Exceptional Children: Introduction to Special Education PDF

 Eleventh Edition EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN An Introduction to Special Education William L. Heward with Sheila R. Alber-Morgan & Moira Konrad The Ohio State University Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Hob...

 Eleventh Edition EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN An Introduction to Special Education William L. Heward with Sheila R. Alber-Morgan & Moira Konrad The Ohio State University Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Hoboken Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montréal Toronto Delhi Mexico City São Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo Vice President and Editorial Director: Jeffery W. Johnston Cover Design Director: Diane Lorenzo Executive Editor: Ann Castel Davis Cover Image: Pearson/Alberto Viglietta Executive Development Editor: Linda Bishop Media Producer: Autumn Benson Editorial Assistant: Anne McAlpine Media Project Manager: Michael Gonclaves Executive Field Marketing Manager: Krista Clark Full-Service Project Management: Lumina Datamatics, Inc. Senior Product Marketing Manager: Christopher Barry Composition: Lumina Datamatics, Inc. 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Unless otherwise indicated herein, any third-party trademarks that may appear in this work are the property of their respective owners and any references to third-party trademarks, logos or other trade dress are for demonstrative or descriptive purposes only. Such references are not intended to imply any sponsorship, endorsement, authorization, or promotion of Pearson’s products by the owners of such marks, or any relationship between the owner and Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates, authors, licensees or distributors. Cataloging in Publication data is available upon request. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Loose Leaf Version ISBN 10: 0-13-420140-X ISBN 13: 978-0-13-420140-5 E-text ISBN 10: 0-13-420267-8 ISBN 13: 978-0-13-420267-9 Package ISBN 10: 0-13-402711-6 ISBN 13: 978-0-13-402711-1 FOR THOMAS C. LOVITT (1930–2013) Pioneer Researcher, Champion Teacher. A Special Educator in Every Way. ABOUT THE AUTHORS William L. Heward, Ed.D., BCBA-D, is Professor Emeritus in the College of Edu- cation and Human Ecology at The Ohio State University, where he helped train special education teachers for 30 years. Dr. Heward has been a Fulbright Scholar in Portugal and a Visiting Professor of Psychology at Keio University in Tokyo and at the University of São Paulo, and he has lectured and given workshops for teachers in 20 other countries. Among the many honors Bill has received are Ohio State University’s highest recognition of teaching excellence, the Alumni Associa- tion’s Distinguished Teaching Award, and the American Psychological Association’s Division 25 Fred S. Keller Behavioral Education Award for lifetime achievements in education. His publications include seven other textbooks and more than 100 journal articles and book chapters. Bill has also written for the popular market. His book Some Are Called Clowns (Crowell, 1974) chronicles his five summers as a pitcher for the Indianapolis Clowns, the last of the barnstorming baseball teams. Sheila R. Alber-Morgan, Ph.D., BCBA, is Associate Professor of Special Education in the College of Education and Human Ecology at The Ohio State University. Dr. Alber-Morgan taught for seven years in inclusive K–12 classrooms in both urban and rural South Carolina and is now a teacher educator. She has authored more than 60 peer- reviewed research and practitioner articles, book chapters, textbook ancillaries, and the book Using RTI to Teach Literacy to Diverse Learners, K–8: Strategies for the Inclusive Classroom (Corwin Press, 2010). Sheila’s research, almost all of which has been designed and implemented in collaboration with classroom teachers, has focused on literacy interventions for students with and without disabilities and on strategies for promoting the generalization and maintenance of academic, functional, and social skills. Moira Konrad, Ph.D., is Associate Professor of Special Education in the College of Education and Human Ecology at The Ohio State University. Dr. Konrad has nine years of public school experience teaching students with a range of disabilities and has been involved in teacher preparation for more than 15 years. Moira’s pub- lications include more than 40 peer-reviewed articles on instructional efficiency, self-determination, literacy (written expression, reading and writing fluency), and curriculum-based measurement. She currently serves as Managing Editor for Career Development for Exceptional Individuals and Associate Editor for Intervention in School and Clinic and on the Editorial Board for Remedial and Special Education. iv P R E FA C E Special education is an ongoing story of people. It is the story of a preschool child with multiple disabilities who benefits from early intervention services. It is the story of a child with intellectual disabilities whose parents and teachers work together to ensure she participates in classroom and extracurricular activities with her peers. It is the story of a middle school student with learning disabilities who helps his parents and teachers plan an instructional program that builds on his strengths and addresses his needs. It is the story of a gifted and talented child who brings new insights to old problems, a high school student with cerebral palsy who is learning English as his second language, and a young woman with visual impairments who has recently moved into her own apartment and rides a city bus to work. Special education is also the story of the parents and families of exceptional children and of the teachers and other professionals who work with them. We hope you will find the Eleventh Edition of Exceptional Children an informa- tive, accessible, and interesting introduction to the ongoing story of special educa- tion. Whether you are an undergraduate in a preservice teacher training program, a student enrolled in a related human services program, or a general education teacher with years of experience, we encourage you to continue your study and involvement with children and adults with exceptionalities. NEW TO THIS EDITION Our primary goals for this edition remain the same as for previous editions: to pres- ent an informative and responsible introduction to the professional practices, trends, and research that define contemporary special education—an exciting, ever-evolving field. Some of the significant changes we have made in the 11th edition: This is the first edition of Exceptional Children designed as REVEL, an interactive eText. REVEL allows you to interact with course material on devices you use— laptops, tablets, and smartphones—anytime and anywhere, and apply new learn- ing and assessment strategies that weren’t possible in the past with a printed textbook. New REVEL features include point-of-use videos, teaching artifacts, and the opportunity to self-assess your learning. Videos. Each chapter has multiple videos that illustrate stories of students and their families, demonstrate evidence-based classroom teaching and assess- ment practices, and provide a glimpse into the work and lives of professionals who support exceptional children. Click on play button icons to launch the videos. Teacher Artifacts. The special educators featured in this text