such as in the case of Norma Blancaflor and Jaime Dela Rosa or Rogelio dela Rosa and Rosa del Rosario. It was also during this period that Philippine film saw the rise of genre movies. Still imitating Hollywood, local movies classed themselves into well-known genres: Adventure or action, drama or melodrama, musical comedy, comedy, and historical film. This allowed for little growth, content, and quality. Philippine Radio During the American Occupation In June 1922, the first Philippine radios were set by Henry Hermann. Hermann organized three 50-watt radio stations in Manila and Pasay, after only two years the first American radios were set up in Pennsylvania. In 1927, J. Amado Araneta bought KZRM (big station) and KZEG (American station). Araneta would also later own the DMHM newspaper chain, an example of a media monopoly and cross-ownership trend rising at the time. Both newspaper and radio were managed under the Far East Broadcasting Company, with Carlos P. Romulo as managing director. In 1929, radio was introduced to the provinces when station KZRC was set up in Cebu City. Like the film, radio garnered an immediate and wide response from the public, largely due to its conversational tone, and its entertainment aspect. It was less an information and news source than it was an entertainment source at the time. Again, businesses took this opportunity to exploit the profit side of it. Department stores owned many of the stations for marketing purposes. It played commercials that advertised the products sold in their stores, particularly the radios it sold. But many stations were American-owned, and so while some stations spoke in the vernacular there were just as many that spoke in English (another reason why the language quickly spread). Also, much like in the film, radio personalities were treated as celebrities and given much attention. Before WW II there were six commercial stations in the country: KZRM, KZRF, KZIB, KZEG, KZRH, KZRC, and one government station KZND which was set up to keep Filipinos posted on war events. As much as the government saw the largely available and free-flowing characteristics of radio as an advantage, it also saw it as a potential threat. In 1931 the Secretary of Commerce set up the Radio Control Board to implement Radio Control Law. It was the board that legally allocated frequencies, examined applications, and conducted inspections. This allowed the government to watch over the emerging medium. THE PHILIPPINE PRESS DURING THE JAPANESE OCCUPATION The attack on the Philippines happened 10 hours after Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor. The American aircraft were severely damaged. They withdrew to Java. MacArthur escaped Corregidor. 76, 000 American & Filipino defenders on Bataan surrendered – infamous Bataan Death March A puppet government was established with Jose P. Laurel as president. For 3 years the Philippines was occupied by the Japanese. Guerilla campaign by the Philippine resistance controlled 60% of the islands (mostly in jungles and mountainous areas) MacArthur sent them supplies through submarines. Filipinos remained loyal to the Americans because of the guarantee of independence and also because Filipinos were forced to work and women into brothels. Politics During the Japanese Occupation of the Philippines The Japanese military authorities immediately began organizing a new government structure in the Philippines. Although the Japanese had promised independence for the islands after occupation, they 13 initially organized a Council of State through which they directed civil affairs until October 1943, when they declared the Philippines an independent republic. To have the Philippines’ support they had Filipinos hold positions in the government. A puppet government was established but they don’t have complete legislative power. Japanese Military Administration still controlled everything. Due to continued resistance, Japan’s last resort is “Independence with honor.” On September 4, 1944, The Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines was signed. Complete power was given to the President: control of the National Assembly and to appoint anybody to positions. On October 14 the Philippines was granted “independence.” But in the end, it was still a puppet regime and was only independent in name. Media During the Japanese Occupation As part of the Japanese propaganda, all media outlets were seized and controlled by the Japanese army. Japanese assumed control of all means of communication, especially the mass media. The task of propagating the Japanese culture and ideas was assigned to the Propaganda Corps of the Japanese Army which was created in October 1942 and renamed Department of Information of the Imperial Japanese Forces. A. Magazines and Newspapers Newspapers and magazines were taken over by Japan once they entered Manila. On January 2, 1942, the Japanese entered Manila and took over the TVT Publications. While on January 3, 1943, the issue of Manila Tribune, was edited by a Japanese, Mr. Isogai. Alejandro Roces, who was never for the Americans, did not want to lose his press so he allowed the Japanese to use his facilities. The Tribune The Tribune became the mouthpiece of the Japanese. So, it underwent changes in format and content. The articles now tried to convince Filipinos that everything was normal. It also emphasized the gains of the Axis Forces and glossed over their losses. Contained guerilla surrenders, government orders, proclamations, and price control measures. The Filipinos found it hard to believe but it was still patronized because of the lack of alternative sources of information. Also 3 weeks after Tribune