HIST 105 - Notes (1).pdf

Week 1: Syllabus: - 4 lockdown exams (one index cards front and back with notes) - Essay responses on blue book after exams Syllabus Quiz: 2% Exams: 64% total (Multiple choice 16% each; Essay 5% each) Bi-weekly Reflections: 14% total (2% each, lowe...

Week 1: Syllabus: - 4 lockdown exams (one index cards front and back with notes) - Essay responses on blue book after exams Syllabus Quiz: 2% Exams: 64% total (Multiple choice 16% each; Essay 5% each) Bi-weekly Reflections: 14% total (2% each, lowest dropped) Opportunity Points: 2% (extra credit) - Study everytime after class The collision of cultures 16th century - The 16th century was marked by the collision of Native American cultures with European explorers, leading to profound changes in both societies. This era set the stage for the development of the modern United States and had lasting impacts on indigenous populations. Historians & Key Figures: - George Bancroft: Authored a 10-volume study on the origins and development of the United States, laying the foundation for American historical scholarship. - Alfred Kroeber: Founder of American anthropology, pivotal in understanding Native American cultures. - Samuel Eliot Morison: Renowned for oceanic biographies of Christopher Columbus, John Paul Jones, and Commodore Perry, blending history with maritime adventure. - American Settlement: -12,000-15,000 years ago: Nomads from Asia crossed into North America via the Bering Land Bridge during the Ice Age. - Clovis People: Early settlers identified in 1929 by Ridgely Whiteman, marked by their distinct 4-inch spear points. Their spread across over 80 sites in North America was aided by global warming, leading to diverse environments. By 5000 B.C., natives in Mexico began cultivating “The Three Sisters”—corn, beans, and squash. Native Settlements: - 1500 B.C.: First farming towns appeared in Mexico, fostering community and culture.  - Olmec Civilization (c. 1500 B.C.): Lived in forests along Mexico’s east coast rivers, known for large head sculptures and influence on later civilizations. - Mayan Civilization (A.D. 250-900): Flourished in the Yucatan with over 40 cities, known for advanced mathematics, astronomy, and a complex writing system. Collapsed around A.D. 900 under mysterious circumstances. - Incan Empire: Noted for a centralized language, extensive road systems, and strong governmental control. - Mexica/Aztecs (c. 1248 A.D.): Dominant in central Mexico, with Tenochtitlan as their capital, consisting of 371 cities and 38 provinces. Known for their intense spirituality and human sacrifices to please their gods. North American Civilizations: -Population: Around 8 million, largely nomadic, with diverse cultures. - Southwest: Anasazi people, known for cliff dwellings and extensive trade networks. - Northwest: Densely populated societies with rigid social hierarchies and rich ceremonial traditions. - Plains: Tribes like the Arapaho, Blackfeet, Cheyenne, Comanche, Crow, Apache, and Sioux were nomadic, relying on buffalo for sustenance. - Adena-Hopewell Culture (800 B.C. - A.D. 600): Known for burial mounds, elaborate rituals, and early agriculture. - Cahokia: Largest pre-Columbian city in North America, with a population of about 15,000. Known for its large earthen mounds; it collapsed around 1400. - Key Tribes: Algonquian, Iroquoian, and Muskogean, each with distinct languages, cultures, and social structures. Europe Pre-Colonization: - The Black Death (Mid-1300s): Killed 20 million people (⅓ of Europe’s population), leading to social and economic shifts. The decline of the rigid feudal system and rise of a trade-based economy followed the population loss. - The Renaissance (Late 1300s): Intellectual revolution beginning in Florence. A period of rediscovery of Greek and Roman  knowledge, marked by advances in art, science, and technology. Key figures include: - Leonardo da Vinci: A polymath who exemplified the Renaissance spirit of inquiry. - Galileo Galilei: Developed a powerful telescope, leading him to challenge the Church's geocentric view, and laying the groundwork for modern astronomy. - Johannes Gutenberg: Invented the mechanical printing press (1436), crucial for spreading Renaissance ideas. Age of Exploration: - Portugal: Led early European exploration using caravels, which allowed for longer voyages. - Christopher Columbus: - Born in Genoa in 1451; studied math, astronomy, cartography, and navigation in Lisbon. - Proposed a westward route to Asia, which was funded by Spain. - First voyage in August 1492; reached the Bahamas in October. - Returned to Spain with 12 Native Americans and stories of treasure. Made three more voyages (1493, 1498, 1502). - Capitulations of Santa Fe: Agreement with Queen Isabella