provide examples of actual materials used in their classrooms. These artifacts are practical tools for planning instruction, arranging learning environments, collecting data, en- gaging learners, and collaborating with families. The words CLICK HERE will hyperlink you to artifacts you can read and print. Self-Assessments. Each chapter opens with list of learning outcomes informing you of specific, results-oriented objectives to guide your study. Assess your mastery of these objectives by clicking on checkmark icons and taking self-assessment quizzes. v vi P R E FA C E New Content and Expanded Coverage. Every chapter of the 11th edition includes new information that reflects current research and practice. Significant changes include the following: Ten new chapter-opening essays and Tips for Beginning Teachers by special educators (Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 13, and 15) Expanded coverage of student involvement in the individualized education program process (Chapter 2) Greater emphasis on recognizing families’ strengths (“funds of knowledge”) and expanded discussion of parents as tutors (Chapter 3) Inclusion of new definitions and diagnostic criteria reflected in the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disor- ders (DSM-5) (Chapters 4, 5, 6, 7, and 11) Expanded discussion of task analysis as a tool for assessment and teaching (Chapter 4) Presentation of additional approaches to teaching math, reading, and writing for students with learning disabilities (Chapter 5) Additional examples of proactive, positive classroom management strategies (Chapter 6) Coverage of deficits in theory of mind by children with autism spectrum dis- order (Chapter 7) Newly updated timeline that provides historical context for understanding autism spectrum disorders by highlighting key events, practices, discoveries, and developments from their earliest beginnings to the present (Chapter 7) Expanded coverage on causes of autism, including neuropathology, genetic factors, and environmental factors (Chapter 7) Expanded discussion on distinguishing cultural and linguistic differences from communication disorders (Chapter 8) Additional strategies for working with students who stutter (Chapter 8) More extensive coverage of strategies for communicating with people who are deaf or hard of hearing and helping deaf students succeed in the classroom (Chapter 9) Expanded discussion and new examples of tactile learning materials (Chapter 10) More discussion of challenges with executive function for students with atten- tion-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (Chapter 11) Expanded coverage of adapted physical education (Chapter 11) Additional discussion of autosomal recessive disorders (Chapter 11) Expanded discussion of the importance, challenges, and considerations involved in ensuring that students with significant disabilities have meaningful access to the general education curriculum (Chapter 12) Additional special instructional considerations for students who are deaf-blind and those with traumatic brain injuries (Chapter 12) Expanded discussion of project-based and problem-based learning and cooperative learning for students who are gifted or talented (Chapter 13) More developed coverage of peer-mediated instruction for young children (Chapter 14) Discussion of strategies for teaching young children skills and behaviors related to play (Chapter 14) Discussion of self-directed video prompting for teaching transition-related skills to older students (Chapter 15) More than 500 new references to the latest research in special education cited throughout the text to support and further inform all new and revised content A F O C U S ON EXCEPTIONAL TEACHERS The story of special education is written every day by teachers serving the needs of exceptional children in a variety of settings. Fifteen of these exceptional teachers share their stories in these pages. The work of these educators is reflected in the narrative and the features of this text and shows how special educators use research-based instructional strategies to promote student achievement. Each chapter begins with a first-person essay by a special educator that reflects the joys, challenges, and realities of teaching exceptional children. From urban, sub- urban, and rural school districts across the country, the 15 Featured Teachers share personal wisdom gathered from their experiences teaching exceptional children in a variety of school settings. For example, Keisha Whitfield (Gahanna, Ohio) describes the importance of collaborating with colleagues to meet the needs of all students, Joshua Hoppe (Wai’anae, Hawaii) tells what he has learned about respecting the cultural and linguistic diversity of his students’ families, Jennifer Sheffield (Bowling Green, Kentucky) discusses the importance of open-ended learning opportunities for her gifted students, and Sarah Roberts (Colorado Springs, Colorado) explains how school- and community-based work experiences help her secondary students with disabilities make a successful transition to adulthood. Featured Teachers also have provided margin note commentaries, contributions to Teaching & Learning features, artifacts (instructional materials), videos, and tips for beginning teachers. Early Childhood Special Education 467 photos from my digital camera to my classroom computer, pasting a few of the most telling shots on a PowerPoint, and making copies on a printer Featured Teacher in the school work office. CLICK HERE to see an example of my take- home sheets. I take countless pictures during the school year. These photos are a power- ful, effective form of communication that lets parents and families see what Mark Fraley MARK FRALEY their children do in school. I get so excited when seeing families celebrate their children’s progress, when they begin seeing new possibilities that were Aspen Creek PreK-8 school originally crushed with a diagnosis or a traumatic event. Education, Teaching Boulder Valley School District Boulder, CO Credentials, and I teach 24 preschoolers with autism and developmental delays who attend Experience school for either morning or afternoon half-day sessions. I co-teach with an amazing general education preschool teacher, Nicolle Ertl. Our classrooms share a sliding door that we strategically open to create an integrated preschool model. Nicolle and I plan a similar sequence of activities so that F my students have frequent opportunities to interact with typically develop- ROM THE MOMENT THEY ARE BORN TO THE DAY THEY ENTER SCHOOL, ing peers and access the general education curriculum. This is an exciting children learn a phenomenal amount. Most children grow and develop in or- derly, predictable ways, learning to move about their world, communicate, and part of my job, and it works in large part because we have a team-based CHECKIN play. Typical rates and patterns of child development, however, contrast sharply with approach that puts students’ needs first. the progress of many young children with disabilities. For young children with dis- Click on the checkmark to When our students first arrive, they remain on their respective sides of the abilities to master many skills that most children acquire naturally, they need carefully begin thinking about this sliding door for arrival activities, circle time, and small groups. Then we planned and implemented early childhood special education services. chapter’s content. merge our two classrooms