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History Notes 1 The Harappan Civilisation Also known as the Indus Valley Civilisation. Harappa: Name derived from the place where the civilization was identified. o Time Span: 6000...

History Notes 1 The Harappan Civilisation Also known as the Indus Valley Civilisation. Harappa: Name derived from the place where the civilization was identified. o Time Span: 6000 BCE to 1300 BCE. o Early Harappan: 6000 BCE-2600 BCE (Formative phase). o Mature Harappan: 2600 BCE-1900 BCE (Urban and prosperous phase). o Late Harappan: 1900 BCE-1300 BCE (Decline phase). Artifacts Found: Pottery, bricks (baked and unbaked), seals, weights, beads, copper and bronze articles. Geographical Spread: Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Sind, Punjab (Pakistan), Indian states of Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra. Harappan Archaeological Sites: Over 2000 discovered in the Indian sub-continent. Settlements Key Locations: Between the Indus and Saraswati River basins. Significant Sites: Rakhigarhi, Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Dholavira, Ganweriwala. Other Sites: Regional Centres, agricultural villages, ports, manufacturing centres. Beginnings Pre-Mature Harappan Cultures: Distinctive pottery, evidence of agriculture and pastoralism, small settlements. Early Farming Communities: Emerged around 7000 BCE, leading to urbanization in the Mature RAHUL SHARMA 1  History Notes 2 Harappan phase. Subsistence Diet: Variety of plant and animal products, including fish. Strategies o Plant Remains: Wheat, barley, lentil, chickpea, sesame, millets (Gujarat), rare rice finds. o Animal Bones: Cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo, pig, wild species (boar, deer, gharial), fish, and fowl. Agricultural Ploughing: Indicated by terracotta models and seals. Technologies Ploughed Field: Found at Kalibangan (Rajasthan), suggesting mixed cropping. Harvesting Tools: Possibly stone blades or metal tools. Irrigation: Evidence of canals (Shortughai, Afghanistan), water from wells, reservoirs (Dholavira). RAHUL SHARMA 2  History Notes 3 Mohenjodaro: Urban Development: Divided into Citadel (higher, walled) and Lower Town (larger, walled). A Planned Labour Mobilization: Massive effort for building foundations and platforms. Urban Centre Brick Standardization: Bricks used had a standardized ratio. Drainage System: Planned drainage with sump or cesspit systems, found in both large cities and smaller settlements like Lothal. RAHUL SHARMA 3  History Notes 4 Citadel Special Structures: Warehouse, Great Bath (watertight, gypsum mortar), ritual bath. Residential Buildings: Courtyard-centered, concern for privacy, own bathrooms, wells. Great Bath: Large tank, corridor on all sides, special ritual bath. RAHUL SHARMA 4  History Notes 5 Processing of Grinding Equipment: Saddle querns for grinding cereals and pounding herbs and spices. Food Harappa's Destruction: Extensive brick robbing damaged ancient structures. Plight Discovery: Noted by Alexander Cunningham, father of Indian archaeology. Hoards Definition: Objects kept inside containers like pots, often for reuse by metalworkers. If not retrieved, they remain until found by archaeologists. Luxuries Artefacts: Archaeologists classify artefacts as utilitarian or luxurious. Utilitarian: Objects of daily use made from ordinary materials like stone or clay. o Examples: Querns, pottery, needles, flesh-rubbers. Luxuries: Rare objects made from costly, non-local materials or with complicated technologies. o Example: Little pots of faience, considered precious due to difficulty in making. RAHUL SHARMA 5  History Notes 6 Complications: Some daily use items, like spindle whorls made of faience, blur the line between utilitarian and luxury. Distribution: Rare objects are found mostly in large settlements like Mohenjodaro and Harappa, rarely in smaller ones. o Example: Faience pots, possibly perfume bottles, are found in Mohenjodaro and Harappa, but not in Kalibangan. Gold: Rare and precious, all gold jewellery found in Harappan sites came from hoards. Craft Chanhudaro: A small settlement focused on craft production. Production Crafts: Bead-making, shell-cutting, metal-working, seal-making, and weight-making. RAHUL SHARMA 6  History Notes 7 Materials for Beads: Stones (carnelian, jasper, crystal, quartz, steatite), metals (copper, bronze, gold), shell, faience, terracotta. Techniques: Different methods based on material. Example: Red carnelian beads made by firing yellowish raw material. Specialised Centres: Shell objects made in coastal settlements like Nageshwar and Balakot. Identifying Indicators: Raw materials, tools, unfinished objects, rejects, and waste material. Centres of Example: Waste pieces at production sites suggest craft activities in both small and large Production settlements. Procuring Sources: Some materials like clay were local, others like stone, timber, and metal were non-local. Materials Transport: Goods were transported by bullock carts, riverine routes, and coastal routes. Materials from Settlements: Established near sources of raw materials. the Examples: Subcontinent o Nageshwar and Balakot: Near shell sources. and Beyond o Shortughai: Near lapis lazuli source in Afghanistan. o Lothal: Near carnelian, steatite, and metal sources. o Expeditions: To regions like Khetri (Rajasthan) for copper and south India for gold. o Contact Evidence: Finds of Harappan artefacts in these regions. RAHUL SHARMA 7  History Notes 8 o Foreign Contacts: ▪ Oman: Chemical analyses link Omani copper to Harappan artefacts. ▪ Mesopotamian Texts: Reference regions like Magan (Oman) and Meluhha (Harappan region). Seals, Script, Seals and Sealings: Used for long-distance communication and identifying the sender. RAHUL SHARMA 8  History Notes 9 Weights Script: Undeciphered, written from right to left, not alphabetical. Weights: Used a precise system, lower denominations were binary, higher denominations were decimal. Ancient Complex Decisions: Indicated by uniformity in artefacts, planned settlements, and strategic Authority locations. Rulers: o Theories: No rulers, several rulers, or a single state. o Evidence: Uniform artefacts, standardised brick size, strategic settlement locations. RAHUL SHARMA 9  History Notes 10 The End of the Decline: By 1800 BCE, many sites were abandoned. Civilisation Changes: Transformation of material culture, disappearance of distinctive artefacts, decline in trade and craft specialisation, deterioration in house construction. o Explanations: Climatic change, deforestation, floods, river shifts, overuse of landscape. o End of Unity: Collapse of a unifying element, evidenced by the disappearance of seals, script, and standardised weights. RAHUL SHARMA 10  History Notes 11 Deadman Lane Deadman Lane is a narrow alley, 3 to 6 feet wide. Findings Skull and bones of an adult found at 4 ft 2 in depth. Fragments of a tiny skull found 15 inches to the west. The lane is named after these remains (John Marshall, 1931). RAHUL SHARMA 11  History Notes 12 Massacre 16 skeletons with ornaments found in Mohenjodaro (1925). Hypothesis R.E.M. Wheeler (1947) linked evidence to Rigveda and Aryan war-God Indra. Wheeler suggested large-scale destruction led to the extinction of the civilization. Contradictory George Dales (1960s) questioned the massacre theory. Evidence Found no destruction layer, signs of burning, or warrior bodies. Suggested burials were sloppy and irreverent. Rakhigarhi Rakhigarhi is the largest Harappan city. Study DNA research by Deccan College, Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, and Harvard Medical College. Findings indicate Harappans are indigenous to the region. Genetic continuity from 10,000 BCE to present-day South Asians. Evidence of gene mixture due to trade and cultural contacts. RAHUL SHARMA 12  History Notes 13 Facial Researchers reconstructed 3D features of Harappan people. Reconstruction Harappan features show similarity with modern Haryana population. Archaeological Harappan artefacts were found but not understood in the 19th century. Discoveries Cunningham, the first Director-General of ASI, did not recognize their age or significance. A Harappan seal given to Cunningham was