I, granting Columbus titles and a share of any riches found. - Introduced Europe to new products from the Americas, initiating the Columbian Exchange. - Legacy: Columbus opened the Americas to European colonization but is also criticized for the brutal treatment of indigenous people. He forced natives aged 14+ to collect gold dust; those who failed were mutilated or killed. Cultural Comparisons: - Native cultures emphasized agriculture, spirituality, and communal living, while European societies were driven by conquest, wealth, and exploration. The clash of these values set the stage for centuries of conflict and transformation. __________________________________ Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) Background: Spain and Portugal competed for new lands.  Action: Pope Alexander VI divided the New World and Africa between Spain and Portugal. Reason: Portugal was jealous of Spain’s growing empire. Amerigo Vespucci (1499) Event: Vespucci reached Brazil. Significance: Declared the discovery of a new continent. Reformation (1517) Key Figure: Martin Luther, an Augustinian monk. Event: Published the “95 Theses,” criticizing the Catholic Church. Arguments: ○ Salvation comes through faith alone. ○ The Pope is corrupt. ○ Direct relationship with God is possible without church intermediaries. Aftermath: ○ Luther was excommunicated and sentenced to death. ○ A German prince hid Luther, allowing his ideas to spread. Impact: ○ Formation of Protestantism. ○ Encouraged Bible reading. ○ 1521: Inspired rebellion against the Catholic Church. ○ Catholic response: Council of Trent (1545-1563). ○ Treaty of Augsburg (1555): Settled religious conflicts in the Holy Roman Empire. Spanish Empire Siglo de Oro: 16th and 17th centuries of Spanish cultural flourishing. Early Colonies: Began in Hispaniola, aimed to spread Christianity. Notable Conquests: ○ Juan Ponce De Leon (1508): Conquered Puerto Rico, explored Florida. ○ Diego Velazquez (1511-1514): Conquered Cuba. ○ First continental settlement: Darien in Panama. Conflict with Natives: ○ Impact of Disease: Smallpox decimated 95% of the native population, brought via African slaves. ○ Technological Advantage: Superior weaponry aided Spanish conquest. Hernán Cortés (1519) Event: Sailed to Mexico. Impression: Compared the city of Tenochtitlán to Seville. Conflict: 1520, a major battle between Cortés’s forces and the Mexica. Outcome: By 1523, the Mexica Empire was destroyed, and the city was Europeanized. Francisco Pizarro (1531) Achievement: Conquered the Incan Empire. Population Impact: New Spain's population fell from 50 million to 4 million by the 17th century due to smallpox and warfare. Result: Led to the African slave trade (1503) due to a labor shortage. Columbian Exchange New World to Old World: Tobacco, potatoes, turkeys. Old World to New World: Wheat, measles, horses. Spanish Empire Expansion in the Americas Mexico: Center of Spanish Empire. St. Augustine, Florida (1565): First Spanish outpost in present-day U.S. New Mexico, Texas, California: Key areas of Spanish settlement. New Mexico: Declared a royal province in 1608. Pueblo Revolt (1680): Natives rebelled, hindering Spanish missionary work and capturing horses. French and Dutch Exploration French: ○ 1523: Giovanni da Verrazzano explored the Atlantic coast from Newfoundland to Florida. ○ 1534: Jacques Cartier led the first French colonization attempt. The Enterprise of England Event: English smaller ships outmaneuvered the Spanish Armada. Outcome: Spain lost half of its fleet and 15,000 men. The defeat marked the decline of Spanish naval dominance and the rise of England as a global power. Turning point in European history, reshaping the balance of power and enabling England to expand its influence worldwide.  ENGLISH COLONIZATION - 1583 - Humphrey Gilbert landed in newfoundland - 1584 Walter Raleigh established a colony on Roanoke Island - called it Virginia (honoring queen elizabeth) Contract he gets ⅕ of treasure he finds - 1590 - Governor John White returned to a vanished colony. No one knows the hundred people. - 1603 - still no permanent English settlements in New World New Spain legacy - 1545 - 1660 Natives and slaves mined 7m pounds of silver ___________________________________ WEEK 2: England and its American Colonies Motivations for colonizations - Economic Interests: - Create markets for English goods. - Secure a steady supply of raw materials. - Improve the home economy by relocating the poor abroad. Enclosure Movement - Forced many laborers off the land due to privatization. - Land was enclosed with fences, hedges, or walls, often converting open fields into sheep pastures. - Aimed to boost agricultural productivity by organizing land for better crop and livestock management. Colonial Enterprise - Royal Charters: - Granted to private Joint Stock Companies for colonial ventures. - Established family-based agricultural and trade communities. - Colonies supplied raw materials to England and received manufactured goods in return. Magna Carta (Great Charter) 1215: - Signed by King John, establishing shared power between the monarchy and the nobility. Religious Conflict and War - Puritans vs. Monarchy: - Puritans sought to eliminate all papal rituals. - King James I (a Calvinist) wanted to banish Puritans, leading them to seek safety elsewhere.  