for recess, snack, and center time; the students can flow from one room to another and select where and with whom they would like to play. Our center time is very rich in opportunities for positive THE IMPORTANCE OF EARLY social interactions, and instead of having just 5 or 6 learning centers, we INTERVENTION are able to have 10 or more. The earlier intervention begins, the better. Burton White, who con- We often finish the day with a large group activity involving all of the students ducted years of research with typically developing infants and pre- in both classrooms. I make music a part of many activities throughout the schoolers at Harvard University’s Preschool Project, believes that the day. Music captures children’s attention and encourages them to partic- period between 8 months and 3 years is critical for cognitive and social ipate, and I have found that a musical rhyme or song can redirect inap- development: “to begin to look at a child’s educational development when he is 2 years of age is already much too late” (White, 1995, p. 4). propriate behavior such as fidgeting in line or refusing to wash hands. Our If the first years of life are the most important for children without dis- day ends with a slow-tempo song that helps children transition from the abilities, they are even more critical for children with disabilities, who, learning centers or large group activities to gathering their belongings and with each passing month, risk falling even further behind their typically lining up for the buses in an orderly manner. developing age mates. Collaborating with families is critical for student success. I make my classroom a welcoming place from day one by inviting the families to par- What Is Early Intervention? ticipate in volunteer opportunities and visits. Upon arrival to school, we In the early childhood and special education literature, the term talk with families and see how their children’s day has started. Did they early intervention often refers only to services provided to infants sleep well? Eat a good breakfast? Are they in a good mood? Significant and toddlers from birth through age 2 years. Early childhood special Bill Aron/PhotoEdit communication delays prevent many of my students from providing a sat- education refers to special education and related services provided isfactory answer when their parents ask, “What did you do in school to- to preschoolers ages 3 to 5 years. Early intervention consists of a day?” To help with that, I create take-home sheets by importing the day’s comprehensive system of therapies, educational, nutritional, child care, and family supports, all designed to reduce the effects of disabilities or The first years of life are critical for children prevent the occurrence of learning and developmental problems later with disabilities, who, with each passing in life for children presumed to be at risk for such problems (Gural- month, risk falling even further behind their nick, 2011). typically developing age mates. vii A F O C U S ON RESEARCH-BASED PRACTICES The foundation of special education is effective instruction provided by skilled teach- ers, day in and day out. Teaching & Learning features and video clips throughout the book describe and illustrate a wide range of effective instructional interventions from classroom management and peer support strategies for inclusion to curriculum modifications and suggestions for creating picture activity schedules for children with autism spectrum disorder. These features provide clear and practical guidelines for designing, implementing, and evaluating instruction for students with disabilities. TEACHING & LEARNING Each strategy described in the Teaching & Learning features is classroom tested and supported by scientific research documenting its effective- ness. A listing of all the Teaching & Learning features is included in the Teaching & Learning Table of Contents on page xxiv. Here is a sampling of the topics covered: It’s Good to Go Fast! Fluency-Building Promotes Student Achievement Whose IEP Is This? Behavior Traps: Turning Obsessions Into Motivational Gold Peer Buddies: Including Students with Severe Disabilities VIDEO CLIPS Each chapter includes numerous video clips illustrating prac- tices and perspectives. Some of these Teaching & Learning videos are embedded in the Teaching & Learning features, and others are sprinkled throughout the chapters. In High-Ability Cooperative Chapter 3, you can hear a parent’s per- Learning Groups spective on her daughter’s disability; in Chapter 5, you can watch a teacher Many gifted students enjoy working in cooperative learning groups where they can challenge each other intellectually and develop social interaction and leadership skills (Diezman & deliver an explicit instruction lesson; Watters, 2001; Huss, 2006). and in Chapter 9, you can see students WHAT ARE COOPERATIVE LEARNING GROUPS? Cooperative learning groups are small teams of students collaboratively completing academic tasks, solving prob- who are deaf sharing tips for helping lems, and achieving common goals. Well-designed cooperative learning groups promote development of academic and social skills. them succeed in the classroom. A text- HOW DO YOU TEACH COOPERATIVE LEARNING GROUP LESSONS? Jennifer Sheffield recommends the following guidelines. based introduction to each video identi- Step 1. Present a hook. Begin with a hook to get students excited fies what to look for, and in some cases, about what they’re going to do: a brainstorming activity, an analysis of an image, a riddle, a goofy skit, a video short— activities to complete. anything fun and intriguing! To introduce a flight and rock- etry lesson, I use a ping pong ball “launcher” made from a bendy straw and a funnel. I ask a couple students to blow into the straw to see how far they can launch the ping pong ball. The ball doesn’t budge because of Bernoulli’s principle, but the students don’t know that. Then everyone makes a Choral Responding: launcher and we start exploring the science behind it. Morning Warm-up Step 2. Give directions. Provide directions for the assignment and answer students’ questions. Teach students to acknowledge and encourage participation and input from each member of the group. Welcome suggestions from groups for process or Jennifer Sheffield products that may vary from the original assignment. Letting groups pursue their own twist if it’s reasonable is a good way to promote student ownership of their learning. Step 3. Have students self-select their groups. Give students 2 or 3 minutes to decide with whom they want to work. Each group should contain members with complementary skills: creative students with organized students, analytical students with intuitive students, good writers with good talkers, and so on. When the groups are set, don’t assign individual roles (e.g., leader, spokesperson, recorder); let the students make those decisions. Step 4. Provide time limits. Provide a time frame for the activity but be flexible. I tell my students it’s OK if they don’t always finish on time; they can share their ideas with the class and explain that they are still working on another facet of their presentation. Early finishers can observe other groups and return to their projects if they get some new ideas. When projects require multiple viii A F O C U S ON YOU, THE FUTURE TEACHER WeAshope you you can see, the an become students whose important partspecial of the education needs evolving