History & Systems: Chapter 1 PDF

History & Systems: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION Introduction  Definition of psychology has changed as the focus of psychology has changed.  History – definition of psychology was the study of the psyche or the mind.  More recent – the study of, or the science of, behavior. ...

History & Systems: Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION Introduction  Definition of psychology has changed as the focus of psychology has changed.  History – definition of psychology was the study of the psyche or the mind.  More recent – the study of, or the science of, behavior. Problems in Writing a History of Psychology Historiography is the study of the proper way to write history.  When did psychology begin?  We will begin with the major Greek philosophers.  What to include in writing history?  Presentism (understanding the past in terms of contemporary knowledge and standards).  Historicism (study of past for its own sake without attempting to show the relationship between the past and present).  Also, individuals who either did the most to develop an idea or have become closely associated with an idea. Problems in Writing a History of Psychology Choice of Approach  Include non-psychological factors, political climate, technological advancement, economic conditions – all creating a Zeitgeist (a spirit of times, which many historians consider vital to the understanding of any historical development).  Great-person approach – work of Plato, Aristotle, Descartes, Darwin, Freud.  Historical development approach – how various individuals or events contributed to changes in an idea or concept throughout the years.  Eclectic approach – combining the approaches to best be able to illuminate an aspect of the history of psychology. Problems in Writing a History of Psychology Why study the history of psychology?  Perspective – appreciate the subject matter of modern psychology  Deeper understanding  Recognize fads and fashions  Avoid repetition of mistakes – George Santayana said, “those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it”  Source of valuable ideas  Curiosity – why not? What is Science?  Influential individuals claimed that psychology could never be a science because of its subjective experience.  Science was based on empirical observation (direct observation of nature).  Two components: 1. Empirical observation 2. Theory  Features of Science: a) What makes science a powerful tool? It’s combining 2 ancient methods of attaining knowledge: 1. Rationalism  Believes that for knowledge to be valid or invalid, one must apply the rules of logic 2. Empiricism  Knowledge is based on sensory observation/experience  To make sense of any observed, theories are formulated.  A scientific theory has two main functions: 1. It organizes empirical observations  Generates confirmable propositions (tested experimentally) – gains/loses strength if confirmed/not confirmed. 2. It acts as a guide for future observations b) Seeks to discover lawful relationships  A scientific law can be defined as a consistently observed relationship between two or more classes of empirical events.  Example, when X occurs, Y also tend to occur..  Scientific law is general and is amenable to public observation (must be verified by any interested person) – no secrets.  General classes of scientific law:  Correlational laws – one can make predictions  E.g. intelligence tests tend to correlate positively with scores on creativity tests.  Causal laws (powerful) – allows prediction and control.  E.g. knowing the cause of a disease, one could predict and control that disease – preventing the disease from occurring.  The assumption of Determinism  Because a main goal of science is to discover lawful relationships, science assumes that what is being investigated is lawful.  What is being studies in terms of causal laws is called determinism.  All actions and events result from other actions, events, or situations, so people cannot in fact choose what to do.  E.g. a determinist would argue that a person’s genes make him or her anxious.  Revisions in the Traditional View of Science  Karl Popper (1902-1994): Disagreed with empirical observation but stated that:  Scientific method involves 3 stages: 1. A problem 2. Theories (proposed solutions – conjectures) 3. Criticism (refutations)  Scientific theory must be refutable – principle of falsifiability  Predictions must run the risk of being incorrect – risky predictions  The incorrect predictions is what causes scientific progress.  Revisions in the Traditional View of Science  Thomas Kuhn (1922-1996):  Uses the term paradigm (common set of assumptions or beliefs shared by members of a given scientific community)  Once paradigm is accepted, the activities of those accepting it becomes a matter of exploring the implications.  The activities is referred to as normal science (likened to puzzle solving)  A paradigm determines what constitutes a research problem and how the solution to that problem is sought  How do scientific paradigm change?  Persistent observation that a currently accepted paradigm cannot explain (anomalies)  The Stages of Scientific Development  Pre-paradigmatic stage – characterized by a number of rival camps or schools (random facts gathering)  Paradigmatic stage – normal science occurs  Revolutionary stage – an existing paradigm is displaced by another paradigm.  Paradigm and Psychology  Psychology has been described as a pre-paradigmatic discipline  Today we see several camps (behaviouristic, functionalistic, cognitive, psychobiological, psychoanalytic, evolutionary, humanistic, etc.)  Some see this pre-paradigmatic situation as negative (psychology should synthesize all elements into one unified paradigm)  Others think that psychology is a discipline that has several coexisting paradigms – healthy, productive, inevitable because it studies humans.  Popper versus Kuhn  Popper disagrees with Kuhn’s concept of natural science – its not science at all.  Scientific problems are not like puzzles, it is a highly imaginative, creative activity  For Kuhn, science must incorporate psychological and sociological factors for it to be understood.  There is no such thing as neutral scientific observations – they are made through the lens of a paradigm.  In Popperian science, those factors are foreign; problems exist and proposed solutions either pass through rigorous attempts to refute them or they do not.  Is Psychology a Science?  The scientific method has been used with great success in psychology especially in areas of:  Learning  Perception  Memory  Personality  Intelligence  Motivation  Psychotherapy  While some psychologists are scientists, many, if not the majority, are not. Why??  