King Charles I - Exercised absolute authority and was harsh toward Puritans. - His unpopular decisions led to a civil war, resulting in his execution in 1649. Oliver Cromwell - Puritan leader and deputy commander of the New Model Army against royal forces. - Became Lord Protector of England, Scotland, and Ireland in 1653. - Advocated for the liberty of conscience for Christians. - Died in 1658 amid growing resentment. Charles II: - Restored to the throne in 1660 after Cromwell’s death. Monarchical Crisis - James II (1685): - Younger brother of Charles II and a Catholic, succeeded to the throne. - In 1688, Parliament invited Mary Stuart (James II’s daughter) and her husband William III of Orange to displace him, leading to the "Glorious Revolution." Settling the American Colonies - Virginia Company Charter (1606): - Granted by King James I to merchant investors. - Jamestown Settlement (1607): - Established on May 14, 1607, with around 100 settlers. - Harsh conditions led to only 38 survivors within the first nine months. - Jamestown’s Growth: - John Smith imposed strict military discipline. - Trade with the local Algonquin tribes ensured the colony’s survival. - Tobacco cultivation thrived in the local climate. - Settlers were promised 50 acres of land to incentivize colonization. - Political Development: - In 1619, colonists formed the General Assembly. - Jamestown became an official royal colony in 1624. Colonial America: Key Settlements and Developments Maryland Colony Founding: ○ George Calvert (Lord Baltimore) received a charter to establish a colony east of the Potomac River and north of Virginia. ○ 1634: 140 settlers arrived. Religious Tolerance and Conflict:  ○ 1649: William Stone introduced the Act of Toleration to ensure religious equality. ○ 1692: Roman Catholicism was banned in Maryland. Plymouth Colony Founding: ○ 1620: A group of Pilgrims aboard the Mayflower arrived in Cape Cod after being blown off course. Governance: ○ November 11, 1620: The Mayflower Compact was signed, becoming the first written framework of government in North America. ○ 1691: Plymouth Colony became part of the larger Massachusetts Bay Colony. Massachusetts Bay Colony Founding: ○ 1630: Settled by 1,000 Puritan refugees under Governor John Winthrop. Governance: ○ The government enforced strict religious beliefs. ○ Established a political constitution independent of royal control, creating an upper house and a House of Deputies. Dissent and Expansion: ○ 1631: Roger Williams advocated for complete separation of church and state. ○ 1636: Williams was banished and founded Providence, buying land from the Native Americans. ○ 1636: Reverend Thomas Hooker led three church congregations from Massachusetts to Connecticut, establishing a self-governing colony. The Carolinas (Charles’ Land) Founding: ○ 1663: King Charles II granted a colony south of Virginia to eight members. ○ 1680: The city of Charlestown was founded. Governance and Economy: ○ John Locke, an English political philosopher, wrote the constitution for the Carolinas, emphasizing individual rights and religious tolerance. ○ North Carolina: Known for tobacco, timber, and other woods. ○ 1729: North Carolina became a royal colony. ○ South Carolina: Known for fertile farmland, deerskin, lumber, beef, and rice. ○ 1719: South Carolina became a royal colony. New Netherlands (Present-Day New York, New Jersey, Delaware)  Founding and Transformation: ○ 1609: Sea Captain Henry Hudson discovered Delaware Bay, establishing Dutch claims. ○ 1664: New Netherlands was renamed New York after the English took control. The Dutch were allowed to stay and continue their practices without persecution. Quakerism and Pennsylvania Founding of Quakerism: ○ George Fox: Founder of the Society of Friends (Quakers), rejected all political and religious authority, believing governance was divinely instituted. William Penn: ○ Born in 1644, he rejected Anglicanism and was expelled from the University of Oxford in 1680. ○ 1666: Joined the Quakers upon returning to Ireland. ○ 1670: Inherited a large estate on the west bank of the Delaware River. ○ Pennsylvania: Established and embraced Quakerism. 