story of we consider special in this education. chapter Many havein features a this greatinteractive many individual differences. eText focus on you, Although the futuregeneral teacher.statements To prepareabout for some your physical journey intodisabilities and health the field, we’ve conditions included numerous areopportunities appropriate,fora host you of to variables engage CHECKIN determine with the effects the content in newon andtheexciting child and his interactive ways: educationalself-assessments, needs. These variables teachinginclude arti- the degree facts, and tipsand for severity beginning of teachers. the impairment, age of onset, and environmental context. Click on the checkmark to Thus, general information and suggested guidelines form the basic content of this begin thinking about this INTERACTIVE SELF-ASSESSMENTS Each chapter includes a check in, several check chapter’s content. ups, and a check out. The Check In will activate your prior knowledge and prepare you to read the chapter. Each Check Up will assess your understanding of the chap- ter’s content. The Check Out will allow you to reflect on the chapter as a whole. CHECKUP Upon submission of each self-assessment, you will receive feedback to further guide your learning. Each Teaching & Learning feature concludes with a Your Turn activity in which Click on the checkmark to you apply the information presented. For instance, in Chapter 4, after you read about assess your understanding task analysis and see several examples, you will have an opportunity to write your of chapter content. own task analysis from a video clip and compare it with the task analysis created by the Featured Teacher. In Chapter 8, you will read about culturally appropriate communication assessment and then have the opportunity to watch and evaluate a CHECKOUT video of a student being assessed in Arabic. You will receive feedback after submit- ting your responses to Your Turn activities. Reviewing the key terms and summary may help you pre- pare for this Check Out. Teaching & Learning students must learn. Include all facts, concepts, and relationships students are ex- pected to learn on GNs. on the important facts, concepts, and relationships they need to learn. Don’t require students to write too much. Guided Notes: Helping All Students remaining information to provide structure for students’ note taking. Insert cues such Succeed in the General Education as asterisks, bullets, and blank lines to show students where, when, and how many facts or concepts to write. Curriculum responding during the lesson. Stop lecturing from time to time and ask a series of ques- tions, to which the students answer chorally or with response cards (see Chapter 6), referring to their GNs for answers as needed. WHAT ARE GUIDED NOTES? Guided notes are teacher-prepared handouts that “guide” a student through a lecture with standard cues and specific spaces in which example, students with severe writing deficits can use GNs that require less writing. to write key facts, concepts, or relationships. An example of GNs completed by an el- ementary student with learning disabilities during a lesson on rocks is shown in Figure Review this version of Guided Notes on rocks, adapted for a student with disabilities. Com- 5.10. To complete their GNs, students must respond throughout the lecture by listening, pare this version of GNs to the GNs in Figure 5.10, click on the checkmark, and answer the looking, thinking, and writing about the lesson’s content. In addition to requiring students following questions. YOURTURN to actively respond to curriculum and improving retention of course content, GNs can help students easily identify important information and produce an accurate set of notes to study. When teachers use GNs, they must prepare the lesson or lecture carefully, and 1. What three accommodations do you see in Form B? CLICK HERE they are more likely to stay on task with the lecture’s content and sequence. Teachers to see an example of Taylor’s can use GNs for teaching a wide range of skills and content across the curriculum. Fea- 2. What needs do these accommodations likely address? Guided Notes (GNs) for math. tured Teacher Taylor Gaddis uses GNs to teach math concepts and computation. 3. How would you explain to students why they’re not all using the HOW DO YOU MAKE GUIDED NOTES? Guided notes can support the presenta- same set of Guided Notes? (Hint: What did you learn from Taylor’s tion of virtually any academic content or skill area. The following are general guidelines lesson on fairness versus equality?) for creating Guided Notes. FIGURE 5. 10 Guided notes for a lesson on rocks Guided Notes: Rocks keyword because it sounds like strada and is easy to picture. Next, draw (or ask Rocks are classified by composition, students to imagine) a picture of the keyword and its referent doing something together. In this case, the interactive picture could show straw lying on a road Three classifications: (Figure 5.11). Finally, the teacher instructs the student to look at the picture and are formed when begins the following dialogue: Examples: Question: How do igneous rocks form? Write your answer below. The Italian word strada means road. The keyword for strada is straw. [show picture]. Remember this picture of straw lying on a road? Remember this picture are formed by of what? Good, straw lying on a road. Now, when I ask you for the meaning of strada, think first of the keyword, straw. Then think back to the picture with Examples: the straw in it, remember that the straw was on a road, and then retrieve the Question: How do sedimentary rocks form? Write your answer below. answer strada means road. Now what does strada mean? Good, strada means road. And how did you remember that? Good, you thought of the key word, are formed by straw, and remembered the picture of straw on the road. (Mastropieri & Scruggs, Examples: 2014, p. 257) Question: How do metamorphic rocks form? Write your answer below. The pegword method uses rhyming words for numbers (1 is “bun,” 2 is “shoe,” 3 is “tree,” and so on) when information to be remembered is numbered or ordered. For Homework: Select one kind of igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic rock, and use the internet to research the geographic locations where that rock forms. example, to remember that Newton’s first (or number 1) law of motion is that objects at rest tend to stay at rest, show a picture of a bun (1) resting. To remember that in- sects have six legs, create a picture of insects on sticks (6). ix x P R E FA C E TEACHING ARTIFACTS Each chapter includes Courtesy of Ananda Aspen and Liza Stack, California Autism links to instructional materials created by the authors, Featured Teachers, and other profession- als in the field. These artifacts provide concrete Professional Training and Information Network. examples of the evidence-based practices used in special education. For instance, in Chapter 10, you can click on pop-ups of tactile instructional ma- terials for students with visual impairments. It is our hope that you will use or adapt these tools for your unique teaching situations. TIPS FOR BEGINNING TEACHERS Each chapter culminates with practical, quick tips for beginning teachers on how to enhance student learning and avoid com- mon pitfalls in the classroom. These suggestions, offered by the Featured Teachers, range from tips for organizing your classroom, learning about students’ cultures, and