was taken over, other TVT chains: La Vanguardia and Taliba came out again. DHMM chain couldn’t because their offices had been bombed by the Japanese. B. Radio The Radio also became another mouthpiece of Japanese propaganda. The Pre-war radio stations were consolidated into the PIAM and KZRH. PIAM means Philippine Islands (PI) 1st Station (A) Manila (M). New rules were also implemented such as listening to foreign broadcasts being prohibited. Radio sets were registered and reconditioned. Only the Japanese propaganda could be listened to. C. Mass Media The Mass Media was exploited to influence the perceptions and opinions of people. The Films that are considered harmful to the image of Japan were banned. American films were also banned. It also distorted reality and a sparkling image of Japan was presented. Even Filipino films were distorted. Stage shows were also previewed. D. Press Since complete control of the media and press is needed for a successful propaganda publishing and printing business was also monopolized. Big-job printing plants were taken over by the Japanese while small printing shops were controlled through periodic check-ups of the papers. Printing plants and papers owned by the Chinese were seized. The Taliba, Vanguardia, and Tribune were seized but still continued publishing using the names of the Filipino staff. Other propaganda publications are Shin Seiki, Liwayway, Pillars, and Philippine Review. Lies from these eroded the faith of Filipinos in mass media. The Filipinos in 14 a result turned to other sources, the illegal ones, to get real news and information. Guerilla press took root and kept the flame alive. Guerilla Press The underground newspapers were born out of the need of the guerilla movement to get the people’s support. This was to counteract the propaganda movement of the Japanese. Also, to inform the people of the activities and purposes of the guerilla movement. They gave accurate news on war development. This was mostly operated underground and was mostly in the Visayas (Panay and Leyte) because the guerilla movement was more organized and there was a weaker hold of Japan. Most were mimeographed or typewritten but rarely printed. Some were printed on the back of government stationery, forms, or elementary pad papers. Most of the underground newspapers had maps and illustrations. Sizes and lengths varied. Some used legal-sized paper just like the Liberator which was folded over 40 pages. The Civil Liberties Union put out Free Philippines, which was strictly anti-Japanese under Antonio Molina Bautista. The Huks too had their papers which expressed their desire for freedom and deliverance. They carried news of guerrilla activities, Japanese atrocities, and Filipino collaborators and methods. And to boost the morale of the guerillas they wrote short stories and poems that were light and humorous. Some examples were “Ang Tigbatas” from Panay. “The Liberator” by Leon O. Ty was used to boost the morale of the guerillas and attract more people. The Hukbalahap’s “Ing Masala” (The Light); “Aspirant” (Pampanga). Chinese: The Fuse, The Chinese Guide, The Sentinel & Tai Han Huan. During the war, being caught with an anti-Japanese publication meant physical torture and/or even death. Even so, it still continued because it was the only source of accurate information. Journalists of community papers got involved and even those with no background wrote for the guerilla newspapers. Guerilla Newspapers The clandestine nature of these publications led to the scarcity of available documentation. Since the important purpose was mainly on bolstering the spirits of the military and guerillas and not directly harassing the Japanese. Since it was circulated in support of the underground movement, the number of publications is unknown. Examples are: Leyte-Samar Free Philippines It was published in Tacloban, Leyte. The first issue was on Oct. 29, 1944, after MacArthur and Osmena’s landing in Leyte. Use paper measured 8 ½” x 11” and consisted of four pages, each with four columns. Originally a weekly paper, but starting its 8th issue, became published twice a week, during Thursdays and Sundays. Printed rather than mimeographed/typewritten. The last issue was on March 18, 1945. Most articles were about the war. The Coordinator The official Publication of the 6th Military Division. News was mostly about the land, naval, and aerial operations of the Allied Forces in the Philippines. The first issue was on April 24, 1944. It was published daily: two pages were typewritten in various types of paper such as newsprint, Kraft paper, and intermediate school paper in various sizes. The paper had no distinct sections and the articles themselves had no titles. Classified according to the country or area where the event took place. Issues came out until the early part of 1945. Folded upon the liberation of the country. Ang Tigbatas The organ of the resistance of Free Panay was founded in December 1942 under the editorship of Abe Gonzales. It came out every Wednesday and Friday from its first issue until 1945. Regular issues were in Hiligaynon while special editions plus extras and supplements, and all the issues from 1945 were in English. War news not only in the Philippines but also reports from other parts of the world where the war was being fought. It also included news of bombings, killings, and capture/liberation of certain places. 