misdated. Realization of Early 20th century, seals found by Daya Ram Sahni at Harappa and Rakhal Das Banerji at Mohenjo- a New Daro. Civilization John Marshall announced the discovery of the Indus Valley Civilization in 1924. Marshall's work added 3,000 years to India's known history. Excavation R.E.M. Wheeler improved excavation methods by following stratigraphy. Techniques Post-partition, efforts increased to locate Harappan sites in India. Wheeler's R.E.M. Wheeler's memoir of his inspection at Harappa in 1944. Experience Emphasized the adventurous nature of early archaeology. Symbolic Terracotta figurines interpreted as mother goddesses. Artefacts Stone statuary of men seen as priest-kings. Seals depicting ritual scenes suggest religious practices. Proto-Shiva The earliest religious text, the Rigveda (compiled c. 1500-1000 BCE) mentions a god named Rudra, seals which is a name used for Shiva in later Puranic traditions (in the first millennium CE) However, unlike Shiva, Rudra in the Rigveda is neither depicted as Pashupati (lord of animals in general and cattle in particular), nor as a yogi. RAHUL SHARMA 13  History Notes 14 Major Lower Palaeolithic: 2 million BP Archaeological Middle Palaeolithic: 80,000 BP Periods Upper Palaeolithic: 35,000 BP Mesolithic: 12,000 BP Neolithic: 10,000 BP Chalcolithic: 6,000 BP Harappan Civilization: 2600 BCE Early Iron: 1000 BCE Early Historic: 600 BCE-400 CE Harappan 1875: Cunningham's report on Harappan seal Archaeology 1921: Daya Ram Sahni begins Harappa excavations Timeline 1922: Excavations at Mohenjodaro 1946: Wheeler excavates at Harappa 1955: Excavations at Lothal 1960: Excavations at Kalibangan 1974: Explorations in Bahawalpur 1980: Surface explorations at Mohenjodaro 1986: American excavations at Harappa 1990: Excavations at Dholavira RAHUL SHARMA 14  History Notes 15 1997: Excavations at Rakhigarhi 2013: Archaeogenetic research at Rakhigarhi Kings, Farmers and Towns Developments Harappan Civilization and Rigveda Composition in Post- o Developments across the subcontinent after Harappan civilization. Harappan o Rigveda composed along the Indus and its tributaries. Subcontinent (1500 Years) Agricultural Settlements o Emergence in North India, Deccan Plateau, and parts of Karnataka. o Evidence of pastoral populations in the Deccan and South India. New Burial Practices o Emergence of megaliths in central and South India (first millennium BCE). o Burials included rich iron tools and weapons. Early States and Sixth Century BCE Trends Economies (c. o Emergence of early states, empires, and kingdoms. 600 BCE - 600 o Changes in agricultural production. CE) o Appearance of new towns across the subcontinent. o Sources: inscriptions, texts, coins, visual material. Prinsep and James Prinsep deciphered Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts. Piyadassi Inscriptions mentioned king Piyadassi (pleasant to behold) and Asoka. (1830s) New direction in early Indian political history. Reconstruction of major dynasties’ lineages by European and Indian scholars. Investigation of Political, Economic, and Social Contexts o Links between political changes and economic/social developments were complex. Mahajanapadas The Earliest States o Sixteen Mahajanapadas (Sixth Century BCE) o Early states, cities, use of iron, coinage, diverse systems of thought (Buddhism, Jainism). o Mentioned in Buddhist and Jaina texts. o Notable Mahajanapadas: Vajji, Magadha, Koshala, Kuru, Panchala, Gandhara, Avanti. o Some were oligarchies (ganas or sanghas), like Vajji. Characteristics of Mahajanapadas o Each had a fortified capital city. RAHUL SHARMA 15  History Notes 16 o Resources needed for armies and bureaucracies. o Norms for rulers laid down in Dharmasutras (Brahmanas). RAHUL SHARMA 16  History Notes 17 Magadha First Among the Sixteen: Magadha o Rise of Magadha (Sixth to Fourth Centuries BCE) o Located in present-day Bihar. o Factors: productive agriculture, accessible iron mines, elephants in forests, Ganga communication. o Influential rulers: Bimbisara, Ajatasattu, Mahapadma Nanda. Capitals of Magadha o Initial capital: Rajagaha (Rajgir), a fortified settlement. o Later capital: Pataliputra (Patna), commanding Ganga routes. Inscriptions Definition and Importance RAHUL SHARMA 17  History Notes 18 o Engraved on stone, metal, pottery. o Recorded achievements, activities, ideas. o Some carry dates, others dated by palaeography. o Early inscriptions in Prakrit, also in Pali, Tamil, Sanskrit. Languages and Most Asokan inscriptions were in Prakrit. Scripts Inscriptions in the northwest were in Aramaic and Greek. Most Prakrit inscriptions were written in Brahmi script. Some northwest inscriptions were in Kharosthi script. Aramaic and Greek scripts were used for inscriptions in Afghanistan. Mauryan Growth and Establishment Empire o Growth of Magadha led to the Mauryan Empire. o Chandragupta Maurya founded the empire (c. 321 BCE). o Chandragupta extended control to Afghanistan and Baluchistan. o Asoka, his grandson, conquered Kalinga (present-day coastal Orissa). Sources of Historians use archaeological finds, especially sculptures. Mauryan Contemporary works like Megasthenes’ account, survive in fragments. RAHUL SHARMA 18  History Notes 19 History Arthashastra, attributed to Kautilya or Chanakya, used as a source. Mauryas mentioned in Buddhist, Jaina, Puranic literature, and Sanskrit texts. Asoka’s inscriptions on rocks and pillars are valuable sources. Asoka’s Inscriptions and Dhamma Contributions o Asoka inscribed messages on stone surfaces (natural rocks, polished pillars). o Proclaimed dhamma: respect for elders, generosity towards Brahmanas and renouncers, kind treatment of slaves and servants, respect for other religions and traditions. RAHUL SHARMA 19  History Notes 20 Administering Political Centres the Mauryan o Five major political centres: Pataliputra (capital), Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali, Suvarnagiri. Empire o Asokan inscriptions had the same message across the empire. o Empire regions were diverse: hilly Afghanistan to coastal Orissa. o Strongest administrative control around the capital and provincial centres. o Taxila and Ujjayini on important long-distance trade routes. RAHUL SHARMA 20  History Notes 21 o Suvarnagiri important for gold mines in Karnataka. Communication and Military o Vital communication along land and riverine routes. o Journeys from centre to provinces took weeks or months. o Provisions and protection were necessary for travel. o Army was crucial for ensuring protection. Megasthenes mentions a military committee with six subcommittees: o Navy o Transport and provisions o Foot-soldiers o Horses o Chariots o Elephants Dhamma and Asoka propagated dhamma to hold the empire together. Administration Dhamma principles aimed for well-being in this world and the next. Special officers, dhamma mahamatta, spread dhamma. Duties of King's Officials managed rivers, measured land, inspected sluices. Officials Ensured equal water distribution from canals. Oversaw huntsmen, rewarded or punished them. Collected taxes, supervised land-related occupations (woodcutters, carpenters, blacksmiths, miners). Historians' Emergence of the Mauryan Empire was a major landmark in early Indian history. Perspective During the 19th and early 20th centuries, under British colonial rule, Indian historians found the idea of an early Indian empire challenging and exciting. Archaeological finds, including stone sculpture, showcased the spectacular art typical of empires. Asokan inscriptions conveyed messages of power, industry, and humility, different from other rulers. Nationalist leaders in the 20th century viewed Asoka as an inspiring figure. Duration and Mauryan Empire lasted about 150 years. Extent The empire did not encompass the entire subcontinent. Control within the empire was not uniform. By the second century BCE, new chiefdoms and kingdoms emerged. Arthashastra's Guards of elephant forests, along with various assistants, tracked herds by following urine and dung. Instructions Used female elephants to help tether wild ones. Greek Sources Mauryan ruler had a standing army of 600,000 foot-soldiers, 30,000 cavalry, and 9,000 elephants. Some historians consider these accounts exaggerated. Notions