1682: Penn drew up three frames of government, promoting freedom of religion, fair trials, and elected representatives. Granted the area called Delaware by King Charles II. Georgia Early Exploration: ○ 1540: Hernando de Soto was the first European to explore the region. Founding: ○ 1732: King George II granted the land to General James Oglethorpe and trustees. ○ Social Experiment: Offered hope for the poor and was open to all. Restrictions on land holdings, no slavery, no alcohol, and a focus on economic equality. ○ 1733: Savannah was founded. ○ 1754: Georgia became a royal colony. Encounters and Conflicts with Native Americans Land and Tension: ○ Native Americans felt increasingly pressured as the English continued to take their land. ○ New arrivals led to increased tension and conflict. Powhatan Confederacy:  ○ A defensive military alliance of over 30 Native American tribes. Bacon's Rebellion: ○ 1675: Nathaniel Bacon was denied a commission to lead an army. ○ 1676: Bacon, with 500 supporters, launched attacks on Native Americans, escalating into a rebellion against colonial leadership. _______________________________ Pequot War (1636-1637) July 1636: Members of the Narragansett tribe killed Captain John Oldham, which led to a harsh response from the colonists. John Endicott's Raids: John Endicott led raids into Pequot territory in retaliation. May 1637: Colonists surrounded a Pequot village in the Connecticut Valley, resulting in the massacre of 400-700 Pequot people. ○ Religious Justification: Captain John Underhill defended the brutality, citing scripture to justify the killing of women and children, reflecting the influence of religious rhetoric on colonial policies. Aftermath 1638 Treaty of Hartford: ○ Outlawed the name "Pequot" and forbade the survivors from regrouping as a tribe. ○ Any grievances had to be brought before English authorities. ○ Shift in Power: The balance of power shifted from numerous but unorganized Native tribes to the English settlers. ○ Long-term Impact: The use of religious rhetoric in justifying actions against Native Americans influenced U.S. Indian policy for the next three centuries. King Philip’s War (1675-1676) Chief Metacomet (King Philip): Leader of the Wampanoags, resented colonial efforts to convert his people to Christianity. 1674: John Sassamon, a Christian Native American, warned of an impending war. ○ Sassamon was later murdered by three Native Americans, sparking the conflict. Conflict: A fourteen-month war ensued, marked by brutal fighting on both sides. End of War: The war ended after the capture and death of Metacomet. Iroquois League 17th Century: Increased inter-tribal warfare led to the rise of the Iroquois League.  ○ The League had about 12,000 members with its capital at Onondaga. 1677: The Iroquois allied with the British against the French. 1690s: French forces and their Native allies severely weakened the Iroquois, reducing their power. Servitude and Slavery Indentured Servitude Definition: A system where individuals signed a contract (indenture) to work for a certain number of years in exchange for passage to America, room, food, and "freedom dues." Conditions: Life as an indentured servant was harsh, but unlike slavery, they had rights, including the ability to own property. Post-Servitude: Upon completing their contract, they were typically awarded 25 acres of land, a year’s supply of corn, weapons, a cow, and clothing. Slavery 1619: The first African slaves were brought to Virginia to work on tobacco plantations. 1700: Slavery existed in every American colony, making up 11% of the total population. 1700-1800: 6-7 million slaves were brought to North America during this period. African Slavery Participation: African leaders played an active role in the slave trade. Middle Passage: The journey to the New World was brutal, with 1 in 6 slaves dying during the voyage. Conditions: Slaves were treated as property, branded, and sold at auctions. African Culture in the New World Cultural Practices: Slaves maintained cultural practices such as folktales, fables, crafts, singing, and dancing. ○ These practices served as coping mechanisms and offered an alternate reality. Religious Syncretism: Many slaves merged Christianity with their own traditional beliefs. ______________________________________________________________________ English Legacy in the American Colonies  18th Century: English colonies in the New World grew larger and more influential than those of France or Spain. Governance: The colonies were largely self-governing and profitable, with minimal royal interference. Settlement Patterns: Concentrated English settlements allowed these colonies to flourish. Colonial Demographics Population Growth: ○ The American population doubled every 25 years during the colonial period. ○ 1750: Over 1 million people. ○ 1775: Population reached 2.5 million. Reason for such growth: ○ Average marriage age was 20 in the colonies, compared to 26 in Europe. 