Determinism, Indeterminism and Nondeterminism  Determinism (behaviors are caused):  Scientifically-oriented psychologists are willing to assume determinism while studying humans; however, there are different types of determinism:  Physical determinism:  Biological determinism – physiological conditions or genetic predispositions to explain behavior (evolutionary)  Environmental determinism – environmental stimuli as determinants of behavior  Sociocultural determinism (type of environmental determinism) – cultural or societal rules, regulations, customs and beliefs govern human behavior  Psychical determinism:  Cognitive and emotional experience to explain human behavior; subjective and include person’s beliefs, emotions, sensations, perceptions, ideas, values, goals.  Indeterminism (behavior is determined, but cause cannot be accurately measured or known):  Heisenberg’s (German physicist) uncertainty principle reflects the above.  Concluded that nothing can ever be known with certainty in science.  Accepted by Immanuel Kant – “science of psychology is impossible because the mind could not be objectively employed to study itself”  Nondeterminism  Psychologists who reject science as a way to study humans  Either humanistic or existentialists – human behaviours are self-generated, freely chosen, independent of physical or psychical causes  Free will – responsible for his/her action  Determinism and responsibility  Although a belief in free will leads naturally to a belief in personal responsibility, one version of psychical determinism holds humans responsible for their actions  William James (1884/1956) distinguishes between:  Hard determinism – function in an automatic, mechanistic manner  Soft determinism – resulting from thoughtful deliberation of options available in a given situation (cognitive processes).  Whether we consider psychology as a science is dependent on which aspect of psychology we focus on.  Sigmund Koch (1917-1996) states that:  Psychology should embrace both science and humanities  What is now studied scientifically was once studies philosophically or theologically as noted by Popper.  Persistent Questions in Psychology  What is the Nature of Human Nature?  Are we inherently aggressive? Freudians say yes  Is human nature basically good and nonviolent? Humanists Rogers and Maslow says yes.  Is our nature neither good nor bad but neutral. Behaviourists Watson and Skinner says yes.  Do humans posses a free will? Yes says the existential psychologists.  Persistent Questions in Psychology  How are the Mind and the Body Related?  Materialists – matter is the only reality – everything in the universe must be explained in terms of matter.  They are also called monists because they attempt to explain everything in terms of one type of reality – matter.  Idealists – even the so-called physical world consists of ideas.  They are also called monists because they attempt to explain everything in terms of consciousness.  Dualist – there are physical and mental events governed by different principles (how do they relate?).  For the monists, there is no mind-body problem.  Types of Dualism:  Interactionism  Mind and body interact. Can imitate behaviour.  Position taken by Descartes and many humanistic-existential camp.  Psychoanalysts – Freudians – body aliment are psychogenic caused by anxiety, conflict, etc.  Emergentism – mental events influence from brain activity and thus behaviour  A form of emergentism that is not interactionist is epiphenomenalism – brain causes mental events but cannot cause behaviour.  Psychophysical parallelism  Environmental experience causes both mental events and bodily responses simultaneously  The two are totally independent of each other.  Double aspectism  Mental events and physiological events are two aspects of a person  Mind and body do not interact nor can they be separated (heads and tails-same coin)  Pre-established harmony  Two types of events are different and separate but are coordinated by some external agent (God)  Occasionalism  Something happens to the body, God causes the corresponding mental experience (the body to act)  Human Nature  To what extent are human nature/attributes such as intelligence inherited and to what extent are they determined by experience? Nativism versus Empiricism  Nativist - emphasis  Inheritance  Instinctive  Good, bad, expressive  Empiricist - emphasis  Experience  Mechanism versus Vitalism  Mechanism - emphasis  Acts like a machine (clock) – the parts and the laws governing those parts.  However, humans are more complex.  Vitalism - emphasis  Life not reduced to material things and mechanical laws  Living things have a vital force (soul, spirit, breath). Once departed from the body, death occurs  Rationalism versus Irrationalism  Rationalism - emphasis  Logic, systematic  Intelligent thought process (best guide)  Irrationalism - emphasis  Emotionality/feelings  Unconscious thoughts  Contributors (psychoanalytic theories of Freud and Jung)  What is the Origin of Human Knowledge?  Epistemology – the study of knowledge.  What can we know?  What are the limits of knowledge?  How is knowledge attained?  Empiricist  Passive mind – consists of the accurate description of physical reality as it is revealed by sensory experience and recorded in the mind.  Rationalist  Active mind – concepts and principles that can be attained only by a pondering active mind  Nativists – (Plato and Descartes)  Inherited/innate  Natural  Objective (physical) versus Subjective (phenomenal) Reality  Objective reality is "existence as such". The world of facts. Independent of anyone's thoughts, opinion or feelings.  Knowledge of objective reality is gained by the five senses of sight, hearing, touch, taste, smell.  Subjective reality is the inner world of the mind. The world of emotions and feelings. It is composed of one's own thoughts, opinion and judgements and emotions.  Some accept naïve realism – what we experience mentally is the same as what we experience physically.  Universalism versus Relativism  Universalism – the principle that a given value, behavior, theory, or treatment will be the same across all groups independent of culture, race, ethnicity, gender, and other social identities.  E.gs. how do we define what is ‘normal’?  Belief that all disorders occur in all cultures and present in similar ways.  Relativism- there are no absolute grounds for truth or knowledge claims.  "That's true for you but not for me"  "Beauty is in the eye of the beholder"  "You can't judge other cultures by the standards of your own" Thank You!