of Chiefs and Kings in the South Kingship o New stable and prosperous kingdoms emerged in the Deccan and further south, including the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas. o A chief's position might not be hereditary; they derived support from kinfolk, performed rituals, led in warfare, and arbitrated disputes. o Chiefs received gifts from subordinates, unlike kings who collected taxes. o Early Tamil Sangam texts describe chiefs and resource distribution. Revenue from Chiefs and kings like the Satavahanas and Shakas derived revenues from long-distance trade. RAHUL SHARMA 21  History Notes 22 Trade Their social origins were often obscure, but they claimed social status once in power. Silappadikaram Pandya chief Senguttuvan received gifts from forest people, including ivory, fragrant wood, honey, sandalwood, turmeric, cardamom, and various animals. Divine Kings Kushanas o Kushanas ruled a vast kingdom from Central Asia to northwest India. o Their history is reconstructed from inscriptions and textual traditions. o Kushanas projected kingship through coins and sculpture. o Colossal statues of Kushana rulers found in shrines indicated they considered themselves godlike. o Kushana rulers adopted the title devaputra, or "son of god," inspired by Chinese rulers. Gupta Empire o Larger states like the Gupta Empire emerged by the fourth century. o Depended on samantas, who maintained themselves through local resources and provided military support. o Powerful samantas could become kings, while weak rulers might be reduced to subordination. Praising Samudragupta o Histories of Gupta rulers reconstructed from literature, coins, and inscriptions. o The Prayaga Prashasti, composed in Sanskrit by Harishena, praised Samudragupta as a powerful ruler. o Samudragupta was described as resplendent, compassionate, and comparable to gods Kubera, Varuna, Indra, and Yama. Sudarshana Location and Description Lake in Gujarat o Girnar (Map 2) o Sudarshana Lake: Artificial reservoir. Historical References o Second Century CE Inscription: Composed in Sanskrit to record Shaka ruler Rudradaman's achievements. o Initial Construction: Built by a local governor during Maurya rule, with embankments and water channels. o Storm Damage: A terrible storm broke the embankments, causing water to gush out. o Rudradaman's Repairs: Repaired the lake using his own resources without imposing tax on subjects. o Fifth Century Inscription: Another ruler of the Gupta dynasty repaired the lake again. Transplantation Process in Paddy o Areas with Plentiful Water Cultivation o Method: Seeds broadcast first; saplings grown and transplanted in waterlogged fields. o Outcome: Higher survival ratio of saplings and higher yields. A Changing Popular Perceptions of Kings Countryside o Sources: Inscriptions, Jatakas, Panchatantra. o Gandatindu Jataka: Describes subjects' plight under a wicked king. o Issues: Attacks by robbers at night, tax collectors during the day. o Response: People abandoned villages to live in forests. RAHUL SHARMA 22  History Notes 23 Strategies for Increasing Production o Plough Agriculture: Spread in fertile alluvial river valleys (Ganga, Kaveri) from c. sixth century BCE. o Iron-tipped Ploughshare: Used in areas with high rainfall. o Paddy Production: Increased through transplantation. o Restricted Use: Semi-arid regions (Punjab, Rajasthan) and hilly tracts used hoe agriculture. o Irrigation: Wells, tanks, and canals. o Construction: Organized by communities and powerful men, often recorded in inscriptions. Differences in Rural Society o Uneven Benefits: Technologies led to production increase but benefits were uneven. o Social Differentiation: Landless laborers, small peasants, large landholders. ▪ Term 'Gahapati': Used in Pali texts for the latter two categories. ▪ Tamil Literature: Categories of vellalar (landowners), uzhavar (ploughmen), adimai (slaves). ▪ Control Over Land: Crucial, discussed in legal texts. Legal Texts o Manusmrti: Written in Sanskrit (c. second century BCE - c. second century CE). o Advice to King: Handle boundary disputes by burying concealed markers. Gahapati Role: Owner, master, head of household; controlled household resources. Status Marker: Sometimes indicated status for urban elite and wealthy merchants. Life in a Small Harshacharita Excerpt Village o Harshavardhana's Biography: Composed in Sanskrit by Banabhatta (c. seventh century CE). o Village Life: Settlement on outskirts of a forest in the Vindhyas. o Description: Rice-land, threshing grounds, spade culture due to difficult ploughing. ▪ Village Activities: People carrying bark, flowers, flax, honey, peacock feathers, wax, logs, and grass. ▪ Village Wives: Carrying baskets of gathered forest fruits for sale. Land Grants Early Centuries of the Common Era o Recorded in Inscriptions: Stone or copper plates. o Recipients: Religious institutions or Brahmanas. o Language: Mostly Sanskrit, with local languages like Tamil or Telugu from the seventh century onwards. Example: Prabhavati Gupta o Background: Daughter of Chandragupta II (c. 375-415 CE), married into the Vakataka family. o Legal Context: Women were not supposed to have independent access to land, but Prabhavati's status as a queen provided an exception. o Rural Populations: Included Brahmanas, peasants, and others expected to provide produce to the king or his representatives. o Obligations: They had to obey the new lord of the village and pay dues. Regional Variations and Impact o Size of Land Grants: Ranged from small plots to vast stretches of uncultivated land. RAHUL SHARMA 23  History Notes 24 o Rights of Donees: Varied regionally. o Historical Debate: ▪ Extension of Agriculture: Some historians view land grants as a strategy to expand agriculture. ▪ Weakening Political Power: Others see them as a sign of kings losing control over their samantas, attempting to win allies by granting land. Agrahara o Definition: Land granted to a Brahmana, often exempt from land revenue and other dues, with the right to collect these dues from locals. Groups Beyond State Control o Examples: Pastoralists, fisherfolk, hunter-gatherers, mobile or semi-sedentary artisans, and shifting cultivators. o Record Keeping: Generally, did not keep detailed records of their lives and transactions. Prabhavati Gupta and the Village of Danguna: Inscription Details o Command: Prabhavati Gupta commands the gramakutumbinas, Brahmanas, and others in Danguna. o Donation: On the twelfth lunar day of Karttika, the village was donated to Acharya Chanalasvamin to increase religious merit. o Exemptions and Rights: The village was exempt from soldiers, policemen, royal obligations, and taxes, with rights to hidden treasures and deposits. o Documentation: Written in the thirteenth regnal year and engraved by Chakradasa. The History of Evolution of the City Pataliputra o Origins: Began as Pataligrama. o Magadhan Capital: Shifted from Rajagaha in the fifth century BCE and renamed. o Mauryan Empire: Capital by the fourth century BCE, one of the largest cities in Asia. o Decline: Declined in importance by the seventh century CE, as observed by Chinese pilgrim Xuan Zang. New Cities Emergence: Urban centers emerged around the sixth century BCE. Capitals: Many were capitals of mahajanapadas. Locations: o Pataliputra on riverine routes. o Ujjayini along land routes. o Puhar near the coast (sea routes). o Mathura: commercial, cultural, political activity hub. New Cities Emergence: Urban centers emerged around the sixth century BCE. Capitals: Many were capitals of mahajanapadas. Locations: o Pataliputra on riverine routes. o Ujjayini along land routes. o Puhar near the coast (sea routes). o Mathura: commercial, cultural, political activity hub. Urban Populations: Elites and Craftspersons Residence: Kings and elites in fortified cities. RAHUL SHARMA 24  History Notes 25 Artefacts: o Fine pottery (Northern Black Polished Ware). o Ornaments, tools, weapons, vessels, figurines from gold, silver, copper, bronze, ivory, glass, shell, terracotta. The Gift of an Image o Example: Mathura image with a Prakrit inscription by Nagapiya, wife of goldsmith Dharmaka. Votive Inscriptions o Period: By the second century BCE. o Details: Name of the donor, occupation. o Urban