15 POST-WAR/POST-LIBERATION ERA “Never had the press been so free, never had it wielded such power and influence. The government was but recently established and uncertain of its strength. It was extremely sensitive to public opinion and the press took advantage of this healthy state, pouncing on the government’s least mistakes and making national issues of them… The power of the press was utterly out of proportion to the circulations of the various papers. None could claim a sale of more than a few thousand copies… There was censorship by the U. S. Army… But military censorship was soon erased and finally lifted, then it was open season and good hunting for politicians.” – Teodoro Locsin, editor of the Philippine Free Press Press censorship ended during the post-war era. The radio stations were re-opened, though they faced a major problem which was the lack of the receivers. More receivers seemed to be concentrated in the provinces than in Manila. The newspapers also rose, with the Manila Free Philippines being the first post- liberation newspaper. It was, at first, distributed for free. The post-war era also paved the way for a new media in the Philippines, which is the television. Commercial television came in 1953 when DZAQ-TV Channel 3 was opened in Manila by Alto Broadcasting System. The professionalization of journalism also began during this time, with the establishment of departments and schools to train people. Post-War Era: The Tri-Media I. Radios On July 2, 1946, Commonwealth Act 729 was established which gave the President of the Philippines a four-year right to grant temporary permits for the construction, installation, establishment, and operation of radio stations. In the following year, the radio stations were required to change the first broadcast call letter from K to D: “KZ” was replaced by “DZ” for Manila, “DW” for Luzon, “DY” for the Visayas, and “DX” for Mindanao. KZFM was the first radio station that re-opened after the war. It was named after Frederic Marquardt, an American newsman on the pre-war Philippines Free Press who returned with MacArthur’s troops. KZFM is a 50-watt station operated by the US Army Office of War Information. It was renamed DZFM in 1947. Post-war provincial radio had its debut when the Cebu Broadcasting Company opened DYRC on September 21, 1947. DYRC was followed shortly after by DYBU. In 1949, Manila Broadcasting Company and the Philippine Broadcasting System merged, which made the station DZRI the strongest combine in the Philippines at the time. Big business interests were responsible for some of the first post-war commercial stations. II. Newspapers Manila Free Philippines (February-September 1945) was the first post-liberation newspaper, which was published by the U.S. Office of War Information. At first, it was distributed for free and then eventually, it sold for five centavos. After the war, huge publishers revived the newspapers. “In the free-enterprise economy, the small “militant, frequently dissenting newspapers” perished” (Fernandez, 1989) which included: Philippine Liberty News Manila Post Manila Tribune Morning Sun The giant publishers dominated the field: The Manila Bulletin, The Manila Times, Evening News, and the Manila Chronicle which was started by a group of pre-war newspapermen in 1945 and became “The People’s Newspaper. It was then bought by businessman Don Eugenio Lopez, brother of then vice president Fernando Lopez. 16 The media monopolies began in this era, with the Manila dailies controlling the mass media. Advertising was the major source of the papers’ revenue during that time. The small papers were ignored by the advertisers because of political pressures and a lack of readers due to low literacy and incomes. They did not receive government support. So, the large publishers thrived but they were controlled by the advertisers’ interests. III. Television Television came to the Philippines in the 1950s and had its first official telecast in the Philippines on October 23, 1953. Television was introduced with the opening of DZAQ-TV Channel 3 by the Alto Broadcasting System, which was the first station that opened in Manila. The station was owned by Antonio Quirino, the brother of the incumbent Philippine president Elpidio Quirino. DZAQ-TV Channel 3 operated on a four-hour-a-day schedule, 6 PM – 10 PM, and telecasts for only over a 50-mile radius. It was then bought by the Chronicle Broadcasting Network. Post-War Era: Professionalization These years were characterized by the emergence of journalism education, advertising, public relations, and the pioneer personalities in radio, newspaper, and television. In 1952, the Lyceum University established a school of journalism. In that same year, the National Press Club was also formed “to promote cooperation among journalists and uphold press freedom and the dignity of journalists.” In 1954, The National Media Production Center (NMPC) was formed under the Office of the President. Its “builders” were Hernando R. Ocampo, Conrado V. Pedroche and Gregorio Cendara. NMPC was mandated to produce information and education materials for government development programs. In 1957, the Public Relations Society of the Philippines (PRSP) was organized. According to PRSP, they were established with the mission of advancing the practice of public relations by: 1. uniting those engaged in the profession; 2. encouraging continuing education of practitioners; 3. generating public confidence in the profession by promoting high ethical practice and encouraging high standards of public service; 4. playing the active role in all matters affecting the practice of public relations; and 5. strengthening the relationships of public relations professionals with employees and clients, government at all levels, educators, media, and the general public. In 1960, the Philippine Women’s University also established a school of journalism. Post-War Era: Conclusion The liberation of Manila on February 3, 1945, meant the liberation of the press as well from the Japanese censorship. The post-war era started in 1946 until the pre-martial law period. In a nutshell, the press during the post-war era became free again. However, during this time, the press was forced into a “marriage of convenience” with large business enterprises and political groups; which is why the giant newspapers remained in the field. This kind of ownership structure meant that the press operated mostly to support the publishers’ interests. Here, we can conclude that the press’ social impact was strong, especially since this is when the media monopolies started. Professionalism was also high during this era, with the establishment of journalism schools to train the youth and the formation of organizations for journalists as evidence. 