HIST 333: Sources, Methodology, and Practice of History PDF

HIST 333 Topic 1: Sources, Methodology, Practice of History History - a branch of knowledge which deals with past events; the formal record of the past (especially of human affairs or actions) Words to think about while doing history. ○ Empathy: not judging the past, not usin...

HIST 333 Topic 1: Sources, Methodology, Practice of History History - a branch of knowledge which deals with past events; the formal record of the past (especially of human affairs or actions) Words to think about while doing history. ○ Empathy: not judging the past, not using good and bad. Our job is to explain how and why people did that. In order to do that we have to put ourselves in some extent in their shoes ○ Corraboration: checking up on sources, potwierdzenie ○ Verification: checking if the sources are accurate, primary sources?, when was it written ○ Probability: how certain we are of the events, we are never 100% certain, however, we can say that sth was highly likely to happen according to sth ○ Inductive and deductive methodology: picking sth we do not know much about, going into a topic without the "baggage", not being bias on the source The inductive approach begins with a set of empirical observations, seeking patterns in those observations, and then theorizing about those patterns. The deductive approach begins with a theory, developing hypotheses from that theory, and then collecting and analyzing data to test those hypotheses. Sources: ○ Primary: a source, created in close temporal proximity to the subject of the study, that in some way offers eyewitness testimony of the event or person in question Diaries, letter, memoirs (A memoir is a nonfiction but subjective collection of narratives in which the author remembers experiences, emotions, and events from a certain period in their life), official documents, newspapers, landscapre Key questions: temporal proximity to event, physical proximity of the author to the event, motive of the author, how well informed was the author, corroboration ○ Secondary: a source based on other secondary sources or on primary sources, that lacks the direct connection with the event of person under study to be deemed primary Historical monographs, articles, biographies, documentaries, movies Questions: temporal proximity to event, physical proximity of the author to the event, the motive of the author, target audience, source materials used, where published, how critiqued Topic 2: Origins of Socialism and Communism Enlightenment (1685-1815) - The Age of Reason (freedom of thought) Industrial Revolution (1760-1840) ○ Industrialisation contributed to warfare - required mobilization, required government to collect taxes, mobilize people The French Revolution (1787-1799) ○ Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)  Wrote the Discourse on Equality and the Social Contract, in 1755 and 1762, respectively Jacobins (including Robespierre [1758-1794])- Radical element of revolutionary forces Sans-culottes as forerunners of proletariat in Marxist language Rousseau saw a perfect society where people were equal and worked together, and made decisions together, and the military would be a good area to have people become equal. ○ Maxamillum Robespierre was against the ideas of liberalism in the French Revolution, and supported the idea of everyone’s needs being met, and wanted to have property widely spread instead of owned by one person. This would be met by a central power in Robespierre Ideals. Ideology ○ A systematic scheme of ideas (relating to politics, economics or society and forming the basis of action or policy; a set of beliefs governing conduct) ○ Typically based on or justified by some sort of metahistory - grand narratives that attempt to explain large-scale historical developments and patterns Religions Marxism and its derivatives National soicliasm in Germany (national metahistory) Modernity: Enlightenment’s rationalism and industrialism ○ Modernity: repudiation of traditional ideas and doctrines of cultural values in favour of new ones typically associated with scientifical innovation and liberalism ○ By the late 18th century, European enlightenment had spread everywhere, where ideas of how society should function and laws to restrict the monarch's power, and religion had a lower impact on these ideas. The Industrial Revolution saw a major change in economic life, and it changed how people lived and worked. When combing the enlightenment of the 18th century and the Industrial Revolution, ideas of how society should be in sense of social aspects start the arise more Types of authority ○ Traditional (religion) ○ Charismatic ○ Legal-rational Nationalism: shared history, language, culture, race, exceptionalism ○ Rise of the nation state, legal-rational authority ○ Nationalism helps give a people a sense of being part of the same nation, same purpose, history and community. This can create a sense of blockage of people moving around to other nations to work. A nation state helps create productivity in society, making the complex system organized and work better than if it didn’t have the nation state. This helps control a countries productivity and resources Reaction to Nationalism ○ Retrenchment of traditional order (e.g. attempts to preserve absolutist monarchy. ○ Liberal democracy- often with constitutional monarchy- a safety valve…. Tied to capitalism. Socialism Anarchism- Repudiation of increasing state involvement in people’s lives  Populism and agrarian romanticism – differing greatly by country- harking back to the supposed best bits of a bygone age. Marxism (v. much Internationalist in principle) Robert Owen owed a textual factory owner, and wanted to improve the working conditions for his workers. This falls in line with socialist, and he is involved with Christian socialism, a working class movement to prompt the idea of more political rights for the working class. Christian socialism comes from those who read the bible and believe it prompts a socialist way of living. Vitling was a German man who also had his socialist ideals from the bible. Developing Socialist/Communist thought ○ Utopian socialism Anarchism, populism ○ Other forms include: Weitling (German), ‘Scientific socialism’ (Marx), Christian socialism Anarchism: ○ Proudhon (1809-1865): “Property is Theft” Later: Proudhon sought the balancing of authority with liberty and promoted a decentralized theory of federal government. Workers run their own factories Clashed with the first socialist-international ○ Bakunin (1814-1876) “No theory, no ready-made system, no book that has ever been written will save the world. I cleave to no system. I am a true seeker. (clashed with Marx and called him a dictator) Russia – The Radical Intelligentsia and Populism ○ Herzen, Cherneshevskii, Bakunin – populism. ○ “To the people” – 1873-4 (c. 2,500) ○ Disillusionment: Land and freedom (1876) to ‘Black Partition’ and “people’s will” (1879) – terrorism. Terrorism became big in Russia, such as when Alexander the 2nd was blown up. Populists that become Marxists. ○ Russia peasant society included some elements that are socialistic and could be deceived at a socialistic way of running society ○ Peasants: community, everything shared, (academics had this romantic ideas of countryside without even being there) ○ As government became more impressive - thousand university people would go off and make a movement, try to explain to the peasants that what they have is a seed of a new society, peasants didn’t receive them well, university students went back quite disappointed and realised that in fact it wasn’t so flowery, they looked for something else and found Marxism ○ Some got interested in terrorism From Populism to Marxism  ○ Population split for those who like violence and those who don’t ○ Plekhanov- as a student- ‘land and freedom/liberty’ – populism Plekhanov went from populism to Marxism. He was exiled by Russia for his populis activism, and came into contact with Marxism in Europe. ○ -In exile- contact with social democratic movements in Europe (Marxism) ○ Split populism – against violence – founded black repartition v. the people will ○ 1880s increasingly Marxist orientation ○ 1883: with Vera Zasulich he founded the first Russian Marxist group - Emancipation of Labour Karl Marx (1818-1883) ○ “A specter is haunting Europe – the specter of communism. All the powers of old Europe have entered a holy alliance to exorcise this specter: pope and tsar, Metternich and (-----) ○ His ideas of how society will develop seem to be more accurate after his death then they were during his life ○ Involved in the socialist world by the final quarter of the 19th century ○ Whilst pretty strong in criticizing capitalism, didn’t offer much guidance as to what is supposed to come next ○ Most famous work: The Communist Manifesto 1848, most practical work ○ Ideals In a communist society, where nobody has one exclusive sphere of activity but each can become accomplished in any branch he wishes, society regulates the general production and thus makes it possible for me to do one thing today and another tomorrow, to hunt in the morning, fish in the afternoon, rear cattle in the evening, criticize after dinner, just as I have a mind, without ever becoming hunter, fisherman, herdsman or critic. Marx thought the factory could be automated and people could enjoy life. Marx's end game: is not that different from the end game of some of the other socialist, how to get to communism is a problem Marx and others see industrialization and power of it and it looks as it created the potential for material abundance. Want to fulfill yourself Marxists theories of alienation: cant see yourself and the products of your labours Capitalism ○ An economic arrangement, defined by the prominent existence of capital and wage labor. Capital accumulates in the hands of private owners, where laborers exchange their labor hours for wages, paid from the stock of capitali ○ Requires private property, market economy and division of labour ○ Marx is critical to capitalism (thinks they are too greedy). ○ Socialism critical of capitalism Bourgeoisie ○ (Marx) the class of property owners in a capitalist system of production ○ (French) town dweller – class of ones in France who owned a lot of capital, and were often greedy and gave minimum wages and weren’t giving a lot of capital.  