Residents: Washing folk, weavers, scribes, carpenters, potters, goldsmiths, blacksmiths, officials, religious teachers, merchants, kings. Guilds (Shrenis): o Craft producers and merchants' organizations. o Functions: Procure raw materials, regulate production, market products. o Used iron tools to meet urban elite demands. Malabar Coast (Present-day Kerala) o Source: Excerpt from "Periplus of the Erythraean Sea" by an anonymous Greek sailor (c. first century CE). o Trade Goods: ▪ Imports: Coin, topaz, antimony, coral, crude glass, copper, tin, lead. ▪ Exports: Pepper, pearls, ivory, silk cloth, transparent stones, diamonds, sapphires, tortoise shell. o Archaeological Evidence: Bead-making industry using precious and semi-precious stones in Kodumanal (Tamil Nadu). Trade in the Subcontinent and Beyond o Routes: ▪ Land and river routes across the subcontinent. ▪ Overland to Central Asia and beyond. ▪ Overseas from coastal ports to East/North Africa, West Asia, Southeast Asia, China. o Control: Rulers offered protection for a price. Traders: o Peddlers on foot. o Merchants with caravans of bullock carts, pack-animals. o Seafarers with risky but profitable ventures. Wealthy Merchants: o Tamil: Masattuvan. o Prakrit: Setthis and Satthavahas. Goods: Salt, grain, cloth, metal ores, finished products, stone, timber, medicinal plants, spices (especially pepper), textiles, transported to the Roman Empire across the Arabian Sea to the Mediterranean. Coinage Introduction of Coinage o Punch-marked Coins: Made of silver and copper from c. sixth century BCE onwards. o Findings: Recovered from excavations throughout the subcontinent. RAHUL SHARMA 25  History Notes 26 o Study: Numismatists study these coins to reconstruct commercial networks. Issuers of Coins o Symbols and Dynasties: Attempts to identify symbols with specific ruling dynasties, including the Mauryas. o Merchants and Bankers: Likely issued some coins. o First Named Coins: Issued by Indo-Greeks in the north-western part of the subcontinent c. second century BCE. Kushanas' Gold Coins o First Hoards: Issued first gold coins c. first century CE. o Weight: Virtually identical to those of Roman emperors and Parthian rulers of Iran. o Findings: Found in several sites in north India and Central Asia. o Significance: Indicates the value of transactions. Roman Coins o Findings: Hoards found in south India. o Trade Networks: South India had close trade connections with the Roman Empire despite not being part of it. Tribal Republics' Coins o Yaudheyas: Issued several thousand copper coins in Punjab and Haryana (c. first century CE). o Interest: Indicates participation in economic exchanges. Gupta Gold Coins o Spectacular Issues: Notable for their purity. o Facilitation: Facilitated long-distance transactions benefiting kings. Economic Economic Changes Changes o Decline in Gold Coins: Finds taper off from c. sixth century CE. Economic Crisis Debate: o Some historians suggest a decline in long-distance trade after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. o Others argue new towns and trade networks emerged. o Coins continue to be mentioned in inscriptions and texts, suggesting they were in circulation rather than hoarded. Numismatics o Study: Involves visual elements such as scripts and images, metallurgical analysis, and the context of findings. Example of Coin o Punch-marked coin named for symbols punched or stamped onto the metal surface. How Are Deciphering Brahmi Inscriptions o Modern Scripts: Derived from Brahmi, used in most Asokan inscriptions. Deciphered? o European Scholars: Worked with Indian pandits from the late eighteenth century. o Comparison: Letters compared with older specimens from Bengali and Devanagari manuscripts. RAHUL SHARMA 26  History Notes 27 o Assumptions: Early inscriptions assumed to be in Sanskrit, but were actually in Prakrit. o James Prinsep: Deciphered Asokan Brahmi in 1838 after decades of investigations. How Kharosthi Was Read o Kharosthi Script: Used in inscriptions in the northwest. o Coin Finds: Coins of Indo-Greek kings facilitated the decipherment. o Greek and Kharosthi Scripts: Comparison of letters in names like Apollodotus. o James Prinsep: Identified the language of Kharosthi inscriptions as Prakrit, enabling reading of longer inscriptions. Historical Evidence from Inscriptions o Asokan Inscriptions: Titles like devanampiya and piyadassi used instead of the ruler's name. o Comparison: Inscriptions matched in content, style, language, and palaeography. o Historians' Assessments: Constantly assess statements for truth, plausibility, or exaggeration. o Words in Brackets: Added by epigraphists to clarify meaning without changing intent. Challenges in Understanding Inscriptions o Literacy and Comprehension: Questions about literacy and understanding of Prakrit in Pataliputra. o Obedience to Orders: Uncertainty if king's orders were followed. Asoka's Anguish o Missing Inscription: Reflecting Asoka's anguish not found in conquered Orissa. o Possible Reasons: Anguish too painful to address in the region. The Anguish of the King o Asoka's Conquest: Conquered Kalingas after eight years of rule. o Casualties: 150,000 deported, 100,000 killed, many more died. o Repentance: Asoka's intense study and love of Dhamma, instructing people in Dhamma. o Painful Conquest: Slaughter, death, and deportation during conquest considered painful and deplorable. The Limitations of Inscriptional Evidence o Technical Limitations: Faint letters, damaged inscriptions, uncertain reconstructions. o Uncertainty: Exact meaning of words may be unclear or specific to place or time. o Debates and Discussions: Scholars constantly debating alternative readings. o Incomplete Records: Only a fraction of inscriptions have survived, many not deciphered or published. o Perspective of Inscriptions: Often reflect the viewpoint of those who commissioned them, focusing on grand events rather than daily life. o Need for Juxtaposition: Inscriptions need to be compared with other perspectives for better historical understanding. Misc. 600-500 BCE: o Paddy transplantation, urbanisation in the Ganga valley, mahajanapadas, punch-marked coins. 500-400 BCE- Magadha: RAHUL SHARMA 27  History Notes 28 o Rulers consolidate power. 327-325 BCE: o Alexander of Macedon invades. 321 BCE: o Accession of Chandragupta Maurya. 272/268-231 BCE: o Reign of Asoka. 185 BCE: o End of the Mauryan empire. 200-100 BCE o Indo-Greek Rule: Indo-Greek rule in the northwest. o South India: Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas. o Deccan: Satavahanas. 100 BCE-200: o Shaka Rulers: Shaka rulers in the northwest. o Roman Trade: Increase in Roman trade and gold coinage. 78: o Accession of Kanishka. 100-200: o Earliest inscriptional evidence of land grants by Satavahana and Shaka rulers. 320: o Beginning of Gupta rule. 335-375: o Reign of Samudragupta. 375-415: o Chandragupta II: Reign of Chandragupta II. o Deccan: Vakatakas. 500-600 CE o Rise of Chalukyas: In Karnataka. o Pallavas: In Tamil Nadu. 606-647 CE o Harshavardhana: King of Kanauj. o Xuan Zang: Chinese pilgrim comes in search of Buddhist texts. 712: o Arabs conquer Sind. 1784: o Founding of the Asiatic Society (Bengal). 1810s: o Colin Mackenzie collects over 8,000 inscriptions in Sanskrit and Dravidian languages. 1838: o Decipherment of Asokan Brahmi by James Prinsep. 1877: o Alexander Cunningham publishes a set of Asokan inscriptions. 1886: o First issue of Epigraphia Carnatica, a journal of south Indian inscriptions. 1888: o First issue of Epigraphia Indica. RAHUL SHARMA 28  History Notes 29 1965-66: o D.C. Sircar publishes Indian Epigraphy and Indian Epigraphical Glossary. Kinship, Caste and Class Changes in Economic Changes: Economic and o Extension of agriculture into forested areas transformed forest dwellers' lives. Political Life (c. o Emergence of craft specialists as distinct social groups. 