17 GOLDEN ERA The “Golden Era” is characterized by the creation and dominance of several media conglomerates owned by prominent families and the subsequent creation of the “media oligarchy”, the confluence of technological advances and cultural changes which contributed to the proliferation of radio and television, the emergence of advertising, as well as the creation of “the freest press in Asia”. Media Oligarchy The era saw several wealthy families with prominent businesses owning a combination of radio stations, television stations, and newspapers. This resulted in the creation of the “media oligarchy”, where a relatively small number of people controlled the majority of the media. The most prominent ones are summarized in the table below. Technological Advances In 1955, Radiowealth, a local company, began its assembly operations of Motorola television sets. By 1967, Radiowealth was producing 19-, 21- and 25-inch models of color TV sets. With this, the Philippines became the third country in the world with color television. The effect of a local company selling television sets at relatively attainable prices resulted in many middle-class families obtaining television sets and tuning in. Golden Era – Philippine Media (Radio, Television and Cinema) I. Philippine Cinema As history would show, the pre-Martial Law era cinema of the Philippines would eventually turn out to be a sort of lull between the First Golden Age of Philippine Cinema during the 1950s characterized by the big 4 film studios, and the Second Golden Age of Philippine Cinema during the 1970s, characterized by the rise of avant-garde filmmaking. 18 Initially attempting to keep up with the large numbers of foreign imported movies, studios produced local versions of James Bond knockoffs and Westerns. The film genres of the time were direct reflections of the “disaffection with the status quo” at the time. Particularly, the emergence of this revolt can be seen in the proliferation of the “bomba” films, ranging from softcore erotica to hardcore pornography. Youth revolt, represented by the Beatles and rock and roll, also emerged during this era. To keep up with this, the studios created teen “love team” romantic musicals and comedies. Through this, movies and teen love teams were created, including the pairings of Nora Aunor and Tirso Cruz III, known as “Guy & Pip”, as well as the pairing of Vilma Santos and Edgar Mortiz, known as “Vi & Bot”. The era would see the decline and fall of the 1950s era studio system due to constant labor-management conflicts and declining profits. The so-called “Big Three” would later close one by one. The first studio to close was Lebran followed by Premiere Productions then LVN. These studios were replaced by new and independent producers like Regal Films, which was established by Lily Monteverde in 1962. Technologically, the era also saw the first color movie technology, called Eastmancolor, arrive in the country and these helped Filipino filmmakers create full-length color films. One of the first color productions was Ito ang Pilipino, which was starred and produced by Joseph Estrada. After the release of Ito ang Pilipino, movie producers completely stopped producing movies in black and white. Prominent films of the era include: Noli Me Tangere (1961) El Filibusterismo (1962) Iginuhit ng Tadhana – starring Gloria Romero as Imelda Marcos; was said to be a political ploy to capture the vote of the masses for then-presidential candidate Ferdinand Marcos Huwag mo Akong Limutin (Never Forget Me)(1960) Kadenang Putik (Chain of Mud) (1960) II. Philippine Radio DZTM, DZMT, DZWS – owned by Roces family DZAQ, DZBC, DZXL – owned by Lopez family DZRH – owned by Elizalde family DZTV – owned by Soriano family DZBB – owned by Robert Stewart DZKB – owned by Roberto Benedicto Aside from the aforementioned, several other entities also operated radio stations. DZEC – Eagle Broadcasting Corporation DZEM – Christian Broadcasting Service DZFE – Far East Broadcasting Company DZUP and DZLB – University of the Philippines DZST – University of Santo Tomas DZTC – National Teachers College DZFM and DZRM – Government Radio DZTR – Trans-Radio Broadcasting Corporation DZBM – Mareco Broadcasting Company DZTR – established in 1965 and owned by Trans-Radio Broadcasting Corporation DZRJ – Rajah Broadcasting Network III. Philippine Television A. Overview The first television network in the country was operated by Alto Broadcasting System which was owned by Antonio Quirino, the brother of then-President Elpidio Quirino. The next one would be operated by the Lopez-owned Chronicle Broadcasting Network in 1957. In 1958, the Lopezes purchased ABS from Quirino. Thus, they controlled the first two television stations in the country. 