Proletariat: wage earners collectively ○ Marx: people who were not proletariat will gradually become proletarianized and become doomed Materialist Conception of History ○ Hisotry is the history of class struggles ○ Marxists impressive: analysis of history, his socialism is scientific as he conducted methodical analysis of the past to predict the future ○ He saw history as a struggle between economic classes ○ Although the oppressing class is dominant, ultimately they lose their dominance not because of the minds but the economic system that allowed them to be dominant is not working well anymore. - Marxist idea ○ Marx explaining the relationship between social socialist structure (economy) and super structure (ideas) ○ Idea being not consciousness of men but their social existence/ economic life Scientific History ○ Capitalist system has to reach a mature state before its overthrown Division of labour ○ Work becomes more specialised and you become more alienated by at as the tasks become less meaningful tasks (machines - division of labour) - not very rewarding, very alienating. The mode of economic life determines other things ○ How far productive forces of a nation have developed is hown by the degree of labour (forms of ownership) has been carried ○ Forms of ownership: tribal - slavery - feudal ○ Productive capacity much more is being produced but you are getting much less from every stage Capitalist: an economic system in which private capital or wealth is used in the production or distribution of goods and prices are determines mainly in a free market Revolutions happen when the economic system is no longer working well Monopoly is an inevitable part of capitalism Socialism: (Marx) a system of social organization based on state or collective ownership and regulation of the means of production, distribution, and exchange for the common benefit of all members of society ○ “Dictatorship of the proletariat” ○ Revolution that overthrew capitalism led to the dictatorship of the proletariat  Communism: A theory that advocates the abolition of private ownership, all property being vested in the community, and the organization of labour for the common benefit of all members; a system of social organization in which this theory is put into practice ○ Communist idealL time for self-realization, Agrarian romanticism , Utopian vision, state won’t be required once we get rid of classes Lenin and Imperialism ○ End of 90s - unions, state of working class improving a bit, after Marx died, seemed to being well enough to prevent rebellion ○ Lenin modifies Marxists theories (not his ideas, most of these regarding imperialism come from right-wing thinkers) ○ Nation state by creating empires is creating poverty (export workers to placers where you pay them less, sell goods back to proletariat) ○ Problems start to rise at home - workers want more money - Lenin thinks this is buying time Friedrich Engles: ○ Helps popularize Marx’s work ○ Trying to keep ways of keeping costs down by exploiting resources for abroad etc. Revolution and Russia ○ Putting all of this in practice ○ Marx - Russia not good place - cause means of production have to be enough advanced - Russia quite late to industrialize, feudal system still arounds this idea of peasant communism. ○ Marx saw as back door way for socialism to get traction in Russia ○ Corresponding with Vera Zasulich ○ Marx later decided that after all you could have a socialist revolution in Russia 1981 ○ Most Russian Marxists would interpret it as Marx saying that if the world for Russia which still has its commune is hostile to it (socialist revolution in other countries) there can be social revolution in Russia, then Russia can build on social party of the commune Russia can build  ○ Elements that need to die out, if there is revolution in the west then a lot of pressure is removed from Russia, if it has a Russian revolution itself It could Nurture elements of the commune that are socialistic in flavour ○ Vera Zasulich conversation- revolution could be telescoped a bit, Russia could skip a bit of materialist element to get to socialism ○ Important to Lenin and development of Marxism-Leninism. The idea that we can help force revolution to happen (not passive actors) Marxism in Action - The Social Democrats ○ Socialist revolution party - direct descended of the populists, eventually split to those who want a revolution and don't ○ Disillusionment of populist, rise of Marxism ○ Plekhanov: gradulaism, education of workers against terrorism Liberation of Labour - absorbed into Social Democartic Labour Party 1898 - banned in Russia They can't agree what is the best way forward (they want the revolution but Marx says they are not ready) - some want to gently encourage to raise the class consciousness of the workers, through consciousness and education, preparing Russia for the time when the capitalist system is in the point of tension, getting working class ready to overthrow the capitalists - group called Mensheviks The Mensheviks ○ Plekhanov, Trostky until the Russian Revolution, martov ○ Scientific socialism ○ Education of workers ○ True believers in the core of Marx's work, revolution happen through the process of historical materialism, we have to wait and make sure people are ready for when it comes The Bolsheviks ○ Lenin, Luncharskii, Kamenev, Ziooviev, Rykov, Stalin ○ Revolutions can be made ○ Need for workers to be organized ○ Overthorw of autoracy and democratic dictatorship of workers and peasants ○ Their idea is that what we need is a group of really committed revolutionaries, small elite party that is going to bring about revolution (disgusted by tendencies of the in between parties), a lot of this is taking place abroad, bring about the inevitable ○ He believed that if there is revolution that would encourage the working classes elsewhere to have their revolution so Russia would not face some of the problems with the capitalist system attacking it and trying to stamp out communism. ○ Idea that we won't have the problem if workers see revolution elsewhere and their consciousness explode making them have their own revolution Topic 3: Origins of Facsism Fascism and Nationalism: ○ A 20th century phenomenon with clear late 19th century roots.  ○ Very much associated with the rise of Nationalism Advocacy of or support for the interests of one’s nation, esp. to the exclusion or detriment of the interests of other nations. Advocacy of or support for national independence or self-determination ○ Fascism: word overused more than socialism, different definitions, inappropriately used political label ○ Communism and socialism is both anti-nationalism ○ German and Italian fascism which are anti-modernism: romanticism, peasants in touch of the land ○ Fringe fascism: Spain and Franco Nationalism: ○ Notion of a national community and identity based on… Specific shared history (early nationalism) Language and culture (early nationalism) Biology-race (later nationalism - scientific advances) Exceptionalism (later nationalism - scientific advances) Nationalism and Revolution (major events): ○ The US war of independence (1775-1783) ○ The French Revolution and its aftermath (1787-1799) ○ Europe: Failed revolutions of 1848 ○ Xinhai Revolution in China in 1911? ○ Secessions from the Russian Empire in 1917-1921? Exceptionalism: ○ Special, better than the rest. In the 18th and 19th century, this idea became quite popular, rooted in racial supremacy. Another term to describe this idea would be manifest destiny. ○ Many emerging nationalists saw their nation as distinct, special, better than the rest ○ Similar notion of national superiority, exceptionalism: Russia, USA 19th Century - building on religious ideas, going back to the puritans, God chose the puritans to lead the world by religious example, God given mission to extend ideas to the uncivilized in the West (spreading technology and civilization) ○ Nazi superiority of the Arians Nationality, Ethnicity, and Race: ○ Ethnicity – status in respect of membership of a group regarded as ultimately of common descent, or having a common national or cultural tradition; ethnic character. ○ Race – any of the (putative) major groupings of humankind, usually defined in terms of distinct physical features or shared ethnicity, and sometimes considered to encompass common biological or genetic characteristics. ○ Advances in biological science, if nations (black) lived in the inferior way the roots of this must be in biology, ideas stemming from biological advances (personal characteristics could be inherited on a mass scale - nation scale, Africans - lazy) Social Darwinism: ○ The theory that individuals, groups, and peoples are subject to the same Darwinian laws of natural selection as plants and animal  ○ Application of Darwinian ideas about nature to the human world ○ Darwin – Drew on pre-existing notions such as survival of the fittest (Herbert Spencer) and struggle for existence (Thomas Malthus) ○ Ideas of spencer and others led to natural selection, led to idea of eugenics ○ Social Darwinism implication of Darwin's idea of survival of the fittest to human societies and ethnic groups, some of his ideas were already in circulation before (Malthus), but the ideas of Spencer's were strongly strengthened by Darwin's ideas ○ Darwin had the idea of survival of the fittest, and fascist took it to the extreme, where the white man is the fittest, so will be the one on top of society. William Sumner saw the idea of capitalism and fascism as good to weed out the weak people of society. ○ Social Darwinism strong impact on socialism Socialism bad as it allows bad people to be treated equally - result is eugenics Race and Eugenics: ○ 18th century- notions of race and hierarchy in colonies ○ Differences and justification for slavery – conquered = inferior. ○ Science (enlightenment) and classification ○ Eugenics – (The study of) the arrangement of human reproduction in order to increase the proportion of characteristics regarded as desirable within a population or the species as a whole.. 32 U.S states passed laws that created forced sterilization for many. BUCK vs. BELL. Sir Francis Galton. Alberta 1928 sterilization act, condition of release for people from mental institutions, 1937 amendment allowed sterilization without consent. 