1 of every 8 women dyed giving birth Status of Women Societal Role: ○ Women were viewed as inferior and were primarily responsible for household duties. Opportunities: ○ New job opportunities emerged in the colonies. ○ Elizabeth Pinckney: Her father George Lucas Managed her father’s three plantations in South Carolina since her mother was really sick Successfully grew and exported indigo, making it a profitable crop. 1754: South Carolina was exporting 1 million pounds of indigo annually. Indigo gives clothes different looks like blue dye. Gives birth to two men who become politicians Society & Economy Southern Colonies: ○ Became prosperous due to the cultivation of tobacco, rice, sugar, and indigo. ○ The use of Native American and African slaves allowed large landowners to amass great wealth. ○ Tobacco: Mainly grown in Virginia and Maryland. ○ South Carolina: By the 18th century, South Carolina had a majority black pop.  New England: ○ Land was more equally divided compared to the Southern colonies. ○ God over the will of the people. Puritans ○ Over time, religious commitment declined. ○ Massachusetts Royal Charter (1691): Allowed no religious people to be treated the same Voting rights were based on property ownership, rather than religious affiliation. Salem Witch Trials (1692-1697) Context: ○ Salem Village was plagued by French conflicts, a smallpox epidemic, and fears of Native American attacks. ○ There was a strong rivalry between the less affluent Salem Village and the wealthier Salem Town. 15 miles north Boston. Initial Incident: ○ January 1692: Elizabeth Parris and Abigail Williams exhibited strange fits, contortions, and screaming. ○ Diagnosis: Local doctor William Griggs diagnosed these symptoms as bewitchment. Response: ○ Arrests: Warrants were issued for Tituba, Sarah Good, and Sarah Osborn. ○ The fear of other witches in the village fueled widespread hysteria. ○ Cotton Mather: Prominent Boston minister who supported the use of "spectral" evidence in witch trials. Aftermath: ○ January 1697: The Massachusetts General Court declared the trials unlawful. ○ Modern Science: Some theories suggest that ergot fungus (which can cause hallucinations) may have been responsible for the fits. Middle Colonies Colonies: New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland Diversity: Very ethnically and religiously diverse populations Climate: Better weather conditions than New England, ideal for agriculture Geography: Access to interior regions via major rivers like the Hudson and Delaware Growth: Fastest-growing region in North America due to fertile land and trade routes Pennsylvania Settlement German Settlers: Many fled to Pennsylvania in the late 1600s to escape religious persecution Ulster-Scots (Scots-Irish): Large influx during the 1690s Demographics of British North America (1700s) 61% English 14% Scottish and Scots-Irish 9% German 5% Dutch, French, and Swedish 4% Irish 7% Unidentifiable or mixed origins Non-White Populations: 756,770 enslaved Africans + 100,000 Native Americans Race-Based Slavery Morality: Slavery was not viewed as a moral issue at the time 1750: The vast majority of slaves lived in Virginia and Maryland Stono Rebellion (1739) Date: September 10, 1739 Leader: A slave named Jemmy Event: 20 slaves gathered near the Stono River outside Charlestown, South Carolina March: They marched south, recruiting others, killing several white settlers Response: Governor William Bull organized a militia to suppress the uprising Casualties: 20 white settlers and 44 slaves were killed Aftermath: Captured slaves faced severe punishment, and stricter laws were enacted to prevent future rebellions Colonial Cities Population 1775 - Philly 30,000 - New York City 25,000 - Boston 16,000 - Charleston 12,000 Influence of Cities - Only 5% of pop. lived in towns - Center of ideas, politics and economics - Taverns more than any other businesses. Enlightenment?Age of Reason - Knowledge can bring about human progress - Isaac Newton’s laws of gravity & motion described the world in terms of natural laws beyond any spiritual force. John locke Two Treatises of Government: Rejected divine right of kings. Societies form governments by mutual agreement. If the king loses consent of the governed he may be removed. Benjamin Franklin Born: 1706 in Boston, Massachusetts. Move to Philadelphia: At the age of 17, Franklin moved to Philadelphia to seek new opportunities. ○ Worked as a printer under his brother James in Boston. ○ Eventually ran away to escape his brother's control and established himself as a successful printer