Handbook of Black Studies PDF

Sage Reference Handbook of Black Studies For the most optimal reading experience we recommend using our website. A free-to-view version of this content is available by clicking on this link, which includes an easy-to-navigate-and-se...

Sage Reference Handbook of Black Studies For the most optimal reading experience we recommend using our website. A free-to-view version of this content is available by clicking on this link, which includes an easy-to-navigate-and-search-entry, and may also include videos, embedded datasets, downloadable datasets, interactive questions, audio content, and downloadable tables and resources. Author: P. Masila Mutisya, Louie E. Ross Pub. Date: 2010 Product: Sage Reference DOI: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412982696 Keywords: Afrocentricity, socialization, African Americans, Asante, African people, cultural identity, scale Disciplines: Race & Ethnicity, Race, Ethnicity & Migration, Black Studies, Sociology Access Date: July 8, 2024 Publisher: SAGE Publications, Inc. City: Thousand Oaks Online ISBN: 9781412982696 © 2010 SAGE Publications, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Sage Sage Reference © 2006 by Sage Publications, Inc. Afrocentricity and Racial Socialization among African American College Students P. MasilaMutisya and Louie E.Ross ALfrocentricity is characterized by the recognition that Africa is the origin of humankind (Asante, 1988). It is defined as “a perspective that allows Africans to be subjects of historical experiences rather than objects on the fringes of Europe” (Asante, 1980, p. 2). Today's Afrocentricity is an abstraction based on traditional African cultures before Europe and Arab influences (Mazrui & NoorShariff, 1994). It notes the connectedness and the cultural continuity of the African Diaspora or the spreading of African people throughout the world (Asante, 1988, 1993). A major characteristic of Afrocentricity is communalism or a more culturally oriented worldview over an individualistic one. It is inclusive of all people and stresses that one should live life robustly (Richards, 1980). It is believed that Afrocentricity has cultural values that have been passed down from generation to generation; however, there is debate as to the extent of how much has been passed down (Woodson, 1992; Blassingame, 1979) and the mode used—that is, an active or passive process, tacitly or openly expressed, or other mode (Boykin & Toms, 1985). Afrocentricity has been conceptualized as having several dimensions. For example, Asante (1994) notes that Afrocentric study is an orientation to data and facts that includes location, place, orientation, and perspec- tive. In the construction of an Afrocentric scale, Kambon (1992) discusses four competencies: (a) awareness/ recognition of a collective African identity and heritage, (b) general ideology and activity priorities placed on African survival and liberation, (c) specific activity (such as self-knowledge and African-centered values), and (d) a posture of resolute resistance toward anti-African forces and threats to African Diaspora survival. Grills and Longshore (1996) suggest that the seven principles of Nguzo Saba could be the basis of a simpler yet more comprehensive Afrocentric scale. Our own conceptualization involves (a) centeredness in African cul- ture and experience, (b) symbols (of African identity, philosophy, language, and culture), (c) the hierarchical orientation of life (adult orientation), (d) “twinness” of gender (equality of men and women and harmony be- tween genders), (e) universality and African Diaspora recognition (the recognition that although Africans have been scattered throughout the world, their culture and identity are still African), and (f) scholarship and re- search. As a concept, Afrocentricity can aid Africans to revitalize their cultural identity. Because of the negative impact of colonization, African identity revitalization seems to be necessary, especially for Africans who are no longer Handbook of Black Studies Page 2 of 12 Sage Sage Reference © 2006 by Sage Publications, Inc. living in Africa. Afrocentricity may assist individuals of African descent to have a better appraisal of their cul- ture and its values. Conceptual-Theoretical and Empirical Research on Afro- centrism and Racial Socialization Bell, Bouie, and Baldwin (1990) note distinct differences between the cultural orientation of African Americans and European Americans. The values of power, competition, material affluence, and physical gratification, as well as an overemphasis on physical characteristics and acquisition of things or objects are said to be part of Eurocentric culture (Bell et al., 1990; Myers, 1993; Marimba, 1994). The Afrocentric worldview is rooted in the historical, cultural, and philosophical tradition of African people. Afrocentric relationships encompass spiritual/character values, holistic relationships, and Afrocentric cultural consciousness (Asante, 1988, 1981, 