1950’s and 60’s were the peak of sterilization. ○ Galton trained as a doctor, involved in exploration of Africa, suggested that the procreation of the elite should be encouraged ○ Sir Francis Galton saw the idea of welfare and asylums as were weak people can survive, when the resources used on them should be used for the ”superior” people. ○ Eugenics: fairly significant social movement in the 19th century, books and films promoting it, better baby, fitter family (all in a genetic sense), argue that preventing the inferiors to increase - prevent them to procreate, sterilization of about 64 thousand people (people of colour, unmarried mothers, though claimed to be mentally ill), 1987 - uphold the states rights to sterilize the person (Buck vs. Bell stated on a young women names Buck) ○ Alberta 1928: sexual sterilization created a eugenics board: sterilization to release people from mental health institutions, danger of procreation of transition of the evil be lowered , 1937: permitted the sterilization of mental ill people without their consent, sterilization till 1972 Nazi don't pop out with this racial stuff - it is there already in the 1930s for instance in the West Racial stuff taken on big time by fascists How to further the nation? ○ Have a nation-state ○ Expand the borders and influence of that border state ○ Promote uniformity and ‘purity’- be that cultural or biological. Extreme nationalism: ○ Nationalist is not always fascists, but all fascists are nationalist. ○ Existence of a national will that could be mobilized to pursue the ends of the nation  ○ Extreme violence justified in the pursuit of its goal ○ Notion of a ‘race’ is boosted ○ National identity is more important than other aspects of political identity. ○ Opposition of democracy ○ Not only brilliant but the most important thing about our identity is our nation-hood ○ National, going beyond desire to belong the national and for the national to excel, there should be nothing to stop our expansion of our nation and race Justification of violence in the pursue of the nation: Japan (extreme ethnic, religious beliefs as a driver for territorial expansion, opposition to democracy particularly is the democracy did not believe in the advancement of the nation, Japan doesn't qualify strictly to fascism according to academics) Britian and Germany: extreme violence justifies the maintain colonies, people who are inferior to maintain order, British - dropping gas on the Afghan order, German (Namibia rebel against Germany, everyone to be shot) Nationalism and Empire ○ Germany and Italy: late to becoming nation-states (second half of the 19th Century) ○ By the late 19th century the European powers that have been unified tended to have a head start to having their empires ○ Germany and Italy late to the game and desperate to play capture ○ Empire plays a great role in the ideas of fascism regimes How best to run the nation-state? ○ Could be a Liberal- Democracy, Liberal-authoritarianism, absolute monarchy, authoritarianism, constitutional monarchy. ○ All of the above are versions of identity or politics that can be nationalistic states. ○ Fascism heavily draws on nationalism but how do you achieve what is best of the nation? Flexible - ultimately it is what's best ○ Fascism doesn’t have to be connected to a particular government. No reason why the monarch can't be on board (helps maintain power, helps nationalism). If not on board - get rid of him Nazi Germany: come to power through liberal democracy, monarchy gone already (nazi keep the possibility for monarchs to come back- not happened, nationalism) A parliamentary democracy was proclaimed on November 9, 1918, and the Prussian monarchy and Germany's 22 constituent monarchies were abolished. Italy - monarchy has a considerate power, monarchy loosely on board (concerned with nationalism), Monarchial Authoritarianism, monarchy used its power when Mussolini is gotten rid off ○ Liberal authoritarism: following liberal economic principles but using authoritarianism to maintain a market economy. Latin America during the Cold War (Chile in the 1970s) ○ Russia before 1905 - absolute monarchy Corporatism (=national syndicalism): ○ Corporatism can be defined as a system of interest representation in which the constituent units (social and economic sectors) are organized into a limited number of singular, compulsory, noncompetitive, hierarchically ordered and functionally differentiated categories, recognized or licensed (if not created) by  the state and granted a deliberate representational monopoly within their respective categories in exchange for observing certain controls ○ Corporatism idea of Mussolini ○ Corporatism: for the sake of fascism we can recognize that there are different groups and should be represented and their needs should be met in the society but ultimately they need to work for the interest in the nation, exclude trade unionism, idea that the workers are a constitutively, trade unions should not upset the state because that would upset the interest of the nation, but we acknowledge that they are there and that they have their needs. Mussolini late 1920s. Workers should be rewarded for supporting nation state. ○ Part of the left ○ This idea played with by fascists and socialists Fascism and the First World War – Germany: ○ Trial by war ○ Military brotherhood (Germany- Freikorps, Frontkampfer, Kampfggemeinschaft Betrayal by liberal (Germany – stab in the back) ○ Germany lost all colonies after WW1 ○ WW1 - defeat or being on the win team and not getting what you wanted ○ War: shared experience for the nation and particularly those people who participated in it that played the part, survival of the fittest (strength) fascists being united by the experience and the trial of the war, military brotherhood (black shirts, Freikorps leading to the SA in the Germany) ○ War and the fascist movement: idea that the liberals somewhat betrayal us, we were fighting for something but we were stabbed in the back, liberals in the case of Germany make peace when we weren't beate ○ That's why the Allies made sure Germany was clearly beaten in ww2 ○ Mussolini's idea: politicians didn't push hard enough to being rewarded, suffering inconsiderate losses (600, 000 people/ troops during the war) ○ Hitler's glorification of the army (of the participation in it), Hitler proud of being a part of it ○ Mussolini also part this glorification, particularly due to his military service Germany and the Treaty of Versailles ○ Germany gets a clearly bad deal in the end of ww1 ○ Up until this point for the last few hundred years, if you lost you tended not to loose that badly (17, 18, 19 century) - at the end it is a shake hands, good job, you can have this little province ○ Shock in the system for Germany when you get to the end of the first world war ○ British and French decide that Germany needs to be punished - treaty of Versailles (Germany loose territory, Prussia cut off, Poland comes into existence, French takes part of territory, Germany looses all of its colonies - out of the blue, they don’t have a huge empire but the loose all of it ) ○ Example: Russia and the Crimea, no major consequences Fascism- socialist roots? ○ Mussolini started out as a socialist - corporatism ○ National Socialism in Germany Socialistic roots in Fascism  ○ Mussolini started out as a socialist, perhaps due to the participation in war/military, survives therefore glorifies it, buys into the nationalist thing, takes him a long time to get rid of his socialistic thought ○ In 1918 in his speech: the Italian working classes have the merit of victory, therefore new rights should be granted, should be called not proletarian but producers, if workers participate in nationalistic cause - they should be rewarded. In the same speech he says that today the Italian people are greater, Wilson called them the great Italian people, because they lasted not 3 months but 4 years of the War ○ Trial by war - deserving as being seen as great, passed this test of war ○ Early 1920s plenty of socialistic attributes in his ideas and speeches National Socialism in Germany - National Socialst German Worker’s Party ○ Left- wing of the Nazi party which continues till later, until they get purged ○ Strasser: participated in the putsch, 1925: formed the national socialist working association with Hitlers approval and drafted a corporatist party program which included things like the appropriation of estates (taking lands from German nobility and handling them over to those who were less wealthier - more socialistic, not as approved by Hitler) ○ 1925: Party gets reformed, Hitler asserts his right to be the leader, the socialistic part kind of stops there, after that you can't really see the development of these ideas ○ 1934: Strasser gets killed along other opponents SA: social warfare element to it, drew from the working classes, more socialistic but all working in the interest of the nation SS: social elite, paramilitary group of Nazis, planning and execution of the Holoccaust Nazi Programme of 1920 (some socialistic aspects)  Anti-Intellectual? ○ 1925: Hitler the undissipated leader of the Nazis ○ Hitler wasn't especially well-read (not like Karl Marx) ○ Hitler admitted that if he hadn't been in prison he wouldn't have written Mein Kampf ○ He and others borrowed things from other people. These people were associated with the Nazis. Cherry picking ideas and quotes that are a bit out of context. ○ Philosophical justifications: Nietzsche "What does not kill me makes me stronger" He believed that personality traits could be inherited Glorified war War as the "father of all things" World was one of becoming of "struggle and context" - conflictual view of the world Peace and stability weren't going to last in this world of struggle All human greatness and achievement stemmed from conflict However, thought that racial mixing was the way forward Not an antisemite (not against Jewish people) Ridicules the idea that German military victories acted as a proof of their superiority Association with national-socialism (his sister, married to a national-socialist) Hitler looking at a bust of Nietzsche, visit to his archives, his sister did a lot to associate him with national-socialism Types of Authority ○ Charismatic authority Lenin and Trotsky - excellent speakers Hitler - had charisma to a lot of people, bewitched by the look in his eyes Mussolini - charismatic Stalin - bad speaker, zero charisma Traditional authority Lots of Nazis not religious, Hitler tries to come to terms with the Catholic Church, 1930s agreement with the Pope, he sees the church as a source of political opposition Mussolini - lots of religious people, but church goes along due to the socialistic element Legal-rational authority Concept of the Fuhrer  Rational element missing in Hitler, more of the vision Mussolini a bit more rational but still not the main element Modernity ○ Modernity better for Italian fascism ○ All besides the fact that industry is a good thing ○ Industry allows for tanks etc. but hardbacked this idea of rural-nationalism, farmers as bedrock of society, agrarian romanticism (happy peasant life) ○ Soviets all about industrialization ○ Germans - no industrialization element even when they are pushing industry forward by getting ready for war What is fascism? Topic 4: Socialist Road to Power From Feudalism to Capitalism…? ○ Russia was feudal much longer than the rest of Europe, was a great power, lost on home turf to Ottomans, British, and French ○ Obviously feudal system had to go ○ 1861 – ‘Emancipation’ of the peasantry’: Govt realizes serfdom needs to go, gets rid of it with a royal decree, realistically still exists, especially in smaller regions. The intent of this was to move people to cities. ‘Beggarly allotment and impoverishment’ Some migration to the towns and cities (permanent/seasonal) In the village: Burden of redemption payments and population growth Lifetime army appointments, selected by village Rich peasants- development of a ‘yeoman’ peasant class. Some mechanization develops. Russia wanted a peasant class similar to the ‘rich’ peasant class in