600 BCE - 600 o Unequal wealth distribution sharpened social differences. CE) Use of Textual Historians' Methods: Traditions o Texts lay down social behaviour norms and describe various social situations. o Inscriptions provide glimpses of social actors. o Importance of considering who composed the text, for whom, and the language used. o Texts help piece together attitudes and practices shaping social histories. Focus on the Overview: Mahabharata o A colossal epic with over 100,000 verses. o Composed over about 1,000 years (from c. 500 BCE). o Contains stories and norms of behaviour for various social groups. The Critical Project Initiation: Edition of the o Began in 1919, led by Sanskritist V.S. Sukthankar. Mahabharata o A team of scholars collected and compared Sanskrit manuscripts. o Published common verses in volumes over 13,000 pages. o Documented regional variations in footnotes and appendices. o Reflective of dialogues between dominant traditions and local ideas. Reconstructing Sources and Approaches: Social Histories o Primarily derived from Sanskrit texts by and for Brahmanas. o 19th- and 20th-century historians initially took these texts at face value. o Subsequent studies included texts in Pali, Prakrit, and Tamil. o Indicated both recognition and questioning of Sanskrit texts' ideas. Terms for Definitions: Family and Kin o Kula: Families. o Jnati: Larger network of kinfolk. o Vamsha: Lineage. o Patriliny: Descent from father to son. o Matriliny: Descent through the mother. Kinship and Marriage o Family Variations: o Families vary in members, relationships, and shared activities. o Kinfolk share food, resources, and perform rituals together. Historical Insight: o Elite family information is easier to retrieve. o Familial relationships of ordinary people are harder to reconstruct. o Attitudes towards family and kinship provide insights into people's thinking and actions. RAHUL SHARMA 29  History Notes 30 The Ideal of Patriliny o Mahabharata's Role: ▪ Story of feud over land and power between Kauravas and Pandavas. ▪ Reinforced the idea of patrilineal succession. ▪ Sons could claim fathers' resources upon their death. Patriliny in Practice: o Followed by most ruling dynasties from the sixth century BCE onwards. o Variations in practice: brothers succeeding one another, other kinsmen claiming the throne, exceptional women exercising power. o Evident in ritual texts like the Rigveda. Producing "Fine Sons" o Marriage Rituals: o Excerpt from the Rigveda used in Hindu weddings. o Emphasizes producing fine sons and the transition from father’s to husband’s house. Why Kinfolk Quarrelled o Mahabharata Excerpt: ▪ Conflict between Kauravas and Pandavas due to jealousy and preference for the Pandavas. ▪ Illustrates ideas about royal succession and familial jealousy. Marriage Importance of Sons: o Sons were crucial for patrilineage continuity. o Daughters had no claims to household resources. Exogamy: o Marrying daughters outside the kin was desirable. o Lives of high-status young girls and women were carefully regulated. o Belief in kanyadana (gift of a daughter in marriage) as a father’s religious duty. Types of Marriages o Endogamy: Marriage within a kin group, caste, or locality. o Exogamy: Marriage outside the unit. o Polygyny: A man having several wives. o Polyandry: A woman having several husbands. Complex Social Life: o Emergence of new towns led to complex social life. o People met to trade and share ideas, questioning earlier beliefs. Brahmanas' Response: o Laid down detailed social behaviour codes in Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras (c. 500 BCE). o Manusmriti, compiled between 200 BCE and 200 CE, was the most important. o Brahmana texts claimed universal validity but real social relations were complex. Manusmriti Excerpts: o First Form: Gift of a daughter to a man learned in the Veda. o Fourth Form: Gift of a daughter with blessings and honour. o Fifth Form: Groom gives wealth to the bride’s family. o Sixth Form: Voluntary union of a maiden and her lover. RAHUL SHARMA 30  History Notes 31 Classification of Gotra of Women o People classified by gotras named after Vedic seers. o Women adopted their husband’s gotra on marriage. o Same gotra members could not marry. Satavahana Kings: o Names derived from gotra names in inscriptions. o Indicates family ties and marriages within ruling lineages. Names of Satavahana Kings o Names include "raja" followed by "puta" (son). o Examples: Gotami-puta Siri-Satakani, Vasithi-puta Siri-Pulumayi. Sculptural Depictions: o Rare depictions of rulers and their wives from cave donations to Buddhist monks (c. second century BCE). o Metronymics in the Upanishads Brihadaranyaka Upanishad: o Contains lists of teachers and students designated by metronymics. Satavahana Rulers: o Polygynous with wives having names derived from their father’s gotras. o Some women belonged to the same gotra, countering Brahmanical exogamy norms. o Endogamy prevalent in south India, ensuring close-knit communities. o Identified through metronymics (mother's name). o Succession was generally patrilineal. Mahabharata Terracotta sculpture. Depiction From a temple in Ahichchhatra, Uttar Pradesh. Dates to c. fifth century CE. Caste System Set of hierarchically ordered social categories. Hierarchy Laid down in Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras. Brahmanas ranked first, Shudras and "untouchables" at the bottom. Positions determined by birth. The “Right” Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras: Occupation o Brahmanas: study/teach Vedas, perform sacrifices, give/receive gifts. o Kshatriyas: warfare, protect people, administer justice, study Vedas, make gifts. o Vaishyas: agriculture, pastoralism, trade. o Shudras: serving the three higher varnas. Enforcement Strategies: o Assert divine origin of varna order. o Advise kings to ensure norms are followed. o Persuade people that status is determined by birth. o Reinforced by stories in texts like the Mahabharata. A Divine Order? Purusha Sukta from Rigveda: Describes sacrifice of Purusha. Four social categories emanated from his body: o Brahmana: mouth. o Kshatriya: arms. o Vaishya: thighs. RAHUL SHARMA 31  History Notes 32 o Shudra: feet. Proper Social Story from Mahabharata's Adi Parvan: Roles o Drona refuses to teach Ekalavya, a nishada. o Ekalavya learns archery on his own. o Drona demands Ekalavya's right thumb as his fee. o Ensures Arjuna remains unrivaled. Non-Kshatriya Shastras' View: Kings o Only Kshatriyas could be kings. o Mauryas debated to be of "low" origin or Kshatriyas. o Shungas and Kanvas were Brahmanas. o Political power often depended on support and resources. Other Rulers: o Shakas from Central Asia considered mlechchhas. o Rudradaman rebuilt Sudarshana Lake. o Satavahana king Gotami-puta Siri-Satakani claimed to be a unique Brahmana and destroyer of Kshatriyas' pride. o Practised endogamy, contrary to Brahmanical norms. Jatis and Social Complexities: Mobility o Jati based on birth, like varna. o Number of jatis not restricted. o Brahmanical authorities classified new groups and occupational categories as jatis. o Jatis sometimes organized into guilds (shrenis). Guild of Silk Weavers: o Migrated from Lata (Gujarat) to Mandasor. o Inscription details their journey and construction of a temple for the sun god. o Shared more than a common profession. The Case of the Term Vanik: Merchants o Designates merchants. o Trade was for Vaishyas. o Examples from plays and inscriptions show Brahmanas and Kshatriyas as merchants. Beyond the Populations: Four Varnas: o Many groups not influenced by Brahmanical ideas. Integration o Often described as odd, uncivilised, or animal-like. o Included forest-dwellers and nomadic pastoralists. o Non-Sanskritic language speakers labeled as mlechchhas. o Shared ideas and beliefs with mainstream society. A Tiger-like Story from Mahabharata's Adi Parvan: Husband o Bhima kills a rakshasa. o Rakshasa’s sister, Hidimba, falls in love with Bhima. o Yudhisthira agrees to their marriage with conditions. o Hidimba gives birth to Ghatotkacha. o Ghatotkacha promises to aid Pandavas when needed. Historians' View: o Term rakshasa describes people with practices differing from Brahmanical norms. Beyond the Subordination and Conflict Four Varnas o Social Divide: Brahmanas considered some people outside the varna system, classifying certain social categories as "untouchable." RAHUL SHARMA 32  History Notes 33 o Sacred Activities: This classification rested on the notion that certain activities, especially those connected with rituals, were