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HISTORY Grade 8 Educational Publications Department  First Print - 2016 Second Print - 2018 Third Print - 2020 First Print 2017 Second Print 2018 All Rights Reserved All Rights Reserved ISBN - 978 - 955...

HISTORY Grade 8 Educational Publications Department  First Print - 2016 Second Print - 2018 Third Print - 2020 First Print 2017 Second Print 2018 All Rights Reserved All Rights Reserved ISBN - 978 - 955 - 25 - 0661 - 1 Published by Educational Publications Department PrintedGraphic Printed by Savinda by R.S. Systems Printek (Pvt) (Pvt)Ltd. Ltd, No. 145, No. 765/2, Waduwegama Road, Malwana. UDA Industrial Estate, Katuwana Road, Homagama. ii ii  The National Anthem of Sri Lanka Sri Lanka Matha Apa Sri Lanka Namo Namo Namo Namo Matha Sundara siri barinee, surendi athi sobamana Lanka Dhanya dhanaya neka mal palaturu piri jaya bhoomiya ramya Apa hata sepa siri setha sadana jeewanaye matha Piliganu mena apa bhakthi pooja Namo Namo Matha Apa Sri Lanka Namo Namo Namo Namo Matha Oba we apa vidya Obamaya apa sathya Oba we apa shakthi Apa hada thula bhakthi Oba apa aloke Apage anuprane Oba apa jeevana we Apa mukthiya oba we Nava jeevana demine, nithina apa pubudukaran matha Gnana veerya vadawamina regena yanu mana jaya bhoomi kara Eka mavakage daru kela bevina Yamu yamu vee nopama Prema vada sema bheda durerada Namo, Namo Matha Apa Sri Lanka Namo Namo Namo Namo Matha iii iv  Foreword The Educational Publications Department which is entrusted with the responsibility of providing a free textbook to the students by the government fulfills the duty diligently in each year for the student community which exceeds 04 million. Without limiting to the above mentioned important task, the Educational Publications Department is engaged in producing supplementary reading materials for Advanced Level and other higher examinations. As a result of that process, valuable books with the contribution of subject experts in different fields are sold at a concessionary price. These supplementary reading materials can be an excellent source of knowledge for those who sit for examinations and for the reading public who is interested in reading different academic books. I would like to compliment the subject experts and the staff of the Educational Publications Department who contributed to produce this book. I would like to extend my thanks to you who justify the following saying by George R. R. Martin – “A person who reads books lives thousand lives before his death. Those who don’t read have only one life”. P. N. Ilapperuma Commissioner General of Educational Publications Educational Publications Department Isurupaya Battaramulla 26 - 06 - 2020 v  Monitoring and Supervision P.N. Ilapperuma - Commissioner General of Educational Publications Educational Publications Department Direction W.A. Nirmala Piyaseeli - Commissioner of Educational Publications (Development) Educational Publications Department Co-ordination I. Ranjith - Deputy Commissioner Educational Publications Department Indumini Darshika - Deputy Commissioner Educational Publications Department Panel of Editors Prof. Padmasiri Kannangara - Department of History University of Sri Jayawardhanapura Prof. Raj Somadewa - Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology University of Kelaniya Dr. Anusha Senadhiraja - Senior Lecturer Faculty of Art & Culture Eastern University Chandima Nishani Dharmapala - Senior Lecturer National Insitute of Education Panel of Writers Dr. Rohitha Disanayaka - Senior Lecturer University of Peradeniya J.M. Sudharmawathi - Senior Lecturer University of Kelaniya W. A. S. Shiromala Gunawardana - Assistant Lecturer National Institute of Education M. D. Thilakalatha - Teacher C.W.W. Kannangara M.V. Borella vi Nalin Bandara - Teacher Kuruwita Central College Kuruwita Sister Mary Doneta - Retired Deputy Principal U. L. M. Baseer - Retired In-Service- Adviser Translation E.A. Amarasena - Parliamentary Interpreter Parliament of Sri Lanka Language Editing I. Ranjith - Assistant Commissioner Educational Publications Department Cover Page and Page Layout Designing Charani Nishamini Alahakoon - Educational Publications Department vii viii  CONTENT 1. Traditional Technologies and Arts of Sri Lanka 1 1.1 Water Technology 2 1.2 Clay Technology 20 1.3 Architectural and Artistic Creations 24 2. Kandyan Kingdom 35 2.1 Establishment of the Kandyan Kingdom 36 2.2 Pattern of Economy in the Kandyan Kingdom 45 2.3 Social System in the Kandyan Kingdom 47 2.4 Architecture and Arts and Crafts of the Kandyan Era 47 3. The Renaissance in Europe 51 3.1 The Background of the Renaissance 52 3.2 Coming of the Renaissance 54 4. Explorations and Arrival of the Europeans in the East 63 4.1 Background of Explorations 64 4.2 Receiving State Patronage for Explorations 67 4.3 Arrival of the Europeans in Asia 72 5. Capture of Coastal Areas of Sri Lanka by the Portuguese 75 5.1 Directing the Attention of the Portuguese towards Sri Lanka 76 5.2 Political, Economic and Cultural Activities of the Portuguese 87 ix x Traditional Technologies and Arts of Sri Lanka 01 Introduction W e know that Sri Lanka is a country which has a continuously recorded history of about 2500 years. During this long period, our ancestors adopted various technologies that were appropriate for their contexts in resolving the issues that affected their day-to-day life. Some aspects of those technologies that have kept advancing from generation to generation are unique to Sri Lanka. For this reason, such technologies are called traditional technologies. Ancient Lankans constructed buildings and other works that suited the environment and the culture of this country. They are described as architectural creations. Apart from that, they also created forms of arts that suited their thoughts and wishes. A study of all these things helps gain knowledge about the day-to-day life of the ancient Lankans. In this chapter, further information is given about such things which are our heritage. 1  1.1 Water Technology 1.1.1 Beginning of the Construction of Tanks Many of the canals, tanks, anicuts and ponds etc. that were constructed by the people who It is clear that tanks and anicuts were first lived in ancient settlements in various parts constructed in the dry zone in order to of our country can be seen even today and obtain water required for the agricultural we can also see that in certain places only activities of the people who settled in the ruins of some of those constructions have earliest villages established in our country remained. All such constructions were done before the era of the Christ. There occurred by people who lived in certain periods of time a rapid expansion in establishment of in the history of this country in order to get settlements in this country following the their needs fulfilled. As tanks, canals, dams, arrival of groups of people from India ponds etc. are constructions related to water, around 6th century BC. During the period of the technology that were adopted in doing about three centuries that succeeded, several such constructions can simply be called as other groups arrived from India and settled water technology. The ancient Lankans knew here. When establishing their settlements, how to apply such technologies perfectly they selected the dry zone where the land is well in constructing tanks, canals, dams and mostly plain and highly fertile and therefore anicuts. is most suitable for agricultural activities. Fig:1.1 Basawakkulama Wewa 2 We know that the dry zone of this country such as Mahawamsa. As kings began to be receives rain only during a certain period of involved in the construction of tanks, bigger the year. For this reason, the people of that tanks which had more capacity than village time had the need for storing water that tanks could be constructed because kings was required for their consumption and for could collect more people than village heads agricultural activities during the dry season. could. By about 3rd century BC, construction It