western Europe. This takes a while ○ Emancipation - to free from restraint ○ Serfdom: state of being a feudal worker ○ Beginning of the 19th century: things going very well, Russia at the height of power (huge part in defeating Napoleon) ○ Middle of the 19th Century: Russia defeated on home territory by British, French and Ottomans. Russia falling behind economically, technologically, socially 1 reason: still a feudal society in 1855, still had a system where theoretically the tsar gave land normally to nobles who in return provide money and service; then provided land to peasants who in exchange provide services or money to the nobles Agricultural technologies middle aged; low productivity Feudal workers unmotivated - forced to join the army ○ Abolished serfdom (peasants buy land from nobles; debt; little land - sell that land - go to cities; in favour of nobles rather than peasant) ○ Government wanted to create a group of peasants who supported them Nicholas II and reaction: ○ Late 19th Century - got rid of feudalism - industrialization start to gather pace (not going very well, frustration get vented into strikes, peasants not pleased as land is expensive and population is growing, unhappy workers and peasants, resentment) Tsars regime tends towards repression in case of revolt Alexander the Great blown up by one of the peasant parties (socialist revolutionary party - populism) Censorship, attempts to restrict access to education (lower and middle class) Russian government in self destruct mode: try to piss off everyone they can (nationalities: Fins (no army, no parliament, no influence, Russianness of the Fins; started to blow people up - quite a lot of terrorism ) With Nicholas 2 things start to reach the top of the crisis  ○ Temporary regulations – 1881 Russification of the Finnish, no army and parliament ○ Tsar 1894 “Let us all know that, in devoting all my strength to the people’s well-being, I will preserve the principles of autocracy as firmly and unswervingly as did my late unforgettable father” ○ By 1894, feudalism is gone and industrialization gets a boost, but not the best system. Many local strikes, and a lack of skilled workers. Peasants aren’t getting as many benefits. Workers and peasants are becoming irate and have issue with the gov’t. Peasantry Gain Power: ○ Socialist Revolutionary Party (1902) Terrorist type group, represents peasants. Problem - lack of organization; tend to develop it in early 20th Century, peasants start to get representation on a national level Terrorism ○ 1901: Minister of Education ○ 1905: Murder of Grand Duke of Serge - brother-in-law to the Tsar The workers ○ Urban pop. Goes from 9 million (10%) in 1867 to 21% (26 million) 1910. ○ Focus on conditions ○ Unions don’t exist formally till later in 20th century ○ Sporadic but increasingly frequent strike activity ○ Growing population: difficult for conditions to keep up with such growth When things go bad in the cities people go back to their relatives peasants Social democrats: ○ Marxism started to get hold. Dominant Marxist party, Social Decoratic, couldn’t agree on how to organize their activities. ○ Some were Marxists who didn’t want to do anything, go with the flow. ○ 2nd congress SDLP (1903) – Lenin-Martov disagreement over nature rev. activity (professional revolutionaries vs. peaceful activists) ○ Lenin wants to speed things up ○ Division of the party into two camps from 1912 Orthodox Marxists - didn't have to do to much, ultimately when time is right Russia will be socialist, but first Russia has to survive the capitalist bourgeois class Radical group: Lenin and the Bolsheviks. They want to speed the whole thing, revolutionary party which will help speed up revolution Failure – The Russo-Japanese War ○ Things are already bad in Russia; a lot of people have contempt. ○ They try to invade Japan, and by losing people have more tension in Russia ○ Most of their ships get sunk.  ○ Fall of Port Arthur – Jan 1905 ○ Defeat at Mukden – March 1905 ○ Defeat at Tsushima – May 1905 August 1905 – Treaty of Portsmouth (surrender of the Russians ○ Japanese gain territory ○ Rivalry over territory in Manchuria ○ Major blow to Russian prestige Bloody Sunday ○ 3 Jan 1905 – Workers at the Putilov works down tools (led by a priest) – demand minimum wage + 8 hour day. Might have been pushed by gov’t ○ Petition to Winter Palace (workers demands, constituent assembly, separation of church and state) 9 Jan 1905. ○ Troops fire on a peaceful crowd, killing 100. This angers worker population ○ Occurs before main defeats of the Russian-Japanese war Led by a Priest called father Gapon Government tries to decrease strike activity by creating unions Demands: minimum age, 8 hour working day Troops outside the winter palace, kill more than a hundred people ○ Increase in number of strikes The armed forces: ○ Conditions aren’t great along with morale. ○ Potemkin Mutiny, a large portion mutiny, sail the ship to Odessa where they hope to do more strike activity. ○ 11 days later give themselves up in neutral Romanian Port ○ More people pissed off Loses not great for the morale of the army Mutiny on battleship Potemkin ○ Bad conditions, rebels killed their officer, sail ship to a strike, then crew sail to Romania to seek political asylum ○ Mutiny: an open rebellion against the proper authorities, especially by soldiers or sailors against their officers In the Countryside ○ Growth of rebellion and revolt in the countryside with peasants, such as stealing, burning, etc. ○ When things look bad for the government the peasants start to revolt ○ 1950s: burning Manor houses In the cities ○ Intensification of student disturbances ○ 7 oct 1905 – strike by railway workers in Moscow, this spreads ○ 10 October – general strike in Moscow ○ Spreads to ST. P.  ○ 13 Oct – Reps of strikers form council of strike committees in St P. (soviet) ○ Even higher class don’t mind the strike, as they also dislike the gov’t ○ Radical bunch of students revolt ○ Crisis period for the government ○ Liberals not happy - not democracy The October Manifesto ○ 17 Oct. 1905 ○ Promise of civil freedoms (freedom of speech, assembly, association, etc.) ○ Extension of Duma franchise ○ Duma promised meaningful participation in the formulation of legislation ○ Reticence of the Tsar to sign ○ Splits ‘liberals’ off from protestors ○ The Tsar didn’t want to sign but eventually gave in because of civil unrest. ○ October Manifesto (not Tsar but his more liberal ministers) First draft of new political system: promises range of civil freedoms, a parliament with a larger franchise, parliament in role of creating legislation Tsar not keen to sign it, his minister threatened to resign if he won’t Tsar ultimately signs it Liberals decently happy The Fundamental Laws ○ Flesh added to October manifesto, April 1906 (subsequent decrees) ○ A bit watered down Duma existed, but barely held any power to change things. ○ First Duma elected was very radical, Gov’t did not expect this. Heavily dominated parliament of peasants and liberals that are ok with some radical ideas ○ Ex: Land reform, giving away land. ○ Very quickly duma gets shut down, change rules so that they can get who they want in. ○ After things start to get better the government adds flesh to the manifesto but it kind of dies down ○ There is a duma and it discusses the legislation Supressing the Duma ○ 1st duma turns out to be very radical: more radical than the government expected ○ Socialists do not participate at first: liberals (willing to go along some of the radical things such as land reform) and peasants ○ In favour of elites but peasants still dominate ○ Government shut down the duma ○ Election system change to lead to a parliament that is more suited and would pass laws that the government is more happy with ○ Government can change laws when parliament is not working Economic Improvement? ○ Higher amount of calorie produced per worker (in millions):1860 7.5, 1910 11 ○ This is done through consolidation of small farms into larger ones  ○ Doing a bit better, but still falling behind other countries of similar population and size. ○ Government gets rid of the commune, tries to increase efficiency of agriculture by encouraging consolidation of land ○ Some success in increasing agricultural efficiency, still not great ○ Key industries developed like the oil industry (focused on the South) ○ Land consolidation is a planned readjustment and rearrangement of fragmented land parcels and their ownership. It is usually applied to form larger and more rational land holdings. Land consolidation can be used to improve rural infrastructure and to implement developmental and environmental policies War (WW1) ○ Patriotic fervor- “Faith, Tsar, and Fatherland” ○ Socialist parties (some) were willing to join the war, defend territory and democracy ○ Less enthusiasm in the aristocratic, land-owning class Loss of peasant labor (conscription) ○ More support – commercial and industrial circles ○ Even some socialists wanted war - war with European democracies against the democratic societies (being on their team is good for us, we will be more like them, healthy part of our development) ○ Land owners less enthusiastic - they knew that most of their peasants will become soldiers and they will lose their work force ○ Industrial circles more supportive: Russia reliant of on Germany, so home producers have to develop their capacity; have to produce things which were previously produced abroad ○ 15 million Russians serve in the armed forces during the War The Russian war efforts ○ Major war defeats ○ Inability of govt to supply arms – “shell shortage” ○ Increasing labor militancy ○ Politicization of peasants who were conscripted: While they are fighting, start forming new ideas (revolutionary) ○ With lack of food produced and usa e of rails for war, lots of people start starving and get angry due to shortages ○ Duma sidelined and increasing disillusionment on right + amongst liberals, they were once supportive but with lack of power or respect for Duma means they start talking about major changes (coups) ○ Nicholas II was stupid Makes himself commander of armed forces, leaves gov’t to others, including czarina (who is German and seen as a traitor) ○ Being the commander of the army makes Nicholas also responsible for the defeat in people’s eyes ○ Russia suffers major defeats early on. Soon clear that Russia cannot compete industrially with nations such as Germany ○ 1915: shell shortage, major crisis Needed 3 times more that pre-war prediction of shells 1915: needed about 3.5 million shells per month. They had a total available of 2 million. Lots of peasants and their horses are in the army, Russia loses territory - agricultural decrease Less food, more working hours, problem in the cities, workers unhappy and rebelling  Peasants: millions are ending up in the army, politicisation of the peasants (in the army, revolutionary ideas) Tsar: makes himself chief, leaves