sacred. Story of Matanga's Birth: Bodhisattva was born as a chandala's son named Matanga outside Banaras. Bodhisattva Encounter: Matanga encountered Dittha Mangalika, a merchant's daughter, who insulted him. from the Retaliation: Beaten by her hangers-on, Matanga protested by laying at her father's door. Matanga Jataka Marriage: On the seventh day, Dittha was given to Matanga. They married, had a son, Mandavya Kumara, who fed 16,000 Brahmanas daily. Matanga's Alms: Matanga, in rags, begged from his son who refused him food. Matanga rebuked him and disappeared. Forgiveness: Dittha Mangalika begged Matanga's forgiveness, and he instructed her to give leftover food to Mandavya and the Brahmanas. Draupadi’s Yudhisthira’s Stake: Question o Draupadi asked Yudhisthira if he had lost himself before staking her. Opinions: o One: Even if Yudhisthira lost himself, his wife was under his control. o Two: An unfree man could not stake another person. o Resolution: Dhritarashtra restored the Pandavas and Draupadi’s personal freedom. Beyond Birth: Economic Actors Resources and o Variety: Slaves, landless laborers, hunters, fisherfolk, pastoralists, peasants, village Status headmen, craftspersons, merchants, and kings emerged in different parts of the subcontinent. o Access: Social positions were shaped by access to economic resources. Gendered Access to Property o Mahabharata Episode: Yudhisthira, deceived by Duryodhana, staked and lost everything including Draupadi. Ownership Issues: o Manusmriti: Paternal estate divided among sons; women could not claim a share. o Stridhana: Women could keep gifts received at marriage, inherited by their children, without the husband's claim. o Warning: Manusmriti warned women against hoarding family property without the husband's permission. o Evidence: Upper-class women had access to resources, but land, cattle, and money were generally controlled by men, sharpening social differences. Wealth For Men: Acquisition o Inheritance, finding, purchase, conquest, investment, work, and acceptance of gifts. For Women: o Given at marriage, from brother, mother, or father, subsequent gifts, and gifts from an affectionate husband. Varna and 1. Brahmanical Texts on Varna and Wealth Access to o Varna regulated access to wealth. Property o Shudras’ only “occupation” was servitude. o Men of the first three varnas had varied occupations. o Brahmanas and Kshatriyas were often the wealthiest. o Kings depicted as wealthy; priests usually rich, though some poor Brahmanas existed. 2. Critiques of the Varna Order o Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras codified the Brahmanical view. o Early Buddhism (c. sixth century BCE) critiqued the varna system. RAHUL SHARMA 33  History Notes 34 o Buddhists acknowledged social differences but rejected birth-based status claims. The Wealthy Dialogue in Majjhima Nikaya Shudra o King Avantiputta questions Kachchana about Brahmanas’ superiority claims. o Kachchana suggests a wealthy Shudra would be respected by all varnas. o Avantiputta agrees, acknowledging equality among varnas in terms of wealth. An Alternative 1. Generosity and Respect Social Scenario: o Generosity was respected; misers were despised. Sharing Wealth o In ancient Tamilakam, chiefs were patrons of bards and poets. o Poems in Tamil Sangam anthologies highlight social and economic relationships. o Resource controllers were expected to share wealth. 2. The Poor Generous Chief (Puranaruru) o A bard describes a generous patron in Irantai. o The patron lacked wealth but was generous and supportive of bards. o He would get a spear made for war to help bards. A Social Buddhist Understanding Contract o Sutta Pitaka suggests human choice in creating kingship and social institutions. o Originally, humans lived in peace, taking only what they needed. o Greed led to selecting a king (mahasammata) to maintain order. o Kingship was based on human choice and taxes were payments for services. Historians and Text Analysis by Historians the o Languages used: Prakrit, Pali, Tamil, Sanskrit. Mahabharata o Types of texts: mantras, stories, etc. o Consideration of authors, audience, date, and place of composition. o Assessments help understand historical significance. Language and Content of Mahabharata o Simplified Sanskrit compared to Vedas and prashastis. o Contains narrative (stories) and didactic (social norms) sections. o Historians agree Mahabharata was meant as a dramatic story; didactic parts were added later. Krishna Bhagavad Gita Advises Arjuna o Important didactic section of Mahabharata. o Contains advice by Lord Krishna to Arjuna. Composition of Mahabharata o Original story by charioteer-bards (sutas), later written by Brahmanas. o Reflects changes in social values and establishment of states. o Composition spanned from c. 500 BCE to 400 CE with significant additions. o Traditionally attributed to sage Vyasa. Archaeological Evidence o B.B. Lal’s excavation at Hastinapura (1951-52) found five occupational levels. o Evidence of houses from twelfth-seventh centuries BCE and sixth-third centuries BCE. o Debate on whether city descriptions in Mahabharata were poetic or based on urban centers’ growth. Polyandry in Mahabharata o Polyandry among ruling elites suggested by Draupadi’s marriage to Pandavas. o Various explanations for polyandry in the text reflect changing social norms. Growth of Mahabharata o Versions in multiple languages, ongoing dialogue between communities. RAHUL SHARMA 34  History Notes 35 o Central story retold in various ways, depicted in art, and performed in different forms. Chronology 500 BCE: o Ashtadhyayi of Panini. 500-200 BCE: o Major Dharmasutras. 500-100 BCE: o Early Buddhist texts (Tripitaka). 500 BCE-400 CE: o Ramayana and Mahabharata. 200 BCE-200 CE: o Manusmriti, Tamil Sangam literature. 100 CE: o Charaka and Sushruta Samhitas. 200 CE onwards: o Puranas. 300 CE: o Natyashastra of Bharata. 300-600 CE: o Other Dharmashastras, works by Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira. 400-500 CE: o Compilation of Jaina works. 1919-66: o Critical Edition of the Mahabharata prepared and published. 1973: o J.A.B. van Buitenen begins English translation of the Critical Edition. Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings Cultural Long Journey Across a Thousand Years Developments o Philosophers attempted to understand their world over a thousand years. (c. 600 BCE - o Ideas were compiled as oral and written texts, expressed in architecture and sculpture. 600 CE) o Focus on Buddhism, remembering it developed amidst other traditions. Sources for Reconstruction o Buddhist, Jaina, and Brahmanical texts. o Material remains including monuments and inscriptions. o The stupa at Sanchi is a major focus. Sanchi Sanchi in the Nineteenth Century o Sanchi's ancient buildings, inspected by Major Alexander Cunningham. o Shahjehan Begum, Nawab of Bhopal, recorded Cunningham’s work. European Interest in Sanchi o French sought to take the eastern gateway to France; Englishmen considered the same. o Both were satisfied with plaster-cast copies; the original remained at the site. Preservation Efforts o Shahjehan Begum and Sultan Jehan Begum funded preservation. o John Marshall dedicated his work on Sanchi to Sultan Jehan Begum. o The Archaeological Survey of India successfully restored and preserved Sanchi. RAHUL SHARMA 35  History Notes 36 Significance of the Stupa o Majestic stupa complex visible from the train from Delhi to Bhopal. o Questions about its significance, construction, and discovery answered by exploring texts, sculpture, architecture, and inscriptions. Sacrifices and Emergence of Thinkers Debates o Mid-first millennium BCE: thinkers like Zarathustra, Kong Zi, Socrates, Mahavira, and Buddha emerged. o They explored existence, human beings, and cosmic order. Sacrificial Tradition o Early Vedic tradition from Rigveda (c.1500-1000 BCE) involved sacrifices for deities. o Later (c.1000-500 BCE), sacrifices were performed by heads of households and by kings with Brahmana priests. New Questions and Debates o Upanishads (c. sixth century BCE) explored life, death, and rebirth. o Buddhist texts mention 64 sects or schools of thought engaging in debates. o Mahavira and Buddha questioned Vedic authority