was to fulfil this need that people started of bigger tanks under the patronage of kings constructing tanks. After about 3rd century had begun. Mahawamsa speaks of three BC, there occurred a rapid growth in the tanks that had been constructed during the expansion of settlements in the dry zone and reign of King Pandukabhaya. They had been consequently, the people of that time faced the called Jaya Vapi, Abhaya Vapi and Gamini challenge of increasing the food production Vapi. It is believed that the tank presently in order to cater to the need of the increasing called Basawakkulama was the then Abhaya population. Addressing this challenge, they Vapi. Thissa Wewa in Anuradhapura is constructed giant tanks and connected those considered to have been constructed by tanks through canals creating a network of King Devanampiyatissa. These are some of irrigation systems bringing many of the areas the tanks that were constructed about three under paddy cultivation. centuries after the arrival of Prince Vijaya in Lanka. It is clear that those tanks had been It can be assumed that construction of a dam small tanks. Basavakkulama and Thissa across a brook or a stream so that water is Wewa are seen in present status after been collected there, is the origin of constructing renovated on several occasions. small tanks. Similarly, it is seen that small tanks have also been constructed by selecting an area of land of which three sides were bordered with high land and by constructing Construction of Big Tanks a bund across the low lying land of the other side so that rain water is collected there. As a lot of labour was not needed for such small It is seen that construction of big tanks constructions, members of a family or the was started several centuries after the villagers could get together and construct a establishment of the first villages in ancient small tank. As villages spread throughout the Lanka. It was King Vasabha who ruled the dry zone, small tanks required for those small country during the period from 67-111 AD villages were constructed by the villagers who first started constructing big tanks in this themselves under the leadership of the heads country. By this time, Lankans had acquired of those villages. These are called village thorough knowledge about irrigation tanks. There are stone inscriptions which technology as they had been constructing contain information about some village tanks tanks for several centuries. By the beginning which are not spoken of in literary sources of King Vasabha’s reign, settlements had 3  spread in most parts of the dry zone. With the King Mahasen (274 – 301 AD) is prominent expansion of settlements, production of food among kings who constructed big tanks after had to be increased in order to provide for King Vasabha. According to Mahawansa, the increasing population. Construction of King Mahasen has constructed thousand big tanks seems to have started at this time in tanks. Maniheera presently called as addition to smaller tanks in order to fulfil this Minneriya Wewa was constructed by requirement. A large amount of water could him. Jallura Vapi (presently called Hurulu be stored consequent to the construction of Wewa) and Khaanu Vapi (presently called big tanks and the water thus stored could be Mahakanadara Wewa) are examples for distributed to small and medium-scale tanks other tanks constructed by him. Following through canals. the construction of Minneriya tank King Mahasen came to be known as Minneriya Chronicles have recorded that king Vasabha God. had constructed 11 tanks. Mayeth Wewa (presently called Mahavilachchiya Wewa) King Dathusena (455 – 473 AD) is another and Maanikviti or Mahanikkavatti Wewa prominent king who constructed large- (presently called Maanankattiya Wewa) are scale tanks during Anuradhapura kingdom. examples for tanks that have been identified Mahawansa records that he had constructed so far as those constructed by him. eighteen tanks. Out of the tanks constructed by him, Kala Wewa is an outstanding Fig:1.2 Minneriya Wewa 4 creation. Kala Wewa was built by constructing Small tanks could be provided with water a dam across Kala Oya. Chronicles have from large-scale tanks through canals. also recorded of many other tanks such as Paadulaka Vapi and Mahadaththa Vapi Floods could be controlled because of which were constructed by King Dathusena. large-scale tanks. It is believed that Mahadaththa Vapi is the tank presently called as Maadathugama With the construction of large-scale tanks, (Madatugama) Wewa situated close to the technology of constructing long canals Dambulla – Kekirawa main road. Paadulaka developed. Vapi has not been identified so far. King Parakramabahu I, too, is important Challenges confronted and Technologies among the kings who constructed large-scale adopted in constructing Tanks tanks during Rajarata civilization. His motto was, “Not a single drop of water received It is not an easy task to construct a tank and to from rain should be allowed to flow into make use of it with proper maintenance. As the sea without making any use of it”. He mentioned at the beginning of this lesson, it rendered an invaluable service towards the is not a very difficult task to construct a small development of the irrigation sector of this tank, but constructing a large-scale tank is country. According to Mahawamsa, he has a complex process which should be carried constructed 163 tanks including the famous out to a very high standard according to a Parakrama Samudraya in Polonnaruwa. proper plan with thorough understanding. A large-scale tank is a vast reservoir which Rajarata civilization collapsed in 1215 AD holds a huge volume of water which is at following the invasion of Kalinga Magha least 20-30 feet high and spreads over an which was launched towards the end of area of thousands of acres. Further, as the Polonnaruwa Kingdom. After the collapse of height of the volume of water increases, Rajarata civilization, people mostly began to the water pressure exerted on the dam, too, move towards the wet zone and consequently increases. Many people live in downstream the tanks and anicuts in Rajarata areas began areas of a tank and there also are cultivations. to be overgrown with wild. Therefore, it is essential that a very strong dam is constructed to a very high standard. Achievements of the Lankans consequent to Construction of Large Scale Tanks As a huge volume of water could be stored in large tanks, shortage of water could be minimized even during prolonged droughts. 5  can withstand the pressure exerted by the Length Area that volume of water collected in the tank. In order Height of Name of of the gets under to prevent the dam from caving in, the top the dam the tank dam water soil of the relevant area is removed up to the (feet) (miles) (acres) bed rock and then it is filled with layers of soil of different types. When building up the dam with such layers of soil, the soil was pressed Minneriya 1¼ 44 4670 Wewa hard so that absorption of water by the soil is minimum and the dam is strong enough to withstand water pressure. It is also clear that Kala Wewa 3¾ 40 6380 the width of the dam was determined based on the height and the length of the dam. Parakrama 8½ 40 5300 Samudraya Another challenge that was encountered when constructing a tank was to find the labour required for that. Thousands of workers had Table 1.1 – The extent of some of the tanks to be deployed for several years in order to build up a dam of about 30–40 feet high over You can gain some understanding about several miles by way of filling soil. It is really the massiveness of the large-scale tanks wonderful that such mammoth tasks had by studying the figures given in the above been fulfilled accurately with human labour table. Ancient Lankans confronted various so long ago unlike in the present day where challenges in constructing such giant tanks. modern machinery is used to do such heavy When constructing a tank, the most suitable work. When constructing a dam and canals, a place of the