Petrograd to ministers and his wife and Rasputin ○ Grigori Rasputin was a self-proclaimed holy man who was thought to have closely influenced the Romanov family, the last imperial dynasty to rule Russia. Rasputin was born Grigori Yefimovich Novykh, a Siberian peasant who would later acquire the surname Rasputin because of his sexual promiscuity and heavy drinking Pissed: Liberals (start the war by being patriotic, but Tsar sidelines the duma, Tsar treats it as a medieval parliament, that upsets these people when the war efforts aren’t going well, this can't go on, we could do better, there needs to be change) Huge decline in agricultural productivity ○ Lost territory, unable to sow other land ○ Lower harvest, collapse quarter production (half potatoes), not a lot of import, serious stuff ○ Add on that this is production and some of this production does not arrive to where it needs to get, due to transportation issues and territorial losses Nicholas II and the War ○ Tsar enjoyed putting his uniform on more than the government Tsar associated with the loss and defeat personally Tsar not in the capital, wife heavily involved in running things (German heritage influencing), Rasputin running things Should have sack the generals but he was in command (his motivation - sense of duty) Russia at War 1914 - February 1917 ○ Russia loses a lot of territory, heavy loses in the offensive ○ Major offensive in summer of 1916 - major success against Austro-Hungarians, success at a heavy straw (loss of competent personal) ○ Russia lost 5 million troops in WWI ○ This is just 1 issue on top of agriculture, worker unrest, no food, politicization of peasant going into the army, not all military on the lines (garrison troops) ○ Some supplies from Britian and other allies but it faces problems getting into cities On the eve of the February revolution ○ Worker unrest ○ Agriculture ○ Situation at the front line ○ Supply situation ○ The peasants generally didn’t get as many items as most because the factories became militarized. This meant that they didn’t want to sell their grain/food since they cannot buy anything. ○ Confidence in the Tsar ○ The socialist parties Because a lot of war industry was producing military things it was not producing things that peasants may want (tools, pots and pans, paraffin lamps- all metal work, easily could end up producing things for the military)  Why sell gain, why produce as much when I cannot buy things - big problem for the regime and the provisional government coming after February 1917 Socialist parties turn against the war - bad for the primary constituents Nobody loves the Tsar anymore (maybe some nobles or industrialist) - the Duma and Liberals, patriotism trumps any loyalties to the Tsar Revolution and Abdication ○ Abdication happened on the royal train, 2 March 1917 ○ Massive protests in Petrograd on the eve of the February revolution ○ 27th of February 1917: Instead of firing on protestors, a bunch of militaries joined the protestors ○ Tries to pass off Czar to his brother, who declines ○ Elements of the Duma get together and are willing to have Warf as boss and claim themselves as a provisional government. ○ This was challenged by the Soviets. ○ Workers councils spring up, heavily influenced by socialist parties They are willing at first to accept a provisional government. ○ The Provisional govt wanted to continue the war. ○ They promised land reform by a constituent assembly after the war They have put all the issues off until after reform ○ Peasants start revolting again. February Revolution: ○ Starts with protests in the capital, increasing strike activity, big march on international women's day 23rd of February (8th of March - changes calendar when Bolshevik's come to power) more about bread and workers conditions than women's rights, fuels more protest activity, some evidence that radical right-wing parties are having more traction in the population ( a lot of leaders in exile but still have grass roots organization), Bolshevik influence in heavily industrialized organization s in Petrograd ○ Gathers momentum in late February, 27 February rather than fire on protestors a number of military units went over to the protestors, release prisoners, arms get circulated ○ Tsar under pressure from representatives of the Duma and generals to throw in the towel, without the wife he is less committed to continuing things ○ 2 of March he abdicates, likes the idea of passing the throne to someone else (not his son), wants to pass it on to his brother, he decides to not to take over Provisional Governement ○ Elements from the Duma who got together and are willing to accept the brother but they were aware that the left are ambitious politicians and they proclaim themselves the new government (the provisional government number 1) ○ They say that it is not a permanent state of affairs, there will be an election for the assembly to represent Russian people ○ Now not the time to deal with land reform, what we need to do is get behind us to fight the war more effectively ○ Workers organization develop in Petrograd, Moscow and gradually workers councils improve influences by socialist parties, initially eager to support the provisional government (socialists), fairly committed to continuing the war  ○ Workers councils - called a soviet Lenin and the April Theses ○ 4th April 1917 ○ War-Bolsheviks don’t support ‘defensism’ – Capitalist war = Aggressive ○ No support to Provisional govt- Lenin This came as a surprise to people in his party. ○ This is a counter to wider socialist opinion ○ 23-24 April – Marches ‘Down with the bourgeois govt’ ‘Bread, peace, and land’- Nationalization Wants to nationalize land, want more production, and to win the war. ○ Leading revolutionaries not in the center ○ Lenin- Switzerland (opportunity), Stalin-- exile ○ Lenin races back and comes back 4 April General thought: that we need is period of government that’s capitalistic and over time we will have a proper socialist revolution Lenin says no: we are not going to support the provisional government and the war. We are against it. Reaps political capital (war is not going well) - only politician who says that. After Lenin's return other than bread, peace and land - Bolsheviks ○ Being a good Marxists want to nationalize the land: peasants not happy but occupied with burning mansions ○ Marches: down with the bourgeois government, Lenin saying that this is what we need Provisional government tries to increase supply, starts a lot of the movement for state control (want to get more production and get it to the cities), these steps are later used by the Bolsheviks Bolsheviks going to an important power to being the party which seizes power in the name of a socialist party, Lenin far more in touch with the popular thinking First all-Russia Congress of Soviets ○ 3 June 1917 ○ 284 SRs, 248 Mensheviks, 105 Bolsheviks, 32 Menshevik Internationalists, 73 non-aligned socialists + others ○ Vote of Confidence in coalition/provisional govt passed 543-126 ○ We need the Soviets to run the show ○ Soviets love running elections (eventually have a congress of representatives) ○ Snapshot of changing allegiances of peasants ○ Soviets the biggest party ○ Menshevik Internationalists: more Bolshevik ideologies but don’t want to join them, against provisional government June offensive and July days ○ The Bolsheviks – sponsored by the Germans?? Lenin was rumored to be an agent of Germany, was to an extent  ○ The army was broken down to the point that an offensive sponsored by the provisional government was a disaster just death and destruction. This works decently for the Soviets, for the seizure of power ○ Bolsheviks have a hard choice, break off and call for the end of provisional govt, or not and lose support ○ Government realizes that they need to make some progress ○ Decide to have an offensive: order broken down in the army at this point, Soviets running the army, June offensive - utter disaster, continuing the collapse of the army - becomes important for the Bolsheviks Provisional government falls when things go badly Lenin: is he an agent of the Germans? Propaganda of July of government Supporters of the Bolsheviks ahead of them ○ Do we come out that we want the soviets to take power against the Bolsheviks? We will look weak if we don’t Dense Bolsheviks popularity Driven by Bolsheviks supporters to seize power ○ He needed Germany permission to return, stir up trouble The Kornilov affair and the rise of the Bolsheviks ○ He thought now would be a good time for a right-wing coup, this way he could seize power, and beat the Soviets. ‘IF the left doesn’t seize power, the right will…’ ○ This helps the Soviets, as they now can create their military troop, they justify this by referring to Kornilov and the danger of those like him ○ Kerensky and his provisional government are now tainted because of his relationship with Kornilov. ○ Kornilov (head of military for the region ) and Kerensky ( the one socialist in the provisional government becomes the head, head of provisional government) ○ Both trying to suppress the soviet party which is increasingly led by the Bolsheviks ○ Kornilov - great opportunity for the right wing coup ○ Unless soviet union seas of power we are going to take power (Kornilov gift for the Bolsheviks - right win coup attempt), attempt to bring troops to get power ○ Adds impactive to the idea that the Soviet movement needs to command armed forces Soviet anti officers, revolution needs to be defended by militia of the soviets - red guard Organization of soviet union support for the supports , able to introduce organization that control troops in and out of the capital (control people like Kornilov) ○ Bolsheviks becoming more popular, what they have been saying seems to be in touch with the population and in touch of the reality ○ Red guard - replacement for the troops they don't trust, troops that are trying to support the revolution, sprung up because of Kornilov, reliable protectors of the revolution ○ Bolsheviks want peace, provisional want victory, more people want peace after 1917, food and land will happen after war ○ Kerensky discredited (what relationship with Kornilov, backed down but rumour still happen) The PETROGRAD Soviet ○ 31 August- Bolshevik revolution passes in Petrograd Soviet for the first time ○ 9 Sept. – ‘Defensist’ leadership seeks vote of confidence in leadership – loses  ○ 25 Sept. Soviets elect new radical left leadership ○ Bolsheviks gain control of Moscow soviets ○ By the end of august Bolsheviks have control of Petrograd Soviet (parallel government running a lot of stuff at a local effort) ○ 1st time they pass a resolution - voted down the leadership which sought to continue the way effort ○ End of September - new radical leadership mostly controlled by bolshevism ○ Similarly Bolsheviks gain control of Moscow ○ Congress of soviets in favour of provisional government Which way now for the Bolsheviks? ○ Do they Wait for the elections of the Constituent assembly Armed insurrection Wait for the second Congress of Soviets ○ Lenin chooses to seize power One of the socialist parties, now dominant parties in both main cities Lenin wants to go further Bolsheviks think that we can now wait for the next big meeting and they will think we are nice for meeting them, gradually take control of the soviets, a lot of them waiting for the big constituent assembly (good brother socialist and wait for the constituent assembly) Military revolutionary Committee and “All Power to the Soviets” ○ Lenin gradually develops means to seize power: military revolutionary committee - manage movement of troops in and out ○ Red guard (military wing, soldiers, at first against the idea of uniform and officers, 1917-1918) vs military revolutionary committee (political) Seizure of power in Petrograd: ○ 25 Oct. – evening – “storming” of the winter. Less of a storming and more of a skirmish. Provisional govt is captured, Bolsheviks go to the second congress of the soviets, some oppose but leave, so Bolsheviks win more votes and take over the second congress of soviets. This power for now is limited to Petrograd, the scope of control is quite limited. Takes them till the end of the Russian Civil War (1921) when they firmly are in power across Russia. ○ They have to go now as they fear that they might be undermined by others ○ October Revolution: not as dramatic as sounds, storming of the Winter Palace (night time skirmish, arrest provisional government) send Bolsheviks for the delayed second congress and say that they just seized power and those who opposed walk out ○ By walking out the Bolsheviks say goodbye and those who were opposed left so they were more likely to win votes, dominated the second congress ○ Quite nominal ○ Got power in Petrograd, very soon the same situation happens in Moscow: but still their territory is quite limited, it takes till 1921 - civil war period to really consolidate their power from the Russian Empire to the Society Union (1921 have power in a meaningful way)  ○ Aurora fired 2 blank shots: to signal the storm but the storm was already going on, more symbolic Topic 5: Fascist Road to Power The First World War: Emergence of Fascism ○ Entente/Allies: 1914- Britain, France, Russia 1915- Italy 1916- Rumania 1917- United States ○ Central Powers: 1914- Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire, Italy (to 1915) Fascism has no deep theoretical origin, does not exist before World War I (just elements) The whole package comes after WWI Italy not willing to fight against the Allies: Trading partner: Britain Italians wanted to grab Austria-Hungary's land Central to the war was Germany although the origin of the war was: Austria Hungarians and Balkans Germany most advanced from the Central Powers, does a lot of the fighting and winning. Germany gets most punished ultimately Italy: Promises ○ Italy was promised territories in order to switch to the allies thought ○ Italy was only there for the territory. ○ Other Allies picked up on this and called Italy out ○ Treaty of London, more like a loose agreement. They fell back on their deal with Italy because they were not good team players (Italy) and America didn’t want it ○ Problem from Italy: as the War progresses the Allies did not think that Italy was pulling their weight. Italy was really only interested in gaining the territory from Austria-Hungary ○ At the end of the War Britain accused that Italy was in it for its own interest ○ Treaty of London 1915: British and French promised Italians land (loose agreement rather than a treaty) - wiggling out: said that Italy was not a good team player and the Americans who get influence over the peace process ○ Wilson very much for self-determination. They are not keen on giving the Italians territory of Yugoslavia Italy’s first world war ○ Caporetto defeat + retreat October-November 1917 Forced a change of government - change of military (which improved command of military) Germany’s first World war ○ When Bolsheviks come to power, they negotiate for peace with Germany, but don’t want to sign a treaty, but Germany doesn’t listen, advances against the Russian army, and Bolsehveiks have no choice but to sign a Peace treaty.  ○ Germany Post WW1 had a lot of problems, but one of the biggest was the people’s support The whole war was thought to be a not a big deal to many in Germany, thought they were winning but actually losrt, therefore people are now less in support of Gov’t ○ Germany fighting everywhere, success against Russia ○ 1917 Bolsheviks gain power: start negotiating with Germany for peace (idea to have time till the revolution happens), Germans get bored of the stalling, advance so rapidly against the almost collapsed soviet army, that Russia is forced to sign a peace treaty in March 1918 ○ Germany defeated in November 1918 on the western front, however, heavily successful on the East ○ Allies by 1919 had overwhelming strength, once Americans are in the War its game over for the Central Power ○ Propaganda so strong - people start wondering why the peace treaty happened (for Germany) ○ Italians fighting in the North of Italy Stab in The Back: ○ Politicians are blamed for selling out the troops by negotiating peace with the Allied Powers. They were hated by the people. ○ Military officers blaming the politicians (though they realize that it was lost) ○ Social democrats take over the government and negotiate the peace treaty, they are blamed for selling the troops out (who thought that they were successful) ○ Scheidemann - social democrat, declared Weimar Republic (1919 - 1933) ○ Erzberger: November 1918 led German delegation to sign peace treaty with the Allies, became the finance minister and deputy chancellor in the new government ○ Wound painful due to the lives los The Human Cost: ○ Not only was defeat unpopular but also was a heavy military loss of life, which was another reason why people were riled up. Versailles-The obvious loser ○ Germany lost a lot of German territory, its entire empire internationally, including portions of Southeast asia and Africa ○ Article 231- Germany accepted responsibility and had to pay reparations, army and navy limited in size/tonnage ○ Forbidden from having subs or tanks ○ Allies impose it ○ Germany lost a lot of territory ○ Germany lost its entire empire (late to become an empire) - people thought it was harsh ○ Germany blamed for the war ○ Germany had to pay reparations (including Italy) ○ Germany could not have Airforce, tanks, submarines; limited navy and army Versailles – ‘But We’re on the winning side!?’ ○ Italy was given some territory but overall lost a bunch, felt treated unfairly like Germany ○ Italians thought that they would have gotten more, lost people, made sacrifices ○ Territory in the North  ○ No spoils apart from some islands from the Ottoman Empire and the Austria Hungarian at the East ○ Considered unfair Fiume (Town and Territory that Italy did not get) ○ Occupied by D’Annunzio + Italian troops 1919-1920 Mini Dictator, created a Mini-State. Ultimately loses the land in months time to Italian Gov’t ○ Ultimately region in part to Italy in 1924 by agreement with Yugoslavia. ○ Many go from radical left or left to Fascist. ○ Idea of being treated unfairly ○ Germany and Italy are both young states: not given fair treatment ○ After war - extremely nationalistic movement, a lot of veterans difficult for them to adapt to the civilian life ○ Leader of the growing fascist movement before Mussolini - Gabriele D'Annunzio: becomes a tiny dictator in Fiume, he with some troops seized control of Fiume in 1919-1920 and set up this mini-state. Survived for a couple of months till the army pulled out - motivation to make the black shirts more distinct (something that is not under the influence of army influence). Dies in 1938 and becomes glorified. Frontkampfer – Friekorps ○ Little groups of ex-soldiers that band together similar to mercenaries Nationalistic and Anti-Socialist They enjoy getting rid of socialists ○ Example of one of the groups and photo in slide, associated to German Knights cross. ○ Soldiers running around who do not know what to do with themselves: Freikorps organizations of ex soldiers, stemmed from mercenaries, very nationalistic, very anti-socialist, known by the name of their leader ○ Useful tool for the government as the army is limited Beat up socialists just for fun who might have ambitions toward powers Italy-The Struggle Between Right and Left ○ Socialist electoral successes and rise of Fascism Success of soviets inspires Socialists ○ Fascist attacks on local gov’t and opposition parties Gain authority by beating up the opposition including: Catholic unions Socialists ○ Socialists after the war have a degree of success (socialists dominate government) ○ Start fighting against themselves (lead in a parliamentary system and those who want a revolution) ○ Others blame socialist for all their problems Parallel government - fascist groups (1919-1921) - gain local authority by beating up the opposition (socialists, Catholic unions ("socialists")) A different type of socialism? Italian Fascism ○ Fascists offered nationalistic socialists somewhere else to go  ○ Mussolini's fascist when they become fascists start of as a loose organization - fasci Italiani di C. (some of them stayed as the military) ○ By 1921 there was a fascist party that wasn't on its own, it joined a national bloc with other nationalist groups ○ Problem of the left: communist becomes a problem as well, drawn away socialists ○ Mussolini and fascists doesn’t look like will gain power in the parliament by winning the majority ○ 1921: National Block included only 35 strictly fascists MPs, though some of the others are also leaning that way Naples, 24 Oct. 1922 ○ Today, without a shot being fired, we captured the vibrant soul of Naples, the soul of all Southern Italy. The demonstration is an end in itself and can not turn into a battle, but I say to you with all the solemnity that the moment requires: either we will be given the gov’t or we must take it by marching on Rome. Action must be simultaneous in every part of Italy. ○ We will become syndicalists (a different sector) Mostly a Bluff At this point right wing is more popular due to a General Strike done by the Socialists, but Fascists are still not well received by the gov’t. Mussolini did not take part in the march, to probably seem better than the fray King invited Mussolini to Rome to form government ○ 1921 Mussolini becomes aware that fascists reach the max of their abilities of what they can do in the parliament, they won't win the majority of parliament ○ Backlash when the left launches a general strike - economically damaging ○ Ultimately to achieve power Mussolini decides to bluff, fascist movement is controlling on the ground quite a lot of territory through violence ○ Some part of parliament but not the majority ○ Mussolini speech in Naples 1922: 40 000 fascists Monarchy cannot put themselves against the national forces (fascists not anti-monarchies - nationalist phenomenon) Greatness of the nation: materially and spiritually - SYNDICALITS (different constituents of society that should be represented in a sector of society) 1924 Election ○ Power for a year but have to make it more permanent ○ With the help of intimidation in November 1923: Acerbo Law Remove proportional representation of the electoral system Gives the largest party 2/3 of the seats if they have more than 25% of the votes Fascists get 2/3 of the seats when they have a new election in 1924 (National List - factoring in the boost) Others are not being completely suppressed Matteotti Murder and Fallout Big event - murder of the leading socialist politician Matteotti Problem: he was so high in profile  Mussolini takes advantage of it: violence on the streets gets a bit out of hand, Mussolini's authority over these guys isn't as much as he would like it to be 1925: Lot of pressure on Mussolini ○ Encourages the opposition to challenge his authority ○ Explosion of violence ○ Christmas Eve 1925: uses the parliament to change his title from President of Councils Ministers to Head of Government - no longer be answerable to parliament but answerable to the King ○ King's perspective: better than it might have been: no relative blood loss besides the violence (King pretty happy) From PM to Il Duce ○ Benito Mussolini was an Italian nationalist and the founder of Italian Fascism. He ruled Italy from 1922–1925 as Prime Minister, and from 1925–1943 as il Duce, the Fascist dictator. Tough Economic Circumstances - Germany ○ Germany additional problems after the 1st world war Struggling from effects of the British blockade: problem with food till 1919 Germany's government in terrible debt (borrowed from banks) Reparations to the Allies Borrowing was no longer an option War industry: lot of people in the industry Unemployment: returning soldiers to an even weaker economic situation Government choses to print money: hyper-inflation (worst point, November 1923) 1923: borrowed from the US Weimar republic - once it gets the new constitution Tried to seize power: rapidly crushed by the Freikorps (anti-socialists) Revolutionary forces not particularly large 1920: right wing forces tried to seize power: managed to briefly seize power ○ Left start a general strike: government able to bring back its authority Weimar Republic ○ 1919: Spartacist uprising ○ 1920: Kapp Putsch Different Type of Socialism - German National Socialism ○ Broader appeal than other right wing parties ○ Seems to be offering more to the workers SA or Brownshirts ○ Big on their gang of thugs: more organized, given uniforms, visual tool of intimidations Born out of the Freikorps gymnastics and sports division of the Nationalist Sport division of the party 3000: Hitler's private security, then other elements, imposing the party's will on everyone around, inhibit functioning of other parties banned after seizure of power. It gets reformed when Hitler gets out of jail 1922: 425000 people (difficult to control)  National Socialists: start in Bavaria ○ He held power as General Secretary of the Communist Party from 1922 to 1952 and Chairman of the Council of Ministers from 1941 until his death. ○ Herman Goring become head French Occupation of the Ruhr 1923 ○ German government still cannot pay the reparations ○ France and Belgium pissed of - will occupy the Ruhr and take stuff instead of the reparations payment Unhappy nationalists Occupation that should have happened earlier ○ Left and right wing strikes against the occupation Americans intervene: impasse, Dawes plan 1924 Election: Fascists formed the national list, including some liberals, and nationalists, and some were expelled from the Italian People’s Party. When Mussolini’s gov’t comes to power they give themselves extraordinary powers for one year. The power of monarchy existed and tolerated Mussolini until 1943, when they removed him from power. Most parties were not booted from the gov’t The Matteotti Murder and Fallout Mussolini speech, 3 Jan. 1925 ‘On the Matteotti murder’ (In parliament): 1924 People give Mussolini goads opposition to dispute his authority. He doesn’t want violence as he lacks control but it happens. Article 47 of the statute says: “The chamber of the deputies has the right to accuse the Ministers of the king and to bring him to face the high court of justice.” I formally ask if in this Chamber, or outside it, there is anyone who wants to make use of article 47. Italy, Gentlemen, wants peace, wants tranquility, wants work, and calm; we will give it with love, if possible, or with force, if necessary. You can be sure that in the 48 hours following this speech, the situation will be clarified in thery corner. We all know that is is not a personal fancy, not lust for gov’t, not base passion, but only infinite and powerful love for the fatherland. Monarchy is happy because there is little violence at this point. Tough Economic Circumstances – Germany: Poverty and hyperinflation: People were cutting up dead horses for meat. Hyperinflation (Printing money) due to its own debt to the banks and reparations (1922-23) One positive was the huge inflation of cash due to war economy, but that ended post WW1, huge unemployment. At one point 1 us cent + 42 billion German marc notes At the same time, Russian Revolution is happening. Left-leaning wants to take over, social democrat gov’t takes over Radical Socialists have a brief moment of glory, were crushed by the Friekorps, get executed by Friekorps.  In 1920, the right wing tried to seize power of govt, gains temporary power, govt is centre-left at this point. The Left brings around a general strike, the right wing gives party back to social democrat party. Leader of opposition and foreign minister get executed Part of the Socialist policy was expansionism. The SA or Brownshirts They get uniforms, visual tool of intimidation. National socialists start in Bavaria. First called the gymnastic and sports division. March 1923 Herman Gurig became head of the S.A. Primary goal at first when only 3,000 strong, they were Hitler private security. One of their first goals was to beat people up and intimidate them. S.A get arrested, Hitler is arrested but released By 1932 445,000 people in the SA Give us a Break (1923)!! Gov’t cannot pay reparations, the French and Polish occupy the Ruhr, an industrial region of Germany. This is where the Americans intervene with the impasse, come up with the Daws plan (Loans in exchange for purchases, give debts to other powers who then pay it to the Americans. Beer Hall Putsch 9 November 1923, Munich - Bavaria Relatively easily put down Don't succeed - Hitler uses the trial as a publicity strategy ○ The judge quite sympathetic ○ Chance to think - Mein Kampf 1920s Decadence for some - elites (small part of the population) Meanwhile things are improving to some extent in the Weimar Republic ○ Improving but still not great (books exaggerate) US provided loans to Weimar Germany Mein Kampf 1925 Lebensraum ○ Space needed for population to grow + national strength to increase ○ Surprisingly Eastern Europe doesn't come up very much ○ Expansion mentioned only 16 times Agrarian Romanticism ○ Romanticism of the past ○ Hitler in the countryside ○ Element of cynicism? ○ Written for public consumption ○ Appeal to everyone ○ Contradiction - industry and romanticising small and medium sized farms (not that coherent) Preservation of Race  ○ A lot more prominent Survival of the Fittest Individual Sacrifice for the Race ○ Individual needs are trumped by the needs of the race - sacrifice is necessary Glorification of War and the Struggle ○ Widely fascists - glorification of the struggle ○ Nazis - race, war, Freikorps, can glorify it because they survived Anti-Semitism ○ VERY prominent ○ Hitler suggests that his idea of antisemitism arose in Vienna ○ Jews linked with the Left - social democracy - bolshevism ○ Judeo-Bolshevik conspiracy. That the communist regime is run by Jews ○ Jew mentioned 513 times ○ “Conduct accordance with the will of the Almighty Creator” - Hitler not religious - is he trying to appeal to the religious people? Nazi Party Refounded Hitler was in prison for few months When he gets out he refunds the SA, Nazi Party From 1925: Hitler is the boss, Fuhrer - great leader ○ Before 1925 - quite limited, Bavarian party 1925 - party expands, becomes a party for the entire Germany ○ Few conservative backers ○ Not going anywhere electionary ○ Fringe party What changes things is the Great Depression The Great Depression Wall Street October 1929 crash American banks called in their loans from Germany (government, industry, people, left-wing economics - state has to have money to make sure people buy things, unemployment - people buy less - depression) Germany hit quite hard based on their reliance on the US loans Herman Muller resigned - cause government couldn’t agree how to manage spending regarding unemployment (government can't afford unemployment benefit) Time when a series of Chancellors whose democratic credentials are shaken A lot of damage done to democracy prior to Hitter When Hitler became chancellor 6 million unemployed Chancellor's losely in the center leaning to the right Start to cut government expenditure Downwards spiral Left and the right start to benefit Nazi posters clearly referring to economic hardship Nazism as a way out of catastrophe The Left Left does better than the right (left has an example of the Soviet Union) May Day 1930 - Berlin - Join lenin’s party 2 major left wing parties ○ KPD - Communist ○ SPD - socialists, Social Democrats (Nazi party as the enemy of democracy) They were not willing to work together, fatal flaw of the Left 1933: single largest party Hitler’s Campaign Widespread use of aircraft to cover as much ground as possible and make as many speeches as possible Hitler - good electoral campaigner - he was everywhere, flied from one venue to the next, give numerous speeches - active - particularly in the presidential election of 1932 Nazi 1932 - support dropped Presidential election which Hitler lost (nobody expected him to win though) President - Hindenburg, politically untouchable, WWI hero Hitler couldn't not not stand against him - gets a good show in - impressive showing - adds to his credibility Hitler unwilling to join any government in some sort of coalition, 1932: all or nothing 1932: Hitler introduced to Hindenburg - with the view of him possibly becoming Chancellor (Hindenburg - not impressed) Nazi Party - not willing to be part of a government without Hitler in charge Chancellor’s No governments able to deal with the problems Eager to try non-democratic methods of ruling Bruning - center-party, difficult to govern democratically, made Hindenburg to agree for him to govern by decree, banned the SA, Hindenburg gave up on him (pressure by Schleicher Von Papen - Hindenburg asked him to rule (decided that Hitler was unsuitable), minister of defence - Schleicher (arch intriguer), Schleicher - rehabilitate the SA, making it an element of the SA, Von Paper managed to get Prussian government overthrown (not democrats, ruling by decree cause its too left wing for them)  Schleicher now undermining Von Papen - ultimately got himself appointed as Chancellor, no change in government, he is not very healthy, Hindenburg started to lose trust of him, Von Paper is now more popular with Hindenburg, Von Paper suggests he could be deputy to Hitler if he would become Chancellor, Nazis don’t need to dominate the government (get this idea that they could manage Hitler) Hitler comes to power, invite on the 30th of January 1933 to become Chancellor (through the "democratic process") Hitler Becomes Chancellor 1932 elections - Nazi support drops slightly, KPD increase (communists) Nazi scaremongering over threat KPD, they fear the left Hindenburg now willing to accept Hitler as Chancellor ○ Schleicher pushes Hindenburg and Von Papen towards Hitler - report that suggests that the army of the Weimarch republic wouldn't be able to stop a coup (by the Nazis) if it were to happen. Either we came to term with the Nazis or they will seize power. 