19 Others would follow soon after. By the 1960s, television sets had become the most sought-after appliance in urban areas. This explosion in consumers also saw the growth of the television industry in the country. The Interisland Broadcasting Company, owned by Andres Soriano, began operations on what would become Channel 13 in 1960. The Philippine Government and an American, Robert Stewart would also set up shop the following year, with TV-10 and TV-7, respectively. In 1962, the Roces family started up the Associated Broadcasting Network on Channel 5. Finally, the last pre-Martial Law television station was established by Roberto Benedicto on Channel 9 and named the Radio Philippines Network. B. Content Initially, economic constraints forced the content on these television networks to be dependent on imported American television programs. Imported programs were cheaper than producing them locally. Eventually, there would be a “Filipinization” of the local television scene as it became more economical to produce local television content. Advertising in the Philippines would also undergo a similar “Filipinization”. Initially, advertisers used television ads imported from the US. In 1960, Procter and Gamble paved the way with their first local television ad. In 1966, when it changed from black and white to color, Colgate-Palmolive was the first to advertise in color. In 1961, the National Science Development Board was established; it was the earliest initiative to use local TV for education, “Education on TV” and “Physics in the Atomic Age.” In 1963, the Bolinao Electric Company (a forerunner of ABS-CBN) held its first television broadcasts in color. In 1969, Filipinos joined the world in witnessing the Apollo 11 moon landings. It was the first satellite telecast in the country and the first in color as well. Aside from these, there were also several prominent programs in the 1960s. These include the RPN sitcom John en Marsha, Puruntongs, The Nida-Nestor Show, Buhay Artista, Pancho Loves Tita, Tawag Ng Tanghalan, and Student Canteen. Most of these would last until Martial Law. The late 1960s also saw the beginnings of television news. The first news and public affairs programs were The Big News on ABC Channel 5 and The World Tonight on ABS-CBN Channel 2, currently on ANC. These were then followed by Channel 9’s Newswatch. Among the most prominent news broadcasters of the era was Jose Mari Velez, anchor of TV5’s The Big News and later a member of the 1987 Constitutional Convention. Golden Era – Philippine Journalism The Philippine press began to be known as “the freest in Asia.” The press functioned as a real watchdog of the government. It was sensitive to national issues and critical of government mistakes and abuses. I. Increasing Professionalism A. Philippine Press Institute Founded in 1964, the Philippine Press Institute (PPI) was organized “to foster the development and improvement of journalism in the country.” However, it would later become inactive during the Martial Law regime. In its heyday, it was known as the National Association of newspapers and represented the interests and concerns of the print media. The institute conducts training programs and organizes educational activities for Filipino journalists, seeks to protect their rights and freedoms in the pursuit of their practice, and creates and introduces opportunities for the development of the journalist as a practitioner. Among its contributions to the traditions of Philippine Journalism include the publication of the Law of the Press: A PPI Manual in 1965, Clear Effective Writing: A PPI Manual in 1967, and with the National Press Club, the later formulation of the Journalist’s Code of Ethics. B. Establishment of formal training and degree programs In 1960, the Philippine Women’s University established a school in journalism. 20 1966 saw the re-establishment of the BS Journalism degree under the Institute of Mass Communication in the University of the Philippines. In 1971, the University of Santo Tomas begins offering its BA Journalism degree under its Faculty of Arts and Letters II. Prominent Print Media and Journalists of the Era A. Manila Times; Chino Roces Possibly the most famous figure associated with The Manila Times was Joaquin “Chino” Roces, ‘Grand Old Man’ of Philippine journalism and long-time editor of The Manila Times. He was one of the founders of the Philippine Press Institute and was responsible for the Manila Times Style Book (1960) and the Manila Times Journalism Manual (1963). B. The Evening News; Maximo Soliven Maximo Soliven became the editor and publisher of The Evening News at the tender age of 27. Under his tenure, The Evening News jumped from 6th in circulation to the second largest newspaper in the country. He, like the other journalists mentioned in this paper, would be detained during Martial Law. He would later co-found The Philippine Daily Inquirer (1985) and The Philippine Star (1986). C. Philippine Free Press; Teddy Locsin Sr. Teddy Locsin Sr. was another prominent journalist detained during Martial Law. Before this, he was the editor of the Philippine Free Press, one of the oldest and most respected weekly magazines in the country. It was due to the magazine’s stance of repeatedly warning against a plan by then-President Marcos to implement military rule to stay in power that Locsin was detained. D. Napoleon G. Rama Napoleon Rama was the editor of the El Observatorio, the only Spanish-language newspaper in Cebu, which regularly published news stories about Spain and South America. Aside from these, he was known for an article published in the Philippine Free Press entitled “North Borneo Belongs To US”. This would later become the basis of the government’s negotiations to reclaim Sabah. Eventually, he would become the floor leader of