river or the stream had to be proper plan and a good organizing skill were selected for building the dam. When selecting needed in order to carry out various tasks the location, mostly a land in a narrow river such as finding the required labour, managing valley with two mountain ranges on either the workers, providing food for the workers, side was selected and a dam was constructed carrying the soil and building up the dam by across the river joining the two mountain pressing the soil hard. The giant tanks we see ranges. When selecting such a location, they today give evidence to the fact that ancient must have taken into particular consideration Lankans had succeeded in overcoming the height of the location, the condition of the all those challenges. It was in response to mountain ranges on either side of the river many such challenges encountered in the and as to how the tank could be connected to construction and maintenance of tanks that the other tanks and the irrigation networks. various features of a tank such as the sluice, bisokotuwa (a cistern sluice), the breakwater, A major challenge that the builders of tanks the inner spill and the outer spill were created. confronted was to design the dam so that it 6  The Key Features of a Tank Fig:1.3 The Sluice The Sluice The sluice was created for the purpose of letting out through the dam into a canal the water that is stored in the tank exerting a very high pressure on the dam. Most tanks have two sluices, namely the upper sluice and the bottom sluice. The bottom sluice is constructed at the bottom level of the tank so that all the water stored in the tank can be let out into the valley. This also helps desilting the tank. The upper sluice is constructed a little above the level of the bottom sluice. In smaller tanks a Bisokotuwa has not been constructed and water is let out through the sluice itself. Bisokotuwa Fig:1.4 Bisokotuwa Bisokotuwa has been constructed in order to let out the water stored in the tank with proper regulation. Bisokotuwa is a part of the sluice itself. In big tanks with several sluices, there also are an equal number of bisokotuwa. Bisokotuwa is constructed in a square shape from inside the tank very close to the dam. Water enters the Bisokotuwa through a tunnel. Inside Bisokotuwa, there is a door that can be moved up and down and water can be released into the outlet tunnel with proper control by moving the door as required. Bisokotuwa is considered to be a unique invention of the Lankan irrigation technologists. 7  Breakwater The inside of the dam has been constructed laying stone on the surface in order to prevent the dam from being washed away into the tank. This is called the breakwater. Small waves are created on the surface of the water due to wind. When these waves hit the surface of the dam unceasingly, there is a risk of the dam being washed away into the tank. Therefore, the breakwater is essential in order to protect the dam. Fig:1.5 Breakwater Inner Spill and Outer Spill The inner spill has been constructed for the purpose of obtaining water for the tank from some other source of water. A small pit has been constructed so that the silt that is carried with the water from outside is deposited there preventing it from entering the tank. When the flow of water from outside is stopped, this pit can be desilted. The outer spill has been constructed for the purpose of letting the excess water out. A big tank may be constructed with two outer spills. Fig:1.6 Inner spill and outer spill 8 Fig:1.7 Thekkam anicut that has been constructed by building up a dam on a natural rock plain in Malwathu Oya (on the left) and how the anicut overflows after it has been filled with water (on the right). current and blocking the flow of water with 1.1.2 Technology applied in small branches of trees, mud and sand. The constructing Canals and Dams objective of constructing such makeshift dams was to obtain water that was needed for the nearby paddy-fields during that season A bund that is constructed across canals, or that year. Such dams got destroyed as the streams or rivers blocking the flow of water next rainy season came. in order to divert some of that water to paddy fields is known as an anicut. A bund Unlike makeshift dams, permanent dams of this nature is called a dam. Accordingly, have been constructed in a very stable way so the term ‘dam’ mostly refers to a bund that is that they last long. It is a common feature that constructed for retaining water. Through the bunds have been constructed using blocks experience that was gained by constructing of stone so that the dam is strong enough to such dams across small streams at the earliest withstand the water pressure and is protected stage of irrigation works in ancient Lanka, from erosion. When constructing a dam, the the technology for constructing huge dams foundation has been joined to a natural rock across rivers and streams was developed and plain or to the bedrock by removing the top giant tanks were constructed. layer of soil. Thekkam anicut that has been constructed across Malwathu Oya close to As far as the technology of constructing dams Vavuniya – Mannar main junction is a fine in ancient Lanka is concerned, it is noticed example for an ancient anicut with a stable, that there had been two types of dams, permanent bund. Water was carried over a namely makeshift dams and permanent distance of about 17 miles up to Yodha Wewa dams. When the current of the rivers and in Mannar through the canal that begins streams slackened after the rainy season had from this anicut. ended, makeshift dams were constructed by way of standing wooden poles across the 9  King Dathusena constructed the canal named Construction of Canals Jaya Ganga or Yodha Ela (Giant Canal) in order to carry water from Kala Wewa to Thissa Wewa in Anuradhapura. Yodha Ela is It is obvious that, at the initial stage of the 54 miles long and certain portions of it are irrigation history of this country, water had about 40 feet wide. been carried from small tanks or anicuts to farmlands through short canals. Later, Minipe Ela constructed by King Aggabodhi with the advancement of the technology of I for carrying water from the Mahaweli constructing bigger anicuts and giant tanks, is another fine example that displays the the technology of constructing wider and great skill of constructing canals in the longer canals, too, developed. According Anuradhapura era. There seem to have been to Mahawansa, King Vasabha, who was the several requirements for constructing canals pioneer in constructing big tanks in this in this way during various periods of the country, has constructed twelve canals, but it history of this country. has recorded by name only the Aalisara or Elahera Ela. Requirements for constructing canals: A dam was built up across Amban Ganga To carry water from tanks or anicuts to and Elahera Ela was constructed from there farmlands. over a distance of about 30 miles in order to carry water to the northern part of the To carry water from an anicut to a tank or country. King Mahasen constructed a canal a tank system. named Thilavaththuka or Thalwathu Ela for the purpose of obtaining water for the To carry water from one tank to another Minneriya Tank. or to several other tanks. Fig:1.8 Yodha Ela, a marvelous creation of our forefathers 10  conditions. When doing such constructions, Technology applied in constructing extremely accurate measurements of the Canals and the Challenges confronted height of the land should be obtained from the beginning to the end of the canal. It is The ancient Lankans connected tanks and wonderful to learn that a gradient of about anicuts through canals and created an one inch per mile has been maintained irrigation network in the dry zone. They also within the first 17 miles of Jaya Ganga. This succeeded in carrying water over miles and is a classic example which shows the expert miles through canals from areas where water knowledge the ancient Lankans had in was abundant to areas where water was