30 January 1933 - Hitler appointed Chancellor The Reichstag Fire 4th February 1933 - Decree for the Protection of the German People (places limits on the press, authorised banning political marches) 27th Febryary 1933 - Reichsag fire 28th February 1933 - Reichstag Fire Decree (new laws to limit the oppositions power, for the protection of the people and state, permitted the arrest of political opponents without charge, dissolution of political opposition (Hindenburg supports it)) 23rd March 1933 - The Enabling Act ○ Hitler consolidates power in a matter of a couple months (way quicker than Mussolini) ○ Hitler doesn't change much - continues ruling by decree The Enabling Act Law to remedy of digress of the people and the Reich Even though Hindenburg theoretically could kick Hitler out this is the time that officially consolidates power Allowed the government to enact laws including those that violated the Weimarch constitution without the approval of the parliament or the Weimarch president - due to the crisis To get this act through - basically stops 81 communist deputies from attending the Reichstag session (imprisoned) to prevent them from voting and some of the socialists (meeting in the Opera house) Famous photo of SA queuing up in front of the opera house - to further encourage to vote for the enabling act - intimidation Topic 6: Socialism - Seizing and Holding Power Seizure of Power in Petrograd 25 October - evening - “storming” of the Winter Palace Bolsheviks seizing power in the name of the Soviet movement Bolsheviks support takes off after Kornilov’s rebellion The Second Congress of Soviets 25 October - 10:40pm - Second Congress of Soviets in session Large number of Mencheviks and SRs walk out (2am October 26th) Fall of provisional Government announced (arrested) 670 registered delegates: 300 Bolsheviks, 68 Menchseviks, 193 SRs Left with people who support them Act genuinely as the Soviet Union as a whole Hope within the soviet movement that the stability will facilitate elections 26 October: 9pm delayed 1st session of the congress finally opened - 390 declared Bolshevil sympathy 1917 in the Countryside 21 April 1917 - Provisional Government established land committees ○ Uncultivated landlord land reallocated - semi-legal seizures by the peasants Quite a lot of nobles land is being ceased by peasants Committees - supporting taking land By 1917 (summer) peasants took most of the land Initial Soviet (Bolshevik) Policy Conclusion of peace Land decree - land at the disposal to peasant committees (not nationalization) Provisional Government had to deal with the war Bolsheviks start talking to the Germans, formal negotiation second half of November, when Bolsheviks get control of the head quarters of the army Hope that workers in Germany see what is going on in the soviet union and have their own revolution ○ Trotsky neither peace of war - stalling till the revolution happens Bolsheviks realize they don't have influence in the country side ○ Do sth to buy the peasants ○ Change their land policy ○ Lenin - nationalize the land (peasants did not want) ○ They gave up and then allow peasants to cease the land (peasants happy) Bolsheviks Consolidate their Position Military attempts by Kerensky to regain control of capital - Tsarskoe Selo (28 October), Pulkovo Heights (29 October) unsuccessful Kerensky - socialist, personal, power hungry, (head of provisional government) managed to escape arrest where he managed to rally some troops uses them to try to capture Petrograd - unsuccessful 27th October - Decree on the Press ○ Shut down opposition press - in response to Kerensky in October (revolution is fragile and he have to protect it) 2 November - Bolshevik victory in Moscow 19 November - Formal armistice negotiations begin with Germany 20 November - Revolutionary forces occupy Stavka The Constituent Assembly 15-19 November - Elections to Constituent Assembly 19-28 November - Left SRs formally form separately from SRs - coalition with Bolsheviks Constituent Assembly Elections Elections favor the cities Bolsheviks knew they would not get a majority The peasants supported the Socialist Revolution party (offshoot of the populist parties) Mensheviks support collapsed 5 January 1918 ○ Day of the opening only 410/700 people who managed to make it - example of how chaotic things were ○ Many Bolsheviks -as they were chosen from the cities ○ Not keen on the idea that the Soviets should continue running the show: "we are the legitimate institution" ○ Bolsheviks come in with the red Army and say that they don't think that the assembly elections were fair: socialist switched into two and the left weren't allowed to stand on the separate platform so the elections were not meaningful and they will shut it down ○ Most legitimate form of government - Soviet government ○ That really is the end of the constituent assembly ○ Bolsheviks dissolve - not representative (Left SRs) ○ 3rd Congress of Soviets - 10 January The Nationalities In the meantime Russian union was fragmented Estonia, Latvia - German Finland - independence acknowledged by Soviet government on January 4th Georgia - dominated by the Mensheviks Ukraine - Rada, but limited influence Brest - Litovsk Takes the opposition some time to recuperate -thought the assembly would run the show Germany tired of Trotsky - deal that remove territory of the Russian Empire (Trotsky initially says no but since the German army has no trouble advancing he eventually agrees - no army to stop them) 3rd March 1918 - give up territory, agreeing that the nationalists that broken away will stay broken away as independent ○ Treaty of Brest-Litovsk - the Bolsheviks make peace with the Germans Left SRs leave the government in disgust Left SRs left as Bolsheviks did not listen to them, they wanted to continue the war as they thought that it would facilitate revolutions Moscow becomes the capital The Cheka 6th December 1917 By then Bolsheviks are ruling in the name of the Soviet Movement ○ Felix Dzerzhinsky, first head of the Cheka - forerunner of the NKVD  Enemies: white movement NKVD, Cheka (committee for extraordinary measures - facing rising terrorism from left wing parties and lawlessness) Red Terror: August 1918+, brutal crackdown on opposition, as terrorists had shot German sb by the left, attack on Lenin July 1918: execute Nicholas II and his family - fear of sb liberating the Tsar and him or his children becoming the head Whereas the Cheka had persecuted enemies of the Bolshevik party, the NKVD targeted well-positioned party members whom Stalin perceived as potential rivals, including government officials, army officers and the Soviet party's older guard, such as Trotskyites. The Czecho-Slovak Revolt First big military problem comes from Czecho-Slovaks Prisoners of war taken from Austria-Hungary who the Tsarist regime put in a military unit as they were willing to fight against Austria-Hungary to achieve independence to Czecho-Slovakia Plan to shit them to Vladivostok (Trans-Siberian Railway) They revolted against the Bolsheviks - cut Bolsheviks off from a lot of Easter part and allow opposition groups to develop power bases June 1917 ○ Socialists set up a government Komuch ○ November: success overrun by first major white forces by a past Tsarist Admiral Kolchak, he and the Bolsheviks (from another side) take back Komuch White army - lose federation of Monarchs, anti-Bolshevik, led by former Tsarist generals, officer heavy Greens - socialists against Bolsheviks (later the anarchists) Civil War and Intervention Though Allies and the Wite Army gained some land the Bolsheviks always controled most important territory: major cities, industry, most population, Petrograd, Moscow Whites receive a lot of support from the Allies - Allies hostile due to the fact that the Soviet Union stopped fighting Allies land in the North and the West/South, Japan/Americans in the East Main reason to have an Easter front in the World War Enthusiasm falls when the War stops Significant supplies to the opposition These Allies and the Whites unite the left The Red Army Officially established January 1918 Bolsheviks step back from revolutionary ideals and start to form a revolutionary army (not officer but commander though lol) Have to take back what they said about the uniforms etc. Forced to conscript people (either by Whites or Bolsheviks) Commissars April 1918 Political officer to mobilize the army, supervise Bolshevik commanders etc. Introduced in 1918 because had not many people with experience of commanding the army (a lot of officers side with Whites) War Communism Bolsheviks forced to take a few steps back from the revolutionary ideals Bolsheviks start to nationalize industry Failure of international revolution Centralize the economy ○ Because of food Key issue: control of the economy ○ Railways run by the Railway Union ○ 1917: decree on the worker’s control ○ VSNKH: supreme council for the National Ecomony Food crisis 1918 ○ Bolsheviks take food from the peasants Using the Cheka and workers detachments "Extract it from the rich peasants" - apply a class structure approach to the countryside Gain requisitionining - basic norm, have to produce a certain amount and can do what they want with the other part Poles Versaisses (June 1919) boundaries set with Germany but not with Russia Pilsudzki: wanted to create a Polish confederation with Ukraine May 1920: Polish forces take Kiev May-June: Soviet counteroffensive + invasion of Poland August: Polish counter-offesnive October 1920: armistice, Curzon Line Makhno He was the Ukraininan peasant leader Anarchist One of the groups of people who helped the Bolsheviks - Anarchist Makh