the 1987 Constitutional Convention. TIMELINE OF MEDIA-RELATED EVENTS DURING THE MARTIAL LAW 1972 The proclamation of Martial Law, also known as Proclamation No. 1081, was announced on air by then Press Secretary Francisco “Kit” Tatad on channel 4. Marcos also ordered different media establishments such as the Manila Times, Philippine Daily Express, Philippines Herald, the Nation, and as well as wire agencies to be closed. Critical personalities in the Marcos government were also interrogated and detained. Among all the newspaper publications, it was only the Manila Bulletin that was exempted from being closed down as it was renamed “Bulletin Today”. It focused mostly on Business and Economic news. Aside from that, the newspaper Times Journal, was allowed to open one month after the proclamation. These newspapers were later known as the “establishment press”. Television and radio stations were also controlled by the government. DWKB-TV Channel 9 and DZTV-TV Channel 13 were controlled by the then Ambassador Roberto Benedicto. The publication Daily Express was also allowed to resume its operations as it was owned by Benedicto. DZBB-TV Channel 7 (now GMA 7), which was owned by Bob Stewart was also allowed to operate with a limited three-month permit. DZBB-TV Channel 7 was eventually sold to Felipe Gozon, Stewart’s lawyer, since foreigners were eventually not allowed to own businesses in the Philippines during the Martial Law. 21 On September 25, 1972, the Department of Public Information (DPI) issued Order No.1 and Order No.2, which required the acquisition of clearance from PDI and prohibited printers from producing any form of publication for mass dissemination without a permit from DPI. Presidential Decree No. 33, which penalizes the printing, ownership, and distribution of printed materials that ‘undermine the integrity of the government’ was put into law. 1973 On January 6, 1973, Presidential Decree 90, which penalizes rumor-mongering, was passed into law. Rumors were considered “false news and information”. Thus, these could undermine the stability of the government. The Kapisanan ng mga Brodkaster sa Pilipinas (KBP), which provides a mechanism for regulation in the broadcast industry, was also established on the same day. Another media regulation body was created as Presidential Decree 191 was passed on May 11, 1973. The Mass Media Council was abolished and the Media Advisory Council was created. The Foreign Correspondents Association of the Philippines was also formed to protect the rights of journalists working for foreign-based news agencies. It was also in 1973 when GMA was sold to Stewart’s lawyer, Felipe Gozon. ABS-CBN was also seized and their president was imprisoned. ABS-CBN’s DZXL-TV channel 9 moved to channel 4, and Roberto Benedicto used the frequency studios for new channels such as the KBS. Salvador Tan, general manager of KBS, later reopened Channel 2 as Banahaw Broadcasting Corporation – after 14 years of not operating. 1974 Presidential Decree 576, which abolished the Media Advisory Council and the Bureau of Standards for Mass Media, was put into law on November 9, 1974. Moreover, Marcos authorized another organization of regulatory councils for print and broadcast media through PD 576-A on November 11. The Philippine Council for Print Media and the Broadcast Media Council was then formed this year. 1976 On February 3, 1976, Presidential Decree 885 was passed into law, which forbids the creation of “subversive” organizations. It included the making of documents and publications and advising and counseling members of ‘subversive’ organizations” as among the punishable acts. The penalty for crimes against public order is increased through PD 942. 1980 – Emergence of alternative press The martial law period can be described as the Era of Guided Media and the Rise of the Alternative Press. Mass media controls were established. Editors and journalists were among the first to be arrested and incarcerated in military prison camps On September 12, 1980, Presidential Decree 1737, also known as the Public Order Act, was made into law. This decree empowered Marcos to issue orders as he may deem necessary. Marcos also issued Presidential Decree 727 on October 8, 1980 – which made the dissemination of false information unlawful. 1981 In 1981, Proclamation No. 2045 was passed – which made Martial Law look like it was lifted. However, after the Presidential Elections on June 16, 1981, Marcos was still the victor and the president of the Philippines. 1983 Benigno Simeon “Ninoy” Aquino Jr., who was the greatest politician-personality who had the capacity to challenge the Marcos regime was assassinated on August 25, 1983, upon his step on the Manila International Airport (now Ninoy Aquino International Airport (NAIA)) tarmac. 22 1985 On December 9, 1985, the Philippine Daily Inquirer was founded. 