scarce. surveying the land. It is obvious that the constructors of those canals would have faced various challenges When constructing very long canals, in carrying out such arduous tasks. However, various challenges such as digging the canal, the sources available in this country do not maintaining the correct width and depth, provide sufficient information about how building up bunds to protect the banks from such canals were constructed or about the erosion in places where the soil was loose difficulties the constructors faced. Therefore, and constructing the canal to suit variations some understanding about the technology of in the geographical conditions had to be constructing canals and bunds at that time confronted. R.L. Brohier, in his great book has to be gained by studying the nature of the entitled ‘Irrigation Systems in Ancient Lanka’, remaining canals and bunds and by studying has described how such challenges had been the ruins of such works. overcome when constructing Elehera Ela. At the construction stage itself, measures When constructing very long and wide canals had been taken to prevent the banks of the like Jaya Ganga, constructors had to face the Elahera Ela from being washed away when problem of variation in the geographical it overflows during the rainy season as a lot Fig:1.9 Elahera anicut 11  of rainwater flows into this canal from the Requirements for constructing Ponds surrounding areas. In places where streams and Types of Ponds of rainwater join the canal, the banks of the canal have been constructed with stone walls. Similarly, the sluices along the canal  Ponds constructed for storing water for diverting water to paddy-fields have been required for consumption. constructed with stone blocks. Further, in places where the canal overflows, spills have Most of the ancient ponds of this country had been constructed laying stone. been constructed for storing water required for human consumption. It is also seen that separate ponds had been constructed for storing water required for drinking and for 1.1.3 Constructing Ponds bathing. It can be assumed that the big pond named Eth Pokuna in Abhayagiriya had been constructed to store water for bathing. The Ponds were constructed for the purpose of ponds in Ranmasu Uyana in Anuradhapura storing water required for various human had been constructed for the purposes of needs. We learnt that tanks were constructed bathing and for water sports. by building up a bund on the ground, but ponds were constructed by digging the soil  Ponds constructed for proper removal of and building stone walls around it to protect rainwater. the banks from erosion. In order to minimize the environmental The history of constructing ponds in Lanka problems created due to collection of runs as far back as to the time of the legend rainwater here and there in the premises of of Prince Vijaya. According to Mahawansa, monasteries, tunnels and drains have been when prince Vijaya arrived in Lanka, Kuveni constructed to direct the rainwater into was knitting cotton by the side of a pond. It is ponds. evident from this description that ponds had been constructed in this country even by that The rainwater that falls on to Abhayagiri time. It can be assumed that the technology dagoba runs down the surface of the dagoba of constructing ponds, too, developed and gets collected on the stone-slab laid with the development of the technology of courtyard (salapathala maluwa). The water constructing tanks and canals. This is evident collected in this courtyard then runs through from the records of Mahawansa which say the spouts that have been constructed outside that King Vasabha constructed many ponds the courtyard and flows on to the sand-laid to beautify the city. yard (Welimaluva). The water then runs along the sand-laid yard and flows into a pit that has been constructed close to the outer wall, and from there the water flows through the stone tunnel into a pond that has been constructed outside. Four such ponds have been constructed on the four sides of 12   Ponds that have been constructed to keep the environment cool. It can be noticed that, as the climate in Rajarata areas is usually dry, ponds had been constructed in every suitable place in the premises of certain monasteries in order to facilitate the monks to engage in meditation being in Fig :1.10 How the rainwater that falls on to Abhayagiri dagoba and a cool environment. the stone-slab laid courtyard has been made to flow into a pond. About 65 ponds had been constructed in the premises of the Abhayagiri temple itself, Abhayagiri Dagoba. Ponds constructed which is about 500 acres in extent. More than in this manner can be seen around many 40 ponds of this nature have been discovered dagobas and monasteries. in the Rajagala archaeological site in Ampara. When ponds are constructed close to one  Ponds constructed to add beauty. another in a certain area and are kept filled with water, the air in that area becomes cool The ponds in Ranmasu Uyana in because of water vapour. Anuradhapura and Kumara Pokuna and Nelum Pokuna (Lotus Pond) in Polonnaruwa Although ponds are classified into different types for easy understanding as described are examples for ponds that have been above based on the purpose they were constructed to add beauty. These ponds have constructed for, mention should be made not been constructed merely to add beauty; that those ponds were used to fulfil various the water collected in those ponds must requirements. Twin Ponds in Anuradhapura have been used for human consumption, is a fine example for that. It can be assumed too. It is remarkable that these ponds have that the Twin Ponds served the purposes been constructed with various decorative of providing water for the consumption of the Bhikkus in Abhayagiri Temple, adding elements. beauty to the environment and keeping the environment cool. 13  Fig:1.11 The Twin Ponds Technology of constructing Ponds Most of the ponds found in various places of the dry zone of this country have been constructed according to a proper plan by digging the soil. When selecting the location for constructing ponds, the way that water can be obtained for the ponds has been taken into consideration. Some ponds have been designed to be filled with rainwater while some others have been designed to be Fig:1.12 A water filter of the Twin Ponds (The water filled with water obtained from that gets collected in the outer compartment of this filter some source of water through a flows into the inner compartment over the six cuts on tunnel or canal. Ponds have also the top of the middle wall. Then the water flows from been constructed by building the inner compartment into the pond through a pipe.) stone walls on rock plains in 14 order to collect rainwater. The ponds that have been constructed by digging the earth are of various shapes. Ponds of square shape and rectangular shape are the most common, but round- shaped ones, too, are found in certain places. Fig: 1.13 A pond that has been constructed on the rock plain in the ancient monastery complex in Rajagala Fig:1.14 Lotus Pond 15  Fig:1.15 Pokuna in Abhayagiriya In certain ponds used for drinking or bathing the water can be removed before it flows into purposes, there are holes at the bottom and the pond. underground pipes have been constructed beginning from those holes in order to In order to prevent rainwater from flowing remove the water that becomes dirty into a into the pond from outside, the topmost canal or into some other suitable place. Twin stone slabs of the walls have been fixed so that Ponds and ponds in Ranmasu Uyana are the walls rise above the ground level. In all examples for such ponds. The walls of most of the ponds found on the rock plains and rock the ponds have been made using stone slabs funnels at the ancient monastery complex in in order to prevent the soil from breaking Rajagala, a hole has been constructed close into the pond and to minimize the amount to each pond and has been filled with water of water absorbed into the walls. Those stone for the purpose of washing the feet before slabs have been placed one above the other getting into the pond. It seems that depositing joining them with a very thin and strong of sand in the pond and adding of dirt into cement and therefore the amount of water the water had been minimized by this. There that leaks through the joints is minimum. also are signs of small cabins that had been As a flight of stairs has been constructed, it constructed for shade close to the ponds. is easier for one to climb down to the pond at Those who came to bathe had been provided any water level. When the pond is filled with with facilities to get their body cooled by water obtained through pipes made of stone, being in the shade before getting into the the water is not made to flow into the pond water. It is evident that ponds had been directly; it is first sent to a filter that has been constructed according to a proper plan with constructed outside the pond. By filtering a good understanding of the environmental the water, waste matter and silt contained in conditions. 