successful co-teaching and collaboration with families, to handling the paperwork demands, minimizing stress, and celebrating each student’s accomplishments, no matter how small. Increase access to assistive technology that enhances the educational perfor- Classroom management: Research strategies and methods that have been mance and personal independence of individuals with disabilities. proven to provide effective classroom management. Give your students time Increase funding for special education. Teaching children with disabilities is ex- to learn your system but be prepared with a backup plan if it does not work. pensive. Laws and regulations calling for special education and related services Not all approaches work with every child. Consider individual behavior plans have limited value if the schools lack the financial resources to provide them. for students who need additional support. Use what motivates students and When Congress passed IDEA in 1975, it promised to provide federal funds for consider the age appropriateness of the plan. 40% of the “excess costs” of educating children with disabilities. Congress has Constantly strive to improve: Learn to teach; teach to learn. These six words never appropriated more than about 18% (Sack-Min, 2007). A bill being consid- should embody who you are as a teacher. Be a lifelong learner. Constantly ered by the U.S. House of Representatives Education and Workforce Committee research more effective ways to teach your students. Further your knowledge (H.R.551, IDEA Full Funding Act) would increase federal funding to the states by pursuing graduate courses. Actively seek out workshops and webinars to from the 17.7% level of funding in fiscal year 2015 to 40% by 2025. stay current. Most important, continually learn from your students. They are Improve the behavior and attitudes of people without disabilities toward those the true educators. with disabilities. Open more opportunities for individuals with disabilities to participate in the full range of residential, employment, and recreational options available to people without disabilities. CHECKUP Only time will tell how successful special education will be in meeting these chal- lenges. And, of course, special education does not face these challenges alone. Gen- eral education, adult service agencies (e.g., vocational rehabilitation and social work), Click on the checkmark to assess your understanding medical researchers and practitioners, government agencies, and society as a whole KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS of chapter content. must all help find solutions. accommodations free appropriate public least restrictive environment education (FAPE) (LRE) adequate yearly progress (AYP) functional curriculum manifestation determination alternate assessments handicap repeated reading assistive technology impairment SAFMEDS TIPS FOR BEGINNING TEACHERS by Danielle Kovach at risk incidence time delay CHECKOUT disability individualized education time trials Sail the Seven Cs of Special Education program (IEP) A special educator’s day is always an adventure. No matter how challeng- due process hearing universal design for learning Reviewing the key terms and ing things may get, these seven tips can help new teachers succeed in the individualized family service (UDL) summary may help you pre- am L. exceptional children plan (IFSP) pare for this Check Out. classroom. Heward, Willi Climate: Create an environment that emanates love, safety, happiness, and mutual respect for everyone. Don’t just tell students you care for them; show them with your daily actions: greet each student every morning, make eye contact, use encouraging words, and keep a positive attitude. Collaboration: To collaborate effectively, you should be open to giving and receiving ideas. This collaboration encompasses all stakeholders in a child’s education, including teachers, administrators, parents, paraprofessionals, therapists, child study team members, and the student. Communication: Keep an open, ongoing dialogue with parents through phone calls, conferences, email, and communication journals. Consider using online communication tools such as websites or social media. Construction: When constructing lesson plans and assessments, remember to be fair and flexible. Tasks should be challenging and engaging and should fit the method in which each student learns best. Consistency: If you say something, do it. Don’t waiver or deviate. Before you set an ultimatum, consider the consequences of your actions. Are you really going to take away recess for the entire year?  P R E FA C E xi RESOURCES AND SUPPORT FOR INSTRUCTORS Online Instructor’s Resource Manual The Instructor’s Resource Manual accompanying this text includes numerous rec- ommendations for presenting and extending text content. The manual identifies the learning outcomes for each chapter, discussion questions, and in-class activities (including those that use the interactive eText content) that build on cooperative group activities, projects, and reflection questions. Descriptions of the eText videos, the self-assessments available to students, hyperlinks to the latest bank of special education materials from The IRIS Center, and guidance. Vanderbilt, and guidance to Internet content are also provided for each chapter. The Instructor’s Resource Manual is available for download at www.pearsonhighered.com. Online PowerPoint Lecture Slides PowerPoint lecture slides highlighting major concepts and summarizing key content from each chapter of the text can be downloaded at www.pearsonhighered.com. Online Test Bank A test bank with multiple-choice, short answer, and essay questions can be used to formally assess students’ recognition, recall, and synthesis of factual content and con- ceptual issues from each chapter. TestGen TestGen is a powerful test generator that instructors install on a computer and use in conjunction with the TestGen test bank file for this text. Assessments can be created for both print and online testing. TestGen is available exclusively from Pearson Education publishers. Instructors install TestGen on a personal computer (Windows or Macintosh) and create tests for classroom assessments and for other specialized delivery options, such as over a local area network or on the Web. A test bank, which is also called a Test Item File (TIF), typically contains a large set of test items, organized by chapter and ready for use in creating an assessment, based on the related textbook material. The tests can be downloaded in the following formats: TestGen Testbank file—PC TestGen Testbank file—MAC TestGen Testbank—Blackboard 9 TIF TestGen Testbank—Blackboard CE/Vista (WebCT) TIF Angel Test Bank (zip) D2L Test Bank (zip) Moodle Test Bank Sakai Test Bank (zip) PROLOGUE A PERSONAL VIEW OF SPECIAL EDUCATION OUR PRIMARY GOAL IN WRITING THIS BOOK is to describe the history, practices, advances, challenges, and opportunities that make up the complex and dynamic field of special education in as complete, clear, current, and accurate a manner as possible. This, of course, is much easier said than done: An author’s descriptions of anything he or she holds dear are influenced by personal views. Because our personal beliefs and assumptions about special education—which are by no means unique, but neither are they held by everyone in the field—affect both the substance and the tone of this book, we believe we owe you, the reader, an explicit summary