1986 1986 was the year Martial Law ended for real. On February 7, 1986, the Snap Elections happened, where Corazon Aquino, the widow of Aquino, ran for the presidency. This was the moment in Philippine history when there were two presidents at the same time. On February 25, 1986, the first People Power in the Philippines happened in EDSA. The peaceful march ended the Martial Law. Marcos Media vs. Mosquito Press (Alternative Press) Media ownership became more concentrated in the hands of a few individuals or families close to the regime. There was a monopolistic ownership of telecommunications by the regime’s favored relatives and friends. Mosquito Press was the term in journalism coined during Martial Law. It is used for publications such as the Philippine Collegian, which continued to criticize the Martial Law government despite the dangers this entailed. These publications were likened to mosquitoes, small but have a stinging bite. The press during the martial law period was highly controlled. Journalists fired up the politicization of the Filipinos, many of whom were women, who risked their lives for freedom and democracy. The so-called “Alternative Press” emerged in the 1980s to counter the propaganda churned out by the pro- government private media and the government’s own media infrastructure. Some of the alternative press: WE Forum –published by the father and son team of Jose Burgos. Business Day –published by Raul and Leticia Locsin (now Business World) Veritas –edited by Felix Bautista and Melinda Q. de Jesus Pahayagang Malaya –broadsheet affiliate of WE Forum Inquirer Mr and Ms Magazine –edited and published by Eugenia D. Apostol and Leticia J. Magsanoc Even school publications were considered part of the alternative press: Philippine Collegian of UP-Diliman, Ang Malaya of the Philippine College of Commerce (now Polytechnic University of the Philippines), Pandayan of Ateneo de Manila University, Ang Hasik of the Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila, and Balawis of Mapua Institute of Technology Even the emergence of the so-called alternative press came about essentially through the efforts of women editors and journalists. Several women journalists were subjected to harassment, threats, and intimidation by the military. Women journalists during Martial Law: Eugenia D. Apostol Betty Go-Belmonte Letty Magsanoc Arlene Babst Ninez Cacho Olivares Domini Torrevillas Melinda de Jesus Tina Monzon Palma 23  Malou Mangahas Sheila Coronel Ceres Doyo June Keithley Philippine Collegian Philippine Collegian defied the media blackout by going underground. The publication formed the radical press together with other student publications such as Ang Malaya, Pandayan, and the publications of various communist and socialist-led groups. Several of its editors, which includes Abraham Sarmiento, Jr., Antonio Tagamolila, and Enrique Voltaire Garcia III, were either killed or died prematurely on account of their harassment by the Marcos government. Business Day The Southeast Asia’s first business daily, it started on February 27. Business Day survived the Martial Law because it did not cover politics. Used like propaganda it swayed the people and made them believe that the economy and business world was doing good and that there was nothing wrong in the society. A separate page for ASEAN news was published also in the business-economics-oriented publication, where stories such as the disappearance of a son-in-law of the Marcoses and about the tragic incidents at Imelda Marcos’s Film Center were placed. PEOPLE POWER PRESS I. Background of People Power The People Power Revolution was a four-day affair that cemented the Philippines’ name in world history as a country of peace-seeking people. In less than a week, the country saw the rise of its people and the fall of its dictator. It was an event nearly every Filipino remembers as one of the country’s finest moments when millions marched outside their homes to find lasting peace despite the dangers of military attack. The world bore witness to people from all walks of life battling oppression with flowers and prayers― nothing could ever compare to those four days of courageous unity. II. Media Blitz In those late February days, the country saw a hero in every Filipino who participated in the revolution. However, most of them were not moved simply by individual conviction. The millions that swarmed EDSA and the roads outside Metro Manila answered a call, and that call was made through the vigilance of the Philippine press. When Marcos declared Martial Law, he wasted no time in taking full control of the country. His first letter of instruction was to order the closure of media establishments like Manila Times; Daily Mirror; Manila Chronicle; Manila Daily Bulletin; Philippine Daily Express; Philippines Herald; Philippine Free Press, Graphic; and the Nation as well as wire agencies. Not long after, several men and women from the media were arrested without warrants and were subsequently taken into camps to be interrogated and detained. This only proved just how Marcos was aware of the media’s power over the people and he wanted to make sure he could not be subjected to it. Anyone who had been there when the Marcos administration fell would not deny the media’s contribution to the revolution. Newspapers, radio, and television stations formed a united front of resistance against the government, and in the process, they influenced their audience to do the same. 1. Print Media Philippine Daily Inquirer The Philippine Daily Inquirer was created in 1985 by Apostol to cover the trial of 25 soldiers accused of complicity in the murder of opposition leader Benigno Aquino, Jr. The newspaper was instrumental then 24 in documenting the campaign of Corazón Aquino during the 1986 presidential elections and, in turn, the 1986 People Power Revolution. Mr & Ms Special Edition Mr & Ms Special Edition was created by publisher Eugenia Apostol in response to the murder of opposition leader Benigno “Ninoy” Aquino upon his return from exile in the United States. It focused on the Aquino assassination and its aftermath, the Special Edition carried detailed coverage of the government-created Fact-Finding Board’s investigation of the murder. It also reported on other human rights abuses in the country. Malaya Malaya was founded in 1981 as a Tagalog newspaper by Jose Burgos Jr., Malaya shifted to English when its sister publication, We Forum, was closed down by the Marcos government in 1983 