16  the royalty. Therefore they can also be called 1.1.4 Water Gardens as ‘royal gardens’. It is also seen that gardens had been constructed in the premises of monasteries where many Bhikkus lived. It is clear that such gardens had been constructed Water gardens or pleasure gardens are those for Bhikkus to engage in meditation leisurely. in which plants and trees are grown and They can be called as monastery gardens. It are designed for spending leisure or doing can be assumed that such gardens had been sports in them. It was King Mutaseeva constructed at the premises of Maha Vihara, who first constructed such a garden in Abhayagiri Temple, and Jethawana Temple this country. According to Mahawansa, in Anuradhapura. on the day when the land was prepared for constructing the garden, a heavy rain (Megha) had fallen; hence the garden was given the name ‘Maha Megha Wana’. Later it Planning Water Gardens and the became famous as Mahamewuna Gardens. Technology adopted King Devanampiyatissa later offered this garden to Arahat Mahinda and other Bhikkus. When Arahat Mahinda arrived in Gardens that had been designed beautifully this country, there existed another garden with many ponds constructed in them named ‘Nandana Uyana’ in Anuradhapura. providing abundant water facility can be As Arahat Mahinda preached dhamma called water gardens. Ranmasu Uyana in being in this garden, it was considered to be Anuradhapura and the water gardens in a place which made Buddha Sasana shine in Sigiriya are fine examples for such gardens. the island and therefore it was called Jothi Garden. However, these gardens, which are considered to be the very first gardens of this country, cannot be seen today because Ranmasu Uyana of various constructions that were done later in areas related to these gardens and due to the changes that took place with the passage of time. Kings took the lead role in The area from Isurumuni Temple on the constructing gardens in ancient Lanka. After bank of Thissa Wewa to Mirisawetiya Temple King Mutseeva’s time, King Kutakannathissa belongs to Ranmasu Uyana. It seems that, constructed a garden named ‘Padmasvara’. after Mahamewuna Uyana and Nandana In addition to them, King Vasabha, King Uyana had been offered to Bhikkus, Ranmasu Gotabhaya, King Kasyapa I, King Agbo I Uyana was constructed for the use of kings. and King Parakramabahu I, too, constructed This garden has been designed taking into gardens. Out of those ancient gardens, consideration the slope of the land and the Ranmasu Uyana in Anuradhapura and the calm environment prevailing in the area. water gardens in Sigiriya are very beautiful A system of pipes had been constructed to gardens that can be seen even today. These make the water obtained from Thissa Wewa gardens seem to have been constructed for flow through the garden systematically and, 17  Fig:1.16 Ranmasu Uyana Sigiriya Water Garden in addition to that, several ponds had been constructed, too. To suit the hot season, the garden had been constructed with open cabins, pavilions, bathing places and beds Sigiriya water garden is outstanding among made of rock for lying on. The garden had the ancient water gardens in South Asia. It been maintained very beautifully. It can be was constructed in 5th century AD, but it had assumed that the ponds in this garden had later been overgrown with wild. Lately, it been used for both bathing and water sports. was discovered by H.C.P. Bell and Senarath Paranavithana. Through archaeological surveys, a clear understanding has been gained about the plan of the water garden that has been constructed on either side of the western part of Sigiriya. 18  Fig:1.17 Sigiriya water garden Fig:1.18 Water fountains in Sigiriya According to the landscaping plan, the waterways on the two sides, the ponds and water garden has been constructed on either pavilions have been constructed beautifully side of and parallel to the road that runs according to a proper plan. As water flows westwards beginning from the middle part downwards with a high pressure through of Sigiriya rock. Taking into consideration the drain system that begins from the high the sloping nature of the land, the system of land of Sigiriya, the flow of water has been 19  blocked covering it with round, stone slabs  Maintaining the gardens properly under with holes in them in order to create water the supervision of gardeners. fountains. The water that flows under natural pressure squirts up through the holes of the stone slabs. These fountains function even today during rainy seasons. It was no wonder 1.2 Clay Technology that ancient Lankans who possessed great skills of water technology have constructed such artificial water fountains. A clear view Clay industry is foremost among the first of the original plan of the water garden manual industries that the earliest members can be obtained when looking towards the of the modern human community had learnt. west from the top of Sigiriya rock. It can be The main factors that led man to take to the understood that the road system, the system clay industry were that clay is a material that of drains, pavilions, ponds, water fountains, can be obtained very easily and that clay can and places for resting have some mutual be easily shaped with hand. There is evidence agreement forming a single whole which which shows that man had started making creates beautiful scenery. One can imagine simple cooking pots with clay some time how beautiful this garden would have looked after discovering fire. At the initial stage of during the time of King Kashyapa when it man’s long journey to the present status, he was complete with all its features such as had no doubt used clay for making the first beautiful roofs of buildings, flower gardens, vessels, images, sculptures and other artistic rows of trees and water fountains. creations. Key Features of Water Gardens  Planning the gardens to suit the nature of the land and the environment.  Constructing a well-planned system of roads within the garden.  Beautifying the garden with drains, ponds and water fountains.  