of those views. So, here are 10 assumptions that underlie and guide our efforts to understand, contribute to, and convey the field of special education. People with disabilities have a fundamental right to live and participate in the same settings and programs—in school, at home, in the workplace, and in the com- munity—as do people without disabilities. That is, the settings and programs in which children and adults with disabilities learn, live, work, and play should, to the greatest extent possible, be the same settings and programs in which people without disabil- ities participate. People with disabilities and those without have a great deal to con- tribute to one another and to society. We cannot do that without regular, meaningful interactions in shared environments. People with disabilities have the right to as much self-determination as they can achieve. Special educators have no more important teaching task than that of helping students with disabilities learn how to increase autonomy over their own lives. Self-de- termination and self-advocacy skills should be featured curriculum components for all students with disabilities. Special education must expand and improve the effectiveness of its early identifi- cation and prevention efforts. When a disability or a condition that places a child at risk for a disability is detected early, the chance of lessening its impact (or prevent- ing it altogether) is greater. Great strides have been made in the early detection of physical disabilities, sensory impairments, and developmental delays in infants and preschoolers. Although systematic programs of early identification and prevention of less visible disabilities, such as learning disabilities and emotional and behavioral disorders, are less well developed, the field has made a commitment to doing just that with an approach called response to intervention (RTI) that you will read about in this edition. Special education must do a better job of helping students with disabilities transi- tion from school to adult life. Although increasing numbers of students with disabilities are leaving high school for college or a job, a place to live on their own, and friends with whom to share recreation and leisure activities in the community, such positive outcomes still elude far too many young adults with disabilities. Special education can- not be satisfied with improving students’ achievement on classroom-based measures only. We must work equally hard to ensure that the education students receive during their school years prepares them to cope with and enjoy the multifaceted demands and opportunities of adulthood. xii  P R O LO G U E xiii Special education must continue to improve its cultural competence. When a student with disabilities has the additional challenge of learning in a new or different culture or language, it is critically important that her teachers provide culturally re- sponsive curriculum and instruction. Teachers who are most effective combine funda- mentally sound instructional methods with sensitivity to and respect for each student’s heritage and values. School and family partnerships enhance both the meaningfulness and the effec- tiveness of special education. Professionals have too long ignored the needs of par- ents and families of exceptional children, often treating them as patients, clients, or even adversaries instead of realizing that they are partners with the same goals. Some special educators have given the impression (and, worse, believed it to be true) that parents are there to serve professionals, when in fact the opposite is more correct. We must recognize that parents are a child’s first—and, in many ways, best—teachers. Learning to work effectively with parents and families is one of the most important skills a special educator can acquire. The work of special educators is most effective when supplemented by the knowl- edge and services of all of the disciplines in the helping professions. It is foolish for special educators to argue over territorial rights when more can be accomplished for our students when we work together within an interdisciplinary team that includes our colleagues in medical and health services, behavior analysis, counseling, social services, and vocational rehabilitation. xiv P R O LO G U E All students have the right to an effective education. An educator’s primary re- sponsibility is designing and implementing instruction that helps students learn useful academic, social, vocational, and personal skills. These skills are the same ones that influence the quality of our own lives: working effectively and efficiently at our jobs, being productive members of our communities, maintaining a comfortable lifestyle in our homes, communicating with our friends and family, and using our leisure time meaningfully and enjoyably. Instruction is ultimately effective when it helps students acquire and maintain positive lifestyle changes. To put it another way, the proof of the process is in the product. Therefore,... Teachers must demand effectiveness from the curriculum materials and instruc- tional tools they use. For many years, conventional wisdom has fostered the belief, still held by some, that teaching children with disabilities requires unending patience. We believe this notion does a great disservice to students with exceptionalities and to the educators—both special and general education teachers—who teach them. A teacher should not wait patiently for an exceptional student to learn, attributing lack of pro- gress to some inherent attribute or faulty process within the child, such as intellectual disabilities, learning disability, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, or emotional disturbance. Instead, the teacher should select and skillfully implement evidence-based practices and then use direct and frequent measures of the student’s performance as the primary guide for modifying those methods as needed to improve their effective- ness. This, we believe, is the real work of the special educator. Numerous examples of instructional strategies and tactics demonstrated to be effective through rigorous sci- entific research are described and illustrated throughout this text. Although you will not know everything you need to know to teach exceptional children after reading this or any other introductory text, you will gain an appreciation for the importance of explicit, systematic instruction and an understanding of the kinds of teaching skills a competent special educator must have. And finally, we believe that... The future for people with disabilities holds great promise. Special education has only begun to discover the myriad ways to improve teaching, increase learning, prevent and minimize conditions that cause and exacerbate the effects of disabilities, encourage acceptance, and use technology to compensate for the effects of disabilities. Although we make no specific predictions for the future, we are certain that we have not come as far as we can in learning how to help exceptional children and adults build and enjoy fuller, more independent lives in the school, home, workplace, and community. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many people contributed ideas, insights, and suggestions that greatly enhanced the substance and quality of each of the past editions of this text, and the Eleventh Edition of Exceptional Children is no exception. Fifteen special educators graciously shared their knowledge and personal experience through the Featured Teacher Essays and the Tips for Beginning Teachers in each chapter: Carey Creech-Galloway, Mark Fraley, Taylor Gaddis, Erin Michelle Hedges, Joshua Hoppe, Danielle Kovach, Dave Martinez, Mark Mautone, Michelle Nielson-Pugmire, Cecelia Peirano, Sarah Roberts, Jennifer Sheffield, Jessica Stultz, Sandie Trask-Tyler, and Keisha Whitfield. These special educa- tors represent the very best of our field. We are grateful for their contributions to this book and inspired by their commitment to exceptional children. The currency and quality of this text have been enhanced tremendously by origi- nal essays, videos, instructional examples, and artifacts contributed by the following: Amanda Aspen and Liza Stack (both, California Autism Professional Training and Infor- mation Network); Amy Aenchbacher (Cherokee County School District, Canton, GA); Diane Browder and Belva Collins (both, University of North Carolina at Charlotte); Helen Cannella-Malone, Carrie Davenport, Tom Fish, Vicki Graff, Timothy Heron, Terri Hessler, Diane Sainato (all, Ohio State University); Jill Dardig (Ohio Dominican Univer- sity); Anke Gross (University of Cologne, Germany); Carolyn Hughes and Erik Carter (both, Vanderbilt University); Eli Jimenez (Georgia State University); Michael Johnson (Florida School for the Deaf and Blind); Karen Koehler (Ohio State School for the Blind) and her husband Jay; Rick Kubina (Penn State University); Catherine Mau- rice (Association for Science in Autism Treatment); Stacie McConnell (Reynoldsburg, OH, public schools); Rebecca Morrison (Oakstone Academy); Mary Salmon (Columbus Public Schools); Lorraine Thomas (Fayette County Public Schools, Lexington, KY); Michael Wehmeyer (University of Kansas); and Kevin Yang (LibraryLyna). A special shout out goes to Morten Haugland and the teachers, students, and parents of Haugland Learning Center (Columbus, OH) for hosting an extensive video shoot exclusively for this edition. Thank you Ryan Baide, Pat Billman, Ann Bishop, Erica Butler, Desiree Cook; Andrew Drobnick, Emily Fankhauser, Kathy Fox, Katie Guy, Makynna Henneman, Lauren Obong, and Amy Peal. Thanks also to videographers: Baldwin, Andy Eggert, Jon Fintel, Alberto Viglietta, and Alex Williams. The following professors reviewed the previous edition and provided comments and suggestions that contributed to this edition: Dr. Mary M. Jensen, Western Illinois University, Dr. Phyllis Egby, University of Portland, Dr. Mary Gozza-Cohen, Widener University, and Dr. Lynn Woolsey, University of the Cumberlands. At its best, special education is a team game. The same can be said for publishing. We thank the tremendous team of professionals at Pearson Education. Acquisitions Editor Ann Castel Davis, who has worked in one capacity or another on nearly every edition of this book, provided appreciated support and encouragement for the elev- enth edition. Developmental Editor Linda Bishop deserves special recognition for her invaluable contributions at every stage: from revision planning meetings and video shoots to assessment development and author therapy. xv xvi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Copyeditor Danielle Shaw improved the manuscript with a balance of technical skill and respect for an author’s writing style. Thanks to Miriam Schaerf for her careful proofreading and to Lumina Datamatics, Inc. for constructing the name and subject indexes. Most of all, we continue to benefit from the support and love of our families—wife Jill Dardig, son Lee, and daughter Lynn; husband David Morgan; and husband Mark Engelhardt, daughter Charlotte, and son Isaiah. BRIEF CONTENTS PREFACE v PROLOGUE A Personal View of Special Education xii PART I FOUNDATIONS FOR UNDERSTANDING SPECIAL EDUCATION CHAPTER 1 The Purpose and Promise of Special Education 1 CHAPTER 2 Planning and Providing Special Education Services 36 CHAPTER 3 Collaborating with Families 72 PART II EDUCATIONAL NEEDS OF EXCEPTIONAL STUDENTS CHAPTER Intellectual Disabilities 107 4 CHAPTER Learning Disabilities 141 5 CHAPTER Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 179 6 CHAPTER Autism Spectrum Disorder 218 7 CHAPTER Communication Disorders 255 8 CHAPTER Deafness and Hearing Loss 290 9 CHAPTER Blindness and Low Vision 322 10 CHAPTER Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, Health Impairments, 11 and Physical Disabilities 357 CHAPTER 12 Low-Incidence Disabilities: Multiple Disabilities, Deaf-Blindness, and Traumatic Brain Injury 396 CHAPTER 13 Gifted and Talented 433 PART III SPECIAL EDUCATION ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN CHAPTER 14 Early Childhood Special Education 465 CHAPTER 15 Transition to Adulthood 496 POSTSCRIPT Developing Your Own View of Special Education 529 Glossary G-1 References R-1 Name Index NI-1 Subject Index SI-1 Credits C-1 xvii CONTENTS PROLOGUE CHAPTER 2 A Personal View Planning and Providing of Special Education xii Special Education Services 36 The Process of Special Education 38 PART I Prereferral 38 Evaluation and Eligibility Determination 41 Foundations for Understanding Program Planning 43 Special Education Placement 43 Progress Monitoring, Annual Review, and Reevaluation 43 Disproportionate Representation of Students from CHAPTER 1 Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Groups 44 Recognizing and Combating Cultural and Racial Bias The Purpose and Promise in Referral and Identification Procedures 46 of Special Education 1 Collaboration and Teaming 47 Collaboration 47 Teaming 48 Who are Exceptional Children? 3 Co-teaching 49 How Many Exceptional Children are There? 4 Individualized Education Program 49 Why are Exceptional Children Labeled IEP Team 50 and Classified? 5 IEP Components 50 Labeling and Eligibility for Special Education 6 IEP Functions and Formats 52 Possible Benefits of Labeling and Classification 6 IEP Problems and Potential Solutions 54 Possible Disadvantages of Labeling Least Restrictive Environment 56 and Classification 6 Continuum of Alternative Placements 58 Alternatives to Labeling and Classification 7 Determining LRE 60 Why are Laws Governing the Education of Exceptional Inclusive Education 60 Children Necessary? 8 Promoting Inclusion with Cooperative An Exclusionary Past 8 Learning 62 Separate Is Not Equal 9 Arguments For and Against Full Inclusion 62 Equal Protection 10 Where Does Special Education go from Here? 66 The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act 10 Major Principles of IDEA 11 Other Provisions of IDEA 14 Legal Challenges to IDEA 17 CHAPTER 3 Related Legislation 19 What is Special Education? 22 Collaborating with Special Education as Intervention 22 Families 72 Special Education as Instruction 26 A Definition of Special Education 28 Support for Family Involvement 74 Current and Future Challenges 28 Parents: Advocating for Change 74 Close the Research-to-Practice Gap 31 Educators: Seeking Greater Effectiveness 74 xviii  CONTENTS xix Legislators: Mandating Parent and Family Behavioral Excesses and Challenging Involvement 75 Behavior 119 Understanding Families of Children with Disabilities 76 Positive Attributes 120 Family Responses to a Child with Disabilities 76 Prevalence 120 The Many Roles of the Exceptional Parent 77 Causes 121 Changing Needs as Children Grow 81 Causes 121 Developing and Maintaining Family–Professional Prevention 124 Partnerships 81 Educational Approaches 125 Principles of Effective Communication 83 Curriculum Goals 125 Identifying and Breaking Down Barriers to Instructional Methods 129 Parent–Teacher Partnerships 85 Placement Options 135 Working with Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Acceptance and Membership 136 Families 88 Understanding and Respecting Cultural Differences 88 CHAPTER 5 Culturally Responsive Services for Families 90 Home–School Communication Methods 91 Learning Face-to-Face Communication 92 Disabilities 141 Written Communication 94 How Do You Write Appreciation Letters? 