in Philadelphia. ○ Franklin was largely self-taught, acquiring knowledge through voracious reading and experimentation. ○ He became known for his curiosity and wide range of interests, including science, politics, and writing. Publications: ○ Published the “Poor Richard's Almanack” annually from 1732 to 1758, a popular pamphlet filled with proverbs, practical advice, and witty sayings. ○ Known for his wit, Franklin’s almanack was a reflection of his wisdom and practicality. Family: ○ Had a son named William Franklin, who later became the last colonial governor of New Jersey before the American Revolution. ○ Their relationship became strained as William remained loyal to Britain during the Revolution, while Benjamin supported the Patriots. Retirement: ○ By the age of 42, Franklin retired from printing, having become prosperous through his various business ventures.  ○ He then dedicated his time to scientific experiments, public service, and politics, becoming a key figure in the American Enlightenment and the American Revolution. Great Awakening (1730s-1740s) A major religious revival that swept through the American colonies, leading to increased religious enthusiasm and a challenge to traditional authority. Emphasized personal faith, emotional expression in worship, and the idea that salvation could be achieved by anyone, not just the elite. Jonathan Edwards A Puritan preacher known for his fire-and-brimstone sermons. His famous sermon “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God” vividly depicted God's wrath and eternal punishment. Criticized the pursuit of wealth, saying materialism was distracting people from true faith. George Whitefield A dynamic and charismatic minister from Britain who toured the colonies in 1739. Former actor, which contributed to his dramatic and engaging public sermons. Believed that people had left the church because of uninspiring preachers (“dead men preaching”). His sermons drew massive crowds, helping to spread the ideas of the Great Awakening. James Davenport An infamous itinerant preacher known for his extreme actions. Held public bonfires where people would burn books, clothing, and other worldly goods, believing them to be influenced by Satan. Known for his emotional and controversial style, often causing division. Impact of the Great Awakening Congregations split into factions: ○ New Light: Embraced the revival and emotional style of worship. ○ Old Light: Favored traditional, more reserved worship. Message of Equality: Preached that all people were equal in God’s eyes, which resonated with commoners and minorities. The movement's emphasis on individual choice and questioning authority laid the groundwork for the American Revolution. The Enlightenment and Its Influence While the Great Awakening appealed to emotions, the Enlightenment appealed to reason. Enlightenment ideas gave colonial elites confidence in questioning authority and governance, helping set the stage for the Revolution. Together, these twin legacies—spiritual awakening and intellectual enlightenment—shaped colonial society. Twin Legacies in Action Princeton University: ○ Founded by Scotch Presbyterians in 1746, inspired by the Great Awakening’s focus on faith and education. ○ Jonathan Edwards served as one of its early presidents. John Witherspoon: ○ A later president of Princeton, he signed the Declaration of Independence, showing the connection between religious revival and revolutionary ideals. _________________________________________________________ New France 1605: First permanent French settlement in North America established in Acadia (modern-day Nova Scotia) on the Canadian coast. 1608: Quebec founded by Samuel de Champlain, becoming the center of French presence in North America. 1663: New France became a royal colony under direct control of the French crown. Population Issues: ○ The colony's population remained low due to strict immigration policies—only French Catholics were permitted to settle. ○ By 1690: Natural population growth increased numbers, though the population still lagged behind British colonies. ○ By 1750: New France had grown to around 1.5 million inhabitants. 1671: The French claimed the entire interior of the American continent for King Louis XIV. 1682: Explorer Robert de La Salle named the territory he explored “Louisiana” in honor of King Louis XIV. Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne: Considered the “Father of Louisiana” for his efforts in establishing and developing the colony.  