Creating a pleasant environment with cabins, pavilions, resting places and beautifully grown plants and trees. Fig:1.19 A clay vessel belonging to the early period of Anuradhapura era 20 Like most other creations of man, making consequent to the arrival of Arahat Mahinda of clay vessels, too, started at a primary in the 3rd century BC also resulted in an level. It is obvious that the humans who first advancement in the art of pottery in this started making clay vessels with hand had country. According to chronicles, there had made those vessels stronger by drying them been skilled workmen belonging to eight in hot sun. With the passage of time, man potter castes among the craftsmen who must have learnt the technology of making arrived in Lanka when the sacred Sri Maha clay vessels stronger by way of firing. The Bodhi was brought to this country. It is art of making clay pots developed rapidly obvious that the technology of making clay after man had built houses and established pots that existed in India at that time was civilizations. Archaeological findings prove transferred to Lanka with the arrival of these that man in ancient civilizations had made craftsmen. clay vessels of different shapes and different sizes for various needs. Cooking pots, plates, Most of the objects found through cups, water pots and vases are examples archeological excavations in Sri Lanka are for such objects made of clay. With the those made of clay. Pieces of clay pots, pieces development of the technology of making of clay vessels, tiles, bricks and clay images and clay vessels, people in all civilizations had seals are outstanding among them. Findings started adding beauty to those vessels by of archaeological excavations provide colouring, painting and drawing patterns on evidence to prove the fact that a developed those vessels. Invention of the potter’s wheel pottery industry had existed from the very brought about a complete transformation in beginning of the Anuradhapura kingdom the art of making clay pots. Potter’s wheel and that clay objects of very high quality had is a horizontal wooden disc that has been been produced during that period. designed to spin easily on the ground or on some structure. A ball of clay is placed on The process of making clay objects consists of the fast rotating disc and clay vessels can be several basic steps. A suitable type of clay is made with a good finishing using the rotating selected and first the clay is left to firm up. A speed and the shape made by the hand. It was ball of the firmed-up clay that is big enough after the invention of the potter’s wheel that to make the required object is taken and making of clay vessels of various sizes and placed on the potter’s wheel. First the shape shapes mentioned above was started. of the object is formed and then the bottom of the object is made. Finally, patterns or The history of the pottery industry of Sri designs are made on the surface of the object Lanka runs as far back as to the prehistoric in order to add beauty. Now the clay object era. Pieces of clay vessels belonging to the is left to dry and, after that, it is put in the final phase of that era have been discovered kiln and fired. It is clear that clay objects of in archeological excavations carried out very high quality had been made following at several places in the country. The this process. improvement of relationships with India 21  brick producers of this country to produce Making Bricks and Tiles bricks with a similar standard. Therefore, those who were conserving the stupa had to build a special kiln and produce bricks with the required standard. Accordingly, a kiln was constructed in the village called Galkadawala in Nuwaragam Palatha Central Division during the period of 1990 -1991 AD and the bricks necessary were produced there. Ancient brick monuments found from various parts of the country prove that the technology of making bricks had spread throughout the country. Fig:1.20 Bricks made in Anuradhapura era and bricks made at present Huge stupas like Abhayagiri dagoba and Jethawana dagoba in Anuradhapura, There is evidence which reveals that and Demala Maha Seya and King bricks had been used in this country from Parakramabahu’s palace in Polonnaruwa are around 3rd century BC. By the time of King examples for ancient constructions that have Dutugemunu’s reign (161 – 137 BC), the been done using bricks. technology of making bricks had been so developed that constructions as huge It seems that the roofs of the ancient buildings as Ruwanweliseya dagoba could be done of which the ruins of stone pillars remain using bricks. Mahawansa has recorded at present had been made of wood and that, for constructing Ruwanweliseya, King covered with roofing tiles. When excavations Dutugemunu had called producers of bricks are carried out at these buildings, a lot of and selected one who made very strong roofing tiles that remained after the wooden bricks. structure of the roof had decayed have been found. Those who were engaged in producing The bricks that had been made at the early roofing tiles had been called “Ulu Vaduwa” period of Anuradhapura era were bigger meaning tile maker. Producers of brick, too, in size than those that are made at present. had sometimes been called “Ulu Vaduwa”. Absorption of water into those bricks was minimum and they were strong enough to During Rajarata civilization, there seem bear a massive weight. When renovation to have been tiled roofs for the buildings work of the Jetawana Stupa was being in religious places, public buildings, kings’ carried out, there arose the requirement for palaces, and houses of chieftains, but possibly producing bricks as strong as the bricks of the houses of the common masses have not the ancient days, but it was not easy for the had such permanent roofs. 22 Production of roofing tiles seems to have had The period from 2nd century BC to 2nd century several rudimentary phases such as selecting AD shows an expansion of cave inscriptions suitable types of clay, firming up the clay, in many parts of the Dry Zone. Making drip putting clay into the mould and shaping the ledges on rock caves and carving the writing tiles, drying the tiles and firing them. on stone to make inscriptions require the use of iron and steel tools. Further, those There is evidence which shows that stone inscriptions have mention of workers production of roofing tiles, like brick- engaged in various fields related to metal making, had spread throughout the country industry such as ‘kabara’ (blacksmiths), in the ancient times. ‘thambara’ (coppersmiths) and ‘thopasha’ (tinkers). Metals such as iron, bronze, copper, silver Metal Technology and gold had been commonly used during Rajarata Civilization. Objects that had been created using these metals have been found in archaeological excavations. There also is information which reveals that some of these metals such as iron, copper and silver had been obtained from this country itself. When excavating a pond in the premises of Abhayagiri Temple in Anuradhapura in 1994, five pieces of gold weighing from 370g to 438g were found. Together with them some gold coins, too, were found. Those five pieces of gold were in the shape of a Fig:1.21 Ancient jewellery found in disc made by melting gold and pouring it archaeological excavations into a shallow container. The weight of each piece of gold had been engraved on them in kalandas (a small measuring unit in ancient According to the evidence found through Lanka) in ancient scripts. When carrying out archaeological excavations in various parts further excavations in that pond, evidence of Sri Lanka, it seems that metals like iron was discovered revealing that a goldsmith’s and copper had been used even before 3rd workshop had been there in ancient times century BC. However, there had been a rapid on one of the banks of the pond. Furnaces development in metal technology and in the used for melting gold in that workshop use of metals since 3rd century BC due to the and parts of clay vessels used for collecting expansion of agriculture, rapid urbanization, water have been found in the excavations. In development in the field of construction, and excavations at Abhayagiri Temple premises, adoption of Indian technology in various several objects made of gold such as bangles, fields in this country. 23  and put into furnaces made of clay and iron had been extracted by heating them to the required temperature using fire. The natural wind available during monsoon seasons in Samanalawewa area had been made use of for continuously burning the charcoal used for making the fire to heat the iron ore. In Dehigahaela Kanda area, a pair of bellows had Fig:1.22 Furnaces used in extraction of iron been used to keep the furnaces fired anklets, rings, ear-ornaments and a necklace continuously. These findings confirm that the have been found. Accordingly, it can be ancient Lankans had an efficient technology assumed that the said goldsmith’s workshop of producing iron by heating and refining the had been run for the purposes of plating the iron contained in natural rock. images in the temple premises with gold and for making various ornamental objects. 