1993; Bell et al., 1990). Some studies have espoused an Afrocentric worldview regarding male-female relationships (Asante, 1988, 1987). This model emphasizes that Afrocentric cultural values should constitute the foundation of African American relationships in which human character is stressed over physical characteristics (Johnson, Dupuis, Musial, Hall, & Gollnick, 2002; Van den Berghe, 1975). Racial socialization has been researched in the African American community (Taylor, Chatters, Tucker, & Lewis, 1991). Studies indicate that African American parents play a pivotal role in socializing children, help- ing them to understand norms, roles, statuses, and expectations of the larger society (Taylor et al., 1991). Parental socialization is but one of the many types of socialization agents. Gender role socialization and sex- ual orientation are modes of socialization that play a large role in children's identity. Other socialization agents may include schools, religion, peers, media, and others. Racial socialization in the African American commu- nity attempts to prepare Black children for the realities of being African American in America. Limited studies have noted that about one-third of African American parents refused to discuss racial socialization messages with their children (Taylor et al., 1991). Racial socialization encourages the teaching of cultural pride and preparation for racial discrimination to fam- ilies (Boykin & Toms, 1985; Stevenson, Reed, & Bodison, 1996). It is an important aspect of raising children. However, it may be quite difficult for African American parents to provide their children with positive group and self-identity because they are likely to face discrimination and prejudices from the larger society (Billingsley, Handbook of Black Studies Page 3 of 12 Sage Sage Reference © 2006 by Sage Publications, Inc. 1992). African American youths are said to have been exposed to double consciousness, partly African American and partly European American (Du Bois, 1903), or socialized toward a triple quandary that includes cultures of the mainstream, minority, and Black cultural orientations (Boykin & Toms, 1985). Many African American youths value Eurocentric cultural systems and appear to reject systems of African values. African American orientations encompass adaptive reactions, coping styles, and adjustments to Eurocentric cultures. Several structural forces have been significantly correlated with whether parents impart racial socialization awareness to their children. Kunjufu (1983) noted differential socialization among African American girls and boys. The author also argues that girls are trained, whereas boys are spoiled. In a second study, African American males were cautioned more about racial barriers, whereas young women were more likely to be socialized with reference to issues of racial pride (Taylor et al., 1991). Taylor and colleagues also noted that mothers who were socialized in neighborhoods that were about half Black and White were more likely to so- cialize their children more toward racial awareness than mothers who lived in predominantly African Ameri- can communities. Proximity to Whites may account for some of these varying types of socialization. These types of socialization, however, are more reactive in nature. For most, African American reactive coping styles may continue in both mainstream and African American institutions of higher education. A component of Afro- centrism, which is about socializing African people toward cultural pride, seems to be proactive in nature (Asante, 1990). An Afrocentric perspective is needed because it presents positive behavioral outcomes for people of African descent. Afrocentrism recognizes Eurocentrism and acknowledges the fact that hegemony has displaced symbols of cultural heritage of African people, such as language and philosophy. Assimilation through hegemonic-driven coercion has led many African people to assume Eurocentric worldviews not by their choice. There may be people of African descent who may not perceive themselves as Africans because of either the internalization of oppression or a lack of awareness of their Afrocentricity, resulting from con- tradictions in their environment. Typically, people with such experiences are forced to change their cultural identities (Freire, 1994). Because Afrocentricity is a process that calls for centeredness in terms of heritage and worldview, it also em- powers those who perceive their worldview as marginal to Europe. According to Asante (1988), people of African descent had little or no choice in the process of dislocation. Developing a sense of cultural identity for African people can facilitate a positive worldview. Although superior scholarship and truth drive Afrocentric theory, Afrocentricity does not advocate superiority. Handbook of Black Studies Page 4 of 12 Sage Sage Reference © 2006 by Sage Publications, Inc. It does not accept, however, the hegemonic nature of Eurocentrism, Arabcentrism, or