and emphasized individual agency. Buddhist Texts Buddha’s teachings were orally transmitted, compiled posthumously as Tipitaka. and Teachings o Vinaya Pitaka: rules for sangha o Sutta Pitaka: Buddha’s teachings o Abhidhamma Pitaka: philosophical matters. Texts spread to regions like Sri Lanka, China, and were preserved in monasteries. Beyond Worldly Message of Mahavira Pleasures o Jain philosophy existed before Mahavira (sixth century BCE). o Central idea: the entire world is animated; non-injury (ahimsa) is vital. o Cycle of birth and rebirth shaped by karma; renunciation required for salvation. Spread of Jainism o Jainism spread across India, producing literature in Prakrit, Sanskrit, and Tamil. o Early stone sculptures associated with Jaina tirthankaras recovered from various sites. Stories and Teachings o Mahavira’s teachings recorded by disciples in stories appealing to the masses. o Example from Uttaradhyayana Sutta: Queen Kamalavati persuades her husband to renounce the world. Buddhism Influence and Spread of Buddhism o The Buddha, an influential teacher, spread his message across the subcontinent and beyond. o His teachings reached Central Asia, China, Korea, Japan, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and Indonesia. Sources of Buddha’s Teachings o Buddha’s teachings are reconstructed by editing, translating, and analyzing Buddhist texts. o Historians also use hagiographies, biographies of saints, written at least a century after Buddha’s time. Buddha's Early Life o Siddhartha, the Buddha, was born as the son of a chief of the Sakya clan. o He was sheltered in the palace, unaware of life’s harsh realities until he ventured into the city and saw old age, sickness, and death. o Inspired by a peaceful mendicant, Siddhartha left the palace to seek the truth. Path to Enlightenment o Siddhartha explored extreme paths, including bodily mortification, leading to near death. RAHUL SHARMA 36  History Notes 37 o He abandoned extreme methods, meditated for several days, and attained enlightenment, becoming the Buddha. o He spent the rest of his life teaching dhamma, the path of righteous living. Teachings of Reconstruction of Teachings the Buddha o Buddha’s teachings, found mainly in the Sutta Pitaka, include stories of reason and persuasion. o For instance, he comforted a grief-stricken mother about death rather than using supernatural powers. Buddhist Philosophy o The world is transient (anicca) and soulless (anatta). o Sorrow (dukkha) is intrinsic to human existence. o Following a path of moderation can help rise above worldly troubles. o In early Buddhism, the existence of god was irrelevant. Buddhism in Practice o Buddha’s advice to Sigala emphasized ethical behavior towards servants, parents, teachers, and wife. o He viewed the social world as a human creation and advised humane and ethical behavior. o Individual effort and righteous action were key to escaping the cycle of rebirth and attaining nibbana. Formation of the Sangha o The Buddha founded a sangha, a community of monks who taught dhamma. o Monks, known as bhikkhus, lived simply, possessing essentials for survival. o Initially only men were admitted, but later women were included, thanks to Ananda’s mediation. Role of Women in the Sangha o Mahapajapati Gotami, Buddha’s foster mother, was the first woman ordained as a bhikkhuni. o Women in the sangha became teachers and respected theris who attained liberation. Diverse Followers o Buddha’s followers included kings, wealthy men, gahapatis, workers, slaves, and craftspeople. o Within the sangha, all were equal, shedding earlier social identities. o The sangha’s internal functioning was based on consensus or voting. The Therigatha o The Therigatha, part of the Sutta Pitaka, is a collection of verses by bhikkhunis. o It provides insights into women’s social and spiritual experiences. Rules for Monks and Nuns o The Vinaya Pitaka outlines rules for monks and nuns, such as handling possessions and accepting food. o Buddhism’s appeal lay in its focus on conduct, values, metta (fellow feeling), and karuna (compassion). Growth of Buddhism Buddhism grew rapidly during and after Buddha’s life, appealing to those dissatisfied with existing religious practices and social changes. Stupas Emergence of Buddhist Ideas and Practices o Buddhist ideas emerged through dialogue with Brahmanas, Jainas, and other traditions. o Interactions can be seen in the identification of sacred places. RAHUL SHARMA 37  History Notes 38 o Certain places were regarded as sacred, including sites with special trees, unique rocks, or awe-inspiring natural beauty. o These sites, sometimes described as chaityas, had small shrines attached. Major Buddhist Sites o Important sites related to Buddha's life: Lumbini (birth), Bodh Gaya (enlightenment), Sarnath (first sermon), Kusinagara (nibbana). o Asoka erected a pillar at Lumbini 200 years after Buddha to mark his visit. Why were Stupas Built? o Sacred places also included locations with Buddha’s relics, known as stupas. o Tradition of erecting stupas may have been pre-Buddhist but became associated with Buddhism. o Stupas contained sacred relics, making the entire structure venerated. o According to Ashokavadana, Asoka distributed Buddha’s relics and constructed stupas over them. How were Stupas Built? o Inscriptions on railings and pillars record donations for building and decorating stupas. o Donations came from kings, guilds, women, men, bhikkhus, and bhikkhunis. o Kings like the Satavahanas and guilds such as ivory workers contributed. Structure of the Stupa o The stupa originated as a simple semi-circular mound of earth called anda. o It evolved into a complex structure with the harmika representing the abode of gods. o The yashti mast, often surmounted by a chhatri, arose from the harmika. o A railing separated the sacred space from the secular world. Features of Early Stupas o Early stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut were plain except for stone railings and richly carved gateways. o Worshippers walked around the mound clockwise, imitating the sun’s course. Discovering Stupas: Amaravati and Sanchi o In 1796, a local raja discovered the ruins of the Amaravati stupa. o British official Colin Mackenzie visited the site but his reports were never published. o In 1854, Walter Elliot collected sculptures from Amaravati, now called the Elliot marbles. o H.H. Cole advocated for in situ preservation, but only Sanchi was preserved. Sculpture and Popular Traditions o Sculptures at Sanchi depict various scenes, often from Jataka tales. o Symbols such as the empty seat, stupa, and wheel represented Buddha’s life events. o Popular motifs like shalabhanjika and animal depictions enriched Buddhist art. o Some sculptures integrated pre-Buddhist and non-Buddhist beliefs. Paintings and Other Visual Means o Ajanta paintings depict stories from Jatakas, courtly life, and festivals. o Artists used shading for a three-dimensional effect. o Motifs like Gajalakshmi and serpents were derived from popular traditions. o Early art historians like James Fergusson saw Sanchi as a center of tree and serpent worship. New Religious The Growth of Puranic Hinduism Traditions o The notion of a savior was also present in Hinduism. o Vaishnavism and Shaivism emphasized worship of a chosen deity with love and devotion (bhakti). RAHUL SHARMA 38  History Notes 39 o Vaishnavism developed cults around Vishnu's avatars, believed to save the world from evil forces. o Different avatars were popular in various regions. o Recognizing local deities as forms of Vishnu helped unify the tradition. o Shiva was symbolized by the linga and sometimes represented in human form. o Sculptures depicted deities with complex symbols like headdresses, ornaments, and ayudhas. o Historians understand these sculptures through stories in the Puranas, written by Brahmanas. o Puranas contained centuries-old stories and were written in simple Sanskrit for all, including women and Shudras. o Puranas evolved through interactions among people, spreading worship practices. Building Temples o Early temples were small rooms (garbhagriha) with a single doorway. o Over time, a tall structure (shikhara) was built over the central shrine. o Temple walls were decorated with sculptures. o Later temples became elaborate with assembly halls, walls, gateways, and water supply arrangements. o Some early temples were carved out of rocks, like artificial caves. o The tradition of rock-cut temples culminated in the eighth century with the Kailashnatha temple. Mahayana By the first century CE, Buddhist ideas and practices changed. Buddhism Early Buddhist teachings emphasized self-effort to achieve nibbana. Buddha was seen as a human who attained enlightenment through his efforts. The idea of a savior emerged, believed to ensure salvation. The concept of the Bodhisatta developed; compassionate beings who helped others instead of attaining nibbana. Worship of Buddha and Bodhisattas images became important. This new way of thinking was called Mahayana ("great vehicle"). Older traditions were labeled as Hinayana ("lesser vehicle"). Mahayana supporters viewed others as followers of Hinayana. Followers of the older tradition called themselves theravadins, following the path of old teachers (theras). Religious 1500-1000 BCE: Developments o Early Vedic traditions emerged. 