after it came out with a story exposing the fake medals of former strongman. During the politically Marcos troubled years of 1983 to 1986, Malaya was at the forefront of giving the public the truth. Betty Go-Belmonte Betty Go-Belmonte is the eldest child of Go Puan Seng, a Chinese immigrant and founder of the Filipino- Chinese newspaper The Fookien Times. Belmonte, who was by then already married to Feliciano Belmonte, Jr., remained in the Philippines despite threats from Imelda Marcos that she will kick them out of the country. She helped found the Philippine Daily Inquirer which would become the leading Philippine broadsheet at that time, and together with Maximo Soliven and Art Borjal, she founded The Philippine Star. Eugenia Apostol Eugenia Apostol is a Filipino publisher who played pivotal roles in the peaceful overthrow of two Philippine presidents: Ferdinand Marcos in 1986 and Joseph Estrada in 2001. She established Mr & Ms Special Edition and the Philippine Daily Inquirer, publications that became crucial information bearers for the Filipino people, especially in the highest points of tension of the revolution. Jose Burgos Jr. Jose Burgos Jr. spearheaded Malaya and We Forum. Malaya was the only paper to publish the full story of opposition leader Benigno ‘Ninoy’ Aquino’s murder in August 1983. He won the 1986 International Journalism Award of the Inter Press Service for his contribution to the defense of press freedom during the blackest years of the Marcos regime. 2. Broadcast Media Radio Veritas Radio Veritas is a catholic radio station based in Quezon City. Radio Veritas, among the many Filipino media institutions, was by far the most influential. From the start, they were by the people’s side, giving them the information they needed that they could not otherwise get from the government-controlled media outlets. They covered the assassination of Ninoy Aquino moment by moment, something that few media institutions dared to replicate. Their role in the dissemination of information during the 1986 Snap Elections was also commendable. Radio Veritas provided public exposure to the flagrant dishonesty of the administration and the Commission on Elections. Channel 4 Channel 4 was originally owned by the ABS-CBN stations but a day after Martial Law was declared, it was seized by the government. The station reopened as the Government Television Channel 4. When reports that Marcos had left the Malacanang spread on February 24, people all over the country celebrated. Enrile and Ramos even emerged out of Camp Crame to participate in the festivities. However, through Channel 4, Marcos announced that he was, in fact, still in Malacanang and would not step down. This broadcast was cut short, however, when rebels under Colonel Mariano Santiago stormed the station and seized it. Shortly 25 after, Channel 4 went on air again, with Orly Punzalan announcing, “Channel 4 is on the air again to serve the people.” This broadcast was said to be the “return” of ABS-CBN because its original employees had never set foot on the premises for fourteen years. Immediately after regaining control of Channel 4, the station started broadcasting live coverage of the unfolding uprising. This served as an inspiration to the Filipinos who could not physically be at EDSA. June Keithley June Keithley was a television celebrity who was a host of a children’s television show. She was one of the broadcasters to transfer to another station when Marcos loyalists bombed the Radio Veritas transmitters. Although she had been very afraid, she made sure she had her composure when she was on the air. The fact that the Malacanang was very near to where she was broadcasting did not help. More than reporting the events, Keithley also provided morale to the people who were in EDSA and as well as to people in their homes. At the part of EDSA where the protesters assembled, one could hear Radio Veritas over their radios. The song, Bayan Ko, was repeatedly played to boost the people’s drive. Transition from authoritarian rule to democratic After the Marcos administration, the press was once again freed, and an influx of periodicals was a result of the repression. At that time, the press had been freed from their leash. No longer did they have to publish under the imminent threat of persecution or enforced disappearances. In addition, the press had regained their freedom to exercise social responsibility. For example, the country would not have known about Ramos and Enrile’s plight if it weren’t for Cardinal Sin’s announcement through Radio Veritas. At that time, journalism accomplished one of it’s most crucial roles, which was to inform the people and to make sure that the information they disseminate is truthful. Social Impact The media’s great influence was exhibited during the People Power Revolution. Without the help of the media, many people would not have found themselves at EDSA in those four days. At that point, many Filipinos were still understandably ignorant of the administration’s inhumane practices. The media had grown in those fourteen years of suppression. Instead of caving into the administration’s demands like many institutions, a good part of the media persevered and with them the spirit of patriotism was cultivated. In the media’s effort to extend their knowledge to the people, the country responded with equal enthusiasm. The media’s contribution to the revolution is unparalleled; without the media’s bravery, the dictatorship would have prevailed longer and more people would have stayed ignorant of the injustice it implied. Indeed, the People Power revolution made heroes out of every Filipino― but it had made legends out of the media. 26