96 Telephone Communication 98 Definition 143 Other Forms of Parent Involvement 99 Federal Definition 144 Parents as Tutors 99 National Joint Commission on Learning Disabilities Parent Education and Support Groups 100 Definition 145 Parent-to-Parent Groups 100 American Psychiatric Association Parents as Research Partners 102 Definition 146 How Much Parent Involvement? 103 Characteristics 146 Reading Problems 147 Written Language Deficits 148 Math Underachievement 150 PART II Poor Social Skills 150 Educational Needs Attention Problems and Hyperactivity 151 Behavior Problems 151 of Exceptional Students Low Ratings of Self-Efficacy 151 The Signature Characteristic 151 Prevalence 152 CHAPTER 4 Causes 153 Brain Damage or Dysfunction 153 Intellectual Heredity 154 Environmental Factors 155 Disabilities 107 Identification and Assessment 155 Intelligence and Achievement Tests 155 Definitions 109 Criterion-Referenced Tests 156 IDEA Definition 109 Curriculum-Based Measurement 156 AAIDD Definition 110 Identifying Learning Disabilities with Response Classification of Intellectual Disabilities 110 to Intervention 158 Identification and Assessment 111 Educational Approaches 162 Assessing Intellectual Functioning 111 Reading 163 Assessing Adaptive Behavior 113 Writing 165 Characteristics 114 Math 166 Cognitive Functioning and Learning 114 Content Area Instruction 167 Adaptive Behavior 117 Addressing Non-academic Needs 172 xx CONTENTS Placement Options 172 Communication and Language Deficits 223 General Education Classroom 172 Repetitive, Ritualistic, and Unusual Behavior Patterns 224 Consultant Teacher 173 Insistence on Sameness 224 Resource Room 174 Unusual Responsiveness to Sensory Stimuli 225 Separate Classroom 174 Cognitive Functioning 225 Challenging Behavior 229 Asperger Syndrome 229 CHAPTER 6 Positive Attributes and Strengths of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder 230 Emotional or Behavioral Prevalence 230 Disorders 179 Causes 231 Neuropathology 232 Genetic Factors 232 Definitions 181 Environmental Factors 232 Federal Definition of Emotional Disturbance 181 Identification and Assessment 233 CCBD Definition of Emotional or Behavioral Disorder 182 Screening 234 Characteristics 183 Diagnosis 235 Externalizing Behaviors 183 Educational Approaches 236 Internalizing Behaviors 184 Critical Importance of Early Intensive Behavioral Academic Achievement 187 Intervention 236 Intelligence 188 Applied Behavior Analysis 239 Social Skills and Interpersonal Relationships 188 Visual Supports: Helping Students with Autism Cope with Juvenile Delinquency 188 Social Situations and Increase Their Independence Prevalence 190 in the Classroom 241 Gender 191 Distinguishing Unproven Treatments from Evidence- Causes 191 Based Practices 246 Biological Factors 191 Placement Options 248 Environmental Factors 192 General Education Classroom 248 A Complex Pathway of Risks 194 Resource and Special Classrooms 250 Identification and Assessment 194 Screening Tests 196 Direct Observation and Measurement of Behavior 197 Functional Behavioral Assessment 197 CHAPTER 8 Educational Approaches 199 Curriculum Goals 199 Communication Research-Based Teaching Practices 202 Disorders 255 Fostering Strong Teacher–Student Relationships 210 Focus on Alterable Variables 211 Definitions 257 Placement Options 211 Communication 257 Challenges, Achievements, and Advocacy 213 Language 258 Speech 260 Typical Speech and Language Development 261 CHAPTER 7 Communication Disorders Defined 264 Autism Spectrum Characteristics 265 Speech-Sound Errors 265 Disorder 218 Fluency Disorders 267 Voice Disorders 268 Definitions 220 Language Disorders 268 IDEA Definition of Autism 221 Prevalence 269 The DSM Definition of Autism Spectrum Disorder 221 Causes 270 Characteristics 222 Causes of Speech Impairments 270 Impaired Social Interactions 223 Causes of Language Disorders 270  CONTENTS xxi Identification and Assessment 271 Educational Approaches 309 Screening and Teacher Observation 271 Oral/Aural Approaches 309 Evaluation Components 271 Total Communication 312 Assessment of Communication Disorders in Children American Sign Language and the Bilingual-Bicultural Whose First Language Is Not English or Who Approach 313 Use Nonstandard English 274 Which Approach for Whom? 315 Educational Approaches 276 Placement Options 315 Treating Speech-Sound Errors 276 Postsecondary Education 316 Treating Fluency Disorders 277 Treating Voice Disorders 278 Treating Language Disorders 278 CHAPTER 10 Augmentative and Alternative Communication 281 Placement Options 284 Blindness and Low Monitoring 284 Vision 322 Pull-Out 284 Collaborative Consultation 285 Definitions 324 Classroom or Curriculum Based 285 Legal Definitions of Blindness 324 Separate Classroom 285 Educational Definitions of Visual Impairment 325 Community Based 286 Age at Onset 326 Combination 286 Characteristics 327 Cognition and Language 327 Motor Development and Mobility 328 CHAPTER 9 Social Adjustment and Interaction 328 Prevalence 330 Deafness and Hearing Types and Causes of Visual Impairments 330 How We See 330 Loss 290 Causes of Visual Impairments 331 Educational Approaches 334 Definitions 292 Specialized Instruction for Students Who Are Blind 334 How We Hear 293 Specialized Instruction for Students with Low Vision 338 The Nature of Sound 294 Expanded Core Curriculum 343 Characteristics 295 Placement Options 349 English Literacy 295 Inclusive Classroom and Itinerant Teacher Model 349 Speaking 296 Residential Schools 352 Academic Achievement 296 Equal Opportunity and the Right To Be Different 353 Social Functioning 297 Prevalence 297 Types and Causes of Hearing Loss 297 Types and Age of Onset 297 CHAPTER 11 Causes of Congenital Hearing Loss 300 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Causes of Acquired Hearing Loss 301 Identification and Assessment 302 Disorder, Health Impairments, Assessment of Infants 302 and Physical Disabilities 357 Pure-Tone Audiometry 302 Speech Reception Test 302 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder 359 Alternative Audiometric Techniques 303 Definition and Diagnosis 360 Classification of Hearing Loss 304 Eligibility for Special Education 360 Technologies and Supports 304 Prevalence 361 Technologies That Amplify or Provide Academic Achievement and Comorbidity with Other Sound 304 Disabilities 361 Supports and Technologies That Supplement or Replace Causes 361 Sound 307 Treatment 362 xxii CONTENTS Definitions of Health Impairments and Physical Causes of Low-Incidence Disabilities 406 Disabilities 367 Multiple and Severe Disabilities 406 Prevalence 368 Traumatic Brain Injury 407 Types and Causes 368 Deaf-Blindness 407 Epilepsy 368 Educational Approaches 408 Diabetes 370 Curriculum: What Should Be Taught? 408 Asthma 371 Instructional Methods: How Should Students with Severe Autosomal Recessive Disorders 371 and Multiple Disabilities Be Taught? 415 HIV and AIDS 373 Special Considerations for Students with Cerebral Palsy 373 Deaf-Blindness 421 Spina Bifida 375