1000-500 BCE: o Development of later Vedic traditions. Sixth Century BCE: o Early Upanishads, Jainism, and Buddhism appeared. Third Century BCE: o The first stupas were constructed. Second century BCE onwards: o Mahayana Buddhism, Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and goddess cults developed. Third century CE: o The earliest temples were built. 1814: o Founding of the Indian Museum, Calcutta. RAHUL SHARMA 39  History Notes 40 1834: o Publication of "Essay on the Architecture of the Hindus" by Ram Raja; Cunningham explores the stupa at Sarnath. 1835-1842: o James Fergusson surveys major archaeological sites. 1851: o Establishment of the Government Museum, Madras. 1854: o Alexander Cunningham publishes "Bhilsa Topes," one of the earliest works on Sanchi. 1878: o Rajendra Lala Mitra publishes "Buddha Gaya: The Heritage of Sakya Muni." 1880: o H.H. Cole appointed Curator of Ancient Monuments. 1888: o Passing of the Treasure Trove Act, giving the government the right to acquire all objects of archaeological interest. 1914: o John Marshall and Alfred Foucher publish "The Monuments of Sanchi." 1923: o John Marshall publishes the "Conservation Manual." 1955: o Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru lays the foundation stone of the National Museum, New Delhi. 1989: o Sanchi declared a World Heritage Site. Travelers and Their Journeys Motivations for Work, natural disasters, trading, adventure. Travel Roles: traders, merchants, soldiers, priests, pilgrims. Encounters in Differences in landscape, customs, languages, beliefs. New Lands Adaptation to differences. Recording remarkable aspects by exceptional individuals. Lack of travel accounts by women, despite evidence of their travel. Surviving Varied Subject Matter Accounts and o Court affairs, religious issues, architectural features. Their Subjects o Example: Abdur Razzaq Samarqandi's description of Vijayanagara. Local Travel o Mughal Empire administrators' travel within the empire. o Observations of popular customs, folklore, traditions. Enriching Historical Knowledge o Focus of This Chapter o Descriptions of social life by travelers. o Accounts of Al-Biruni (Uzbekistan, 11th century), Ibn Battuta (Morocco, 14th century), François Bernier (France, 17th century). RAHUL SHARMA 40  History Notes 41 Different Backgrounds o Attentive to everyday activities and practices ignored by local writers. o Varied audiences for their writings. Al-Biruni and From Khwarizm to the Punjab the Kitab-ul- o Birth in 973 in Khwarizm (Uzbekistan). Hind o Education in languages: Syriac, Arabic, Persian, Hebrew, Sanskrit. o Taken to Ghazni by Sultan Mahmud; developed an interest in India. o Spent time with Brahmana priests and scholars in the Punjab and northern India. o Familiar with travel literature; translated texts between languages. Kitab-ul-Hind o Written in Arabic, divided into 80 chapters. o Topics: religion, philosophy, festivals, astronomy, alchemy, customs, social life. o Structured chapters: question, description, comparison. o Aimed for people along the subcontinent’s frontiers. Ibn Battuta’s An Early Globe-Trotter Rihla o Moroccan traveler born in Tangier. o Travelled extensively before visiting India. o Appointed qazi of Delhi by Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq. o Travelled through India, Maldives, Sri Lanka, China. The Enjoyment of Curiosities o Rich observations on social and cultural life. o Faced hazards like robbers, homesickness, illness. o Travelled in caravans for safety. o Recorded his observations on cultures and beliefs. Recording Stories o Ibn Juzayy recorded Ibn Battuta's stories. o Accounts included rulers, learned men, saints. o Travelogues in Persian by visitors to India and Indian visitors to Central Asia, Iran, the Ottoman Empire. o Example: Mahmud Wali Balkhi, Shaikh Ali Hazin. François Arrival of Europeans in India Bernier o Portuguese arrived around 1500. o Detailed accounts by Portuguese on Indian customs and religious practices. o Jesuit Roberto Nobili translated Indian texts into European languages. o Notable Portuguese writer: Duarte Barbosa on trade and society in South India. o Post-1600: Increase in Dutch, English, and French travelers. o Famous traveler: French jeweler Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, who compared India with Iran and the Ottoman Empire. François Bernier o French doctor, political philosopher, and historian. o In India from 1656 to 1668. o Associated with the Mughal court, physician to Prince Dara Shukoh, and later with RAHUL SHARMA 41  History Notes 42 Danishmand Khan. Bernier’s Observations o Traveled across India, compared it with Europe. o Dedicated major writings to Louis XIV, King of France. o Writings often critical of Indian conditions. o Popularity of his works upon publication. Bernier’s Description of the Army March to Kashmir o Detailed provisions and logistics for travel. o Published works in France (1670-71), translated into multiple languages. Impact of European Writings o Influenced European image of India. o Post-1750: Indian travelers like Shaikh Itisamuddin and Mirza Abu Talib attempted to influence European perceptions. Al-Biruni’s Challenges o Language barriers between Sanskrit and Arabic/Persian. o Differences in religious beliefs and practices. o Local population’s self-absorption and insularity. o Relied on Brahmanical texts for understanding Indian society. Analysis of Caste System o Compared with ancient Persian social categories. o Noted equality in Islam contrasting with the caste system. o Disapproved of the notion of pollution in caste system. o Described varnas based on Brahmanical texts. Al-Biruni’s Account o Brahmana: Created from Brahman’s head, considered the best of mankind. o Kshatriya: Created from shoulders and hands of Brahman. o Vaishya: Created from the thigh of Brahman. o Shudra: Created from Brahman’s feet. o Real-life caste system more flexible than described. o Antyaja (born outside the system) provided labor to peasants and zamindars. Ibn Battuta Arrival in Delhi o Subcontinent part of global network from China to Europe. o Ibn Battuta travelled extensively, visiting shrines, learning from scholars, officiating as qazi, enjoying urban cosmopolitan culture. o Shared stories of piety, kings, ordinary lives, and the unfamiliar to impress listeners. The Paan o Betel tree cultivated like grape-vine. o Leaves used with areca nut, chalk, chewed together. The Coconut RAHUL SHARMA 42  History Notes 43 o Trees like date-palms, produce nuts resembling a man's head. o Coconut uses: fibre for cords, cables for vessels. Opportunities in Cities o Cities densely populated, prosperous, occasional war disruptions. o Crowded streets, colorful markets with diverse goods. o Delhi described as vast, populous, largest in India. o Daulatabad rivalled Delhi in size. Description of Delhi o Wide area, large population, strong rampart, storehouses, magazines, ammunition. o Horsemen, infantrymen move within ramparts. o 28 gates, Budaun darwaza the greatest, Mandwi darwaza has a grain market. o Fine cemetery with domed graves, flowers blossoming all seasons.