1.3 Architectural and Artistic Creations Evidence has been discovered confirming that iron had been widely used throughout the country after 3rd century BC. Use of iron Architectural Creations was essential for making tools, agricultural Architecture is the study of the field of implements and for various other purposes constructing houses and buildings. As a close such as making iron nails. It can be assumed relationship was built up between India and that, in ancient times, metals like gold may Lanka with the arrival Arahat Mahinda in have been imported to this country, but iron Lanka, it seems that the developed knowledge had been produced in this country itself. of architecture that India had was transferred Convincing evidence has been discovered to Lanka. Most of the architectural creations from Samanalawewa area in Balangoda and including buildings that have been discovered so Alakolawewa Dehigahaela Kanda in Sigiriya, far from various parts of the country belong to the eras after King Dutugemunu’s reign. Most of revealing how extraction of iron had been those creations can be considered to have been done in ancient Lanka. Natural rock that constructed for religious purposes or for the use contained iron had been broken into pieces of Bhikkus. 24 Architecture Religious Buildings Architectural creations belonging to Rajarata civilization can be divided into two parts: Dagobas architectural According to literary sources, Thuparama is creations the first dagoba constructed in Lanka. With the passage of time, huge dagobas such as Mirisawetiya, Mahathupa or Ruwanweliseya, Abhayagiri and Jethawana were constructed non-religious in Anuradhapura. During Anuradhapura religious buildings buildings period, dagobas were also constructed even in areas outside the capital city. Seruwavila, 1. dagoba 1. palaces of kings Somawathi, Thissamarama, Medirigiriya, 2. chetiyagara Deeghavapi, and Neelagiriya are examples 2. fortresses for such dagobas. Such huge dagobas were 3. bodhigara 3. hospitals constructed during the Polonnaruwa period, 4. image houses too. Kirivehera in Polonnaruwa, Demala Maha 4. houses 5. temples and monasteries Seya, Dedigama Kotavehera, Yudanganawa 4. toilets and urinals Dagoba, and Rankot Vehera are examples for 6. meditation chambers such Dagobas. The following are the names 7. alms houses of some of the kings who constructed such 8. devalas prominent Dagobas in Lanka: Name of the king who Period Name of Dagoba constructed it Thuparama King Devanampiyatissa Ruwanweliseya Mirisawetiya King Dutugemunu Anuradhapura era Abhayagiri King Walagamba Jethawana King Mahasen Polonnaruwa Kirivehera Demala Maha Seya King Parakramabahu the Great Polonnaruwa era Yudanganawa Dagoba Dedigama Kotawehera Rankoth Vehera King Nissankamalla Table 1.2 25  By the mid part of the Anuradhapura period, the main parts of a Dagoba were Paadama (the base), Pesa Walalu (basal rings), Garbhaya (relics chamber), Devatha Kotuwa (cylindrical neck), Koth Kerella (conical spire) and Kotha (pinnacle). Further, in order to enhance the aesthetic value of a dagoba, four Vahalkadas (frontispieces) have been constructed facing the four cardinal directions. The most remarkable Vahalkada belonging to the Rajarata era is found from the eastern side of Fig. 1.23 – Vahalkada (frontispiece) of Kantaka Kantaka Chetiya in Mihintale. Chetiya in Mihintale Chetiyagara A chamber constructed as a protection to a small dagoba is called a chetiyagara or watadageya. Evidence discovered shows that watadageyas had been constructed by standing huge stone pillars in rows around the dagoba and making an angular roof by fixing wooden rafters on top of those stone pillars. Medirigiriya Watadageya is the most artistic Watadageya belonging to the Rajarata era. Apart from that, the stone pillars that had been stood to construct chetiyagaras for Thuparama, Lankarama, Ambasthala and Thiriyaya Dagobas are still available. Fig. 1.24 Watadageya in Medirigiriya 26 Bodhigara After the Sacred Bo Tree (Sri Maha Bodhi) was brought to this country, the eight shoots (Ashatapala) and the thirty two shoots (Dethispala) that grew from it were planted in various parts of the country. A house had been constructed around Bo trees for the protection of the Bo trees and to enhance their beauty, and also for the convenience of the devotees. This house was called bodhigara. In ancient times, a bodhigara had been constructed around Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi, too. Nillakkagama bodhigara in Kurunegala District is the most artistic bodhigara belonging to Rajarata civilization. Fig. 1.25 Nillakkagama bodhigara Image Houses constructed for devotees to have a clear view of After depositing images of the Buddha, houses the image from was called the pavilion. Kiribath were constructed to protect those images from vehera, Vijayarama, Pankuliya and Tholuwila are rain and sun and also for the convenience of the examples for the image houses belonging to this devotees who came to worship them. There had tradition. been several traditions of building image houses during Rajarata civilization. Image houses belonging to Gedige tradition can be identified as a more developed stage of Gandhakuti tradition Gandhakuti tradition. In Gedige tradition, not Gedige tradition only the walls, even the roof had completely been Cave temple tradition made of bricks or stone. During Polonnaruwa period, there was a remarkable development The oldest tradition of building image houses in this tradition particularly during the reign was the Gandhakuti tradition. In image houses of King Parakramabahu the Great. The image built according to Gandhakuti tradition, the part houses he had constructed, namely Thuparama, in which the image was deposited was called the Lankathilaka and Thivanka image houses are chamber house and the part which had been excellent works belonging to Gedige tradition. 27  Fig. 1.26 Thuparama image house in Polonnaruwa Cave temples were another tradition of building Jethawana which were constructed and offered to image houses during this period. A special feature Bhikkus under royal patronage. At those temple of this tradition is that the main image had been monastery complexes, many other buildings constructed in reclining position. Pidurangala, had been constructed in addition to the main Habessa, Hulannuge, and Bambaragastalawa religious buildings in order to fulfil various are examples for cave temples belonging to this needs of Bhikkus. period. Devalas Temple Monasteries Hindu devalas (temples) were constructed At the earliest stage, natural caves were used by during Polonnaruwa Kingdom. Siva Devala I the Bhikkus to live in. Such caves which had and Siva Devala II in Polonnaruwa are examples been constructed as appropriate by making drip for Hindu devalas. Siva Devala II, which has been ledges can be found from many parts of the constructed completely out of stone according country. Mihintale, Wessagiriya, Ritigala and to Choala architecture style, is an example for a Rajagala are fine examples for that. Those caves Siva devala that has been well protected. had been well-planed with walls constructed below the drip ledge and in the front side of the cave and doors and windows made of wood had been fixed. Later, with the expansion of the Sangha community, Bhikkus began to live in bigger temples such as Abhayagiri and 28  Prasadaya situated in the inner city of Polonnaruwa. According to chronicles, this palace, which had been constructed by King Parakramabahu I, had seven floors. Even today, there are remains of three floors and the flight of stairs that had been constructed to climb up to the upper floors. Further, Ruins of a smaller palace that had been constructed according to the plan of the Vaijayantha