1723: New Orleans became the capital of Louisiana, a key strategic and trading city for the French empire. British System in the Colonies The British colonies were more diverse than New France, with settlers from different European countries, including England, Scotland, Ireland, Germany, and the Netherlands. The British allowed more political autonomy, with local governors and legislative assemblies having some control over internal colonial matters. Salutary Neglect: ○ By 1775, the British exercised a policy of “salutary neglect,” allowing the colonies significant freedom to govern themselves as long as they contributed economically to Britain. French and Indian War (1754–1763) The war began as a result of the French expanding into the Ohio River Valley, which led to conflicts with British colonial expansion. 1756: Britain formally declared war on France, leading to a larger conflict known as the Seven Years’ War in Europe. 1754 Albany Plan of Union: Proposed by Benjamin Franklin to unite the colonies for mutual defense, though it was rejected by both the colonies and the British government. Treaty of Paris (1763): ○ Ended the war, with France ceding all its territory east of the Mississippi River and all of Canada to Britain. ○ France compensated Spain with the Louisiana Territory for the loss of Spanish Florida, which was given to Britain. Economic Consequences: ○ The war left Britain with massive debt, which led to increased economic regulation of the colonies. War Debts and British Taxes Lord Grenville believed the American colonies were undertaxed and should contribute more to the empire’s financial burden after the war. Sugar Act (1764) Imposed taxes on molasses, sugar, wines, coffee, and spices imported to the colonies. It was introduced during an economic depression and was deeply resented. Violated the principle of “no taxation without representation.” Currency Act (1764) The colonies lacked hard currency (gold and silver), and the act prohibited them from printing their own paper money. All payments for British goods had to be made in gold, silver, or another valuable commodity. Quartering Act (1765) Required colonies to house British soldiers in barracks provided by the colonies. If there was a shortage of space, inns, outhouses, and barns could be used. Stamp Act (1765) The first internal tax was directly imposed on the colonies, levying a tax on all paper documents such as newspapers, legal documents, and licenses. Set to go into effect nine months after its passage, it provoked widespread protests. Resolutions ○ Patrick Henry submitted series of resolutions to Virginian assembly - denied parliament right to tax and called for resistance In October - delegates from 9 colonies met to discuss taxes - agreed no taxes without representation. Colonial Reaction Meetings, parades, bonfires in response to British policies. Sons of Liberty formed in every colony: ○ Samuel Adams (Harvard graduate) was a notable leader. ○ Secretly helped draft the Declaration of Independence. British Reaction Lord Rockingham repealed the Stamp Act. Declaratory Act (1766) reaffirmed Parliament’s authority over the colonies. William Pitt replaced Rockingham in 1766. Revenue Act placed duties on glass, lead, paint, paper, and tea imports. Crisis Grows 1770: Parliament repealed all duties except the tea tax. Colonies divided into Loyalists (loyal to Britain) vs. Patriots (seeking independence). Boston Massacre (1770): British troops killed 5 and wounded 8 colonists. 1773 Tea Act Colonists outraged by the "Trojan Tax" (hidden tax on tea). December 16, 1773: The Boston Tea Party: ○ 100 Patriots disguised as Native Americans boarded ships. ○ Dumped 342 chests of tea (worth $1 million today) into Boston Harbor. 1774 Coercive Acts (Intolerable Acts) In response to the Boston Tea Party: ○ Boston Port Act: Closed the harbor. ○ Quartering Act: Colonists had to provide lodging for British soldiers. ○ Massachusetts Government Act: All officials were appointed by Britain, not elected. ○ General Thomas Gage was made governor of Massachusetts. First Continental Congress (1774) Agreed to an economic boycott of British goods. Denied British authority to regulate internal colonial affairs. Conflict Begins 1775: The British began to lose control of the colonies. April 18, 1775: British troops marched on Lexington. April 19, 1775: British defeated Patriot militia in Lexington, but resistance at Concord forced them to retreat. June 1775: George Washington appointed leader of the Continental Army. Battle of Bunker Hill: British achieved a strategic victory outside Boston. July 5, 1775: Colonists sent the Olive Branch Petition to King George, asking to avoid war. King George III declared the colonists were in open rebellion. Common Sense by Thomas Paine January 10, 1776: Paine’s pamphlet "Common Sense" attacked the British monarchy and encouraged independence.  June 1776: Colonies began separating from Britain. July 5, 1776: Adoption of the Declaration of Independence.