Prasadaya is found from Panduwas Nuwara, too. This palace is considered to have been constructed by King Parakramabahu when he was Fig. 1.27 Siva Devala II in Polonnaruwa the ruler of Dakkina Deshaya (Southern Lanka). Non-religious Buildings Hospitals During Rajarata civilization, buildings of various Ruins of ancient hospitals have been discovered forms were constructed in order to fulfil the from several areas, namely Medigiriaya, Mihintale needs of the kings, chieftains and the common and Alahana Pirivena in Polonnaruwa. The masses. Among the buildings thus constructed hospitals had constituted a central courtyard and were royal palaces, fortresses, hospitals, and rooms connected to that for in-house patients, houses as well as toilets and urinals. storerooms, halls in which medicines were manufactured and a dispensary. The medicinal Royal Palaces bath found from these hospital sites is a unique creation. Medical equipment, too, have been During the Anuradhapura period, the palaces discovered from among the ruins of the hospital of kings and the highest nobility had been that was discovered among the buildings of the constructed in the inner city. Sigiriya can be Alahana Pirivena in Polonnaruwa. described as a unique palace complex belonging to Anuradhapura period. It was built by King Toilets and Urinals Kashayapa using Sigiriya rock as the base and it has been beautified with water parks, rock parks, Due consideration had been given to the sanitary moats and boundary walls. conditions of the people in the ancient times and therefore well-planned toilets and urinals Vijayaba palace in the inner city of Anuradhapura had been constructed for that. They were so is the oldest palace belonging to Polonnaruwa concerned about the environment that they had period. The most remarkable royal palace not even let out the waste water from belonging to that period is the Vaijayantha 29  Fig. 1.28 Ruins of the palace of King Parakramabahu and an imaginary replica of the original palace urinals directly into the soil; several clay pots had been put one on top of the other so that the waste water is filtered before it is released into Artistic Creations the soil. The surface of the toilets and urinals in monastery complexes were decorated with beautiful carvings. Statues Sculpture is given a prominent place among the artistic creations found in Sri Lanka. Statues of the Buddha, the Bodhisaththa, kings and other statues had been created beautifully paying attention to methods of mathematical measurements. 30 Fig. 1.29 An ancient urinal decorated with carvings (on the left). How the pots that had been used to filter the waste water from urinals in order to purify it without directly releasing into the soil are kept on display (on the right). Statues of the Buddha During the Anuradhapura period statues of the Buddha had been constructed in three postures, namely standing, sitting and reclining positions. The most commonly found are the statues of Dhyana Mudra (meditation posture) in Veerasana (seated with the legs crossed). Samadhi Buddha Statue in Anuradhapura and Tholuwila Buddha Statue are examples for that. Avukana statue, Resvehera statue, and Maligawila statue are prominent among the statues in standing position belonging to Anuradhapura period. The development that had been achieved in the construction of statues of the Buddha during Polonnaruwa period is evident from the statues in Uttararama or Gal Vihara. Statues belonging to all postures, namely sitting, standing and reclining can be found there. Fig. 1.30 Dambegoda Bodhisathwa Statue 31  Bodhisathwa Statues artistic creation. Some scholars have opined that this is not a statue of king Parakramabahu, but of Worshipping Bodhisathwa statues became Kapila or Pulasthi Rishi (sage). popular with the spread of Mahayana ideals in this country. For that, Bodhisathwa statues Carvings and sculpture were created in several places of the country. Dambegoda Bodhisathwa statue can be identified Arts of carving and sculpture in Lanka were as a very great work belonging to Anuradhapura originally influenced by the Indian traditions, period. Bodhisathwa statues can also be found but with the passage of time, these arts developed in places such as Buduruwagala, Weligama, with features of identity unique to this country. Kushtarajagala, and Yatalavehera. Sandakadapahana (moonstone) is a unique creation of this nature. Sandakadapahana is a Statues of the royalty and others semicircular (shape of half moon) stone slab placed at the entrance to buildings. At the earliest Royal statues believed to be of King Dutugemunu stage this was a plain stone slab, but later it was and King Bhathikabhaya have been found from decorated with intricate carvings. In the centre the courtyard of Ruwanweliseya. The famous of the Sandakadapahana is a half lotus around statue found close to Parakrama Samudraya which a band of creeper design has been carved. considered to be of King Parakramabahu’s is an Then it is decorated with a procession Fig. 1.31 How the Sandakadapahana, guard stones, and Korawakgala had been fixed at the entrance to a building. 32  Fig. 1.32 Sandakadapahana of swans carrying a lotus bud in the beak. rock during the Anuradhapura period have been Then is a band with carvings of four animals – found mostly from Abhayagiri and Jethawana elephants, lions, horses and bulls following one temples. Avalokitheshwara Bodhisathwa statue another in a procession. The outermost band in Veheragala and Badulla metallic statue are contains carvings of flames or foliage. Two very artistic metallic images belonging to that most artistic Sandakadapahanas belonging to period. It is also noticed that bronze images of the Anuradhapura period have been discovered Siva, Siva-nataraja, Parvathi, and Soorya (sun) from the Abhayagiri temple premises. It can had been created based on Hindu concepts be noticed that the figure of the bull had been during the Polonnaruwa period. removed from the Sandakadapahana of the Polonnaruwa period due to the influence of Paintings Hinduism. Further, it is interesting to note that entrances to buildings had been beautified There is evidence which indicates that with a combination of the artistic creations of Lankans had known the art of painting since Sandakadapahana, guard stones, korawakgala ancient times. Remains of such sketches have (balustrade), and piyageta (stairs). Isurumuniya been discovered from caves in areas such as lovers and the man and the horse head carved on Sithulpawwa, Hindagala, Karambagala and rock are very great artistic creations. Vessagiriya. However, complete paintings have been discovered from Sigiriya. It is considered As far as the art of creating images in Lanka is that Sigiriya frescoes belong to 5th century AD. concerned, it is found that types of rock and The remaining paintings on two nooks of the metals have been used to create images relating west side of Sigiriya rock depict figures of Buddhism and Hinduism. Statues carved out of 33  Fig. 1.33 Sigiri frescoes Fig. 1.34 Frescoes in Pulligoda rock cave beautiful women wearing and carrying lotuses, Activity lilies, and Sapu flowers. Out of the colours used in these paintings, yellow, bay, red and blue are 1. Make a model of a tank including the key predominant. features of a tank. Scholars hold different views about the women 2. Collect pictures and information about depicted in Sigiriya frescoes. ancient ponds and water gardens and prepare a leaflet. This tradition of painting has further developed during the Polonnaruwa period. Paintings in 3. Write a letter to a friend in a foreign places such as Maraveediya in Dimbulagala, country giving information about the great Pulligoda and in Gal Vihara and Thivanka image creations our forefathers had done using clay house in Polonnaruwa are fine examples for the and metals. paintings belonging to that period. 4. Collect information and pictures about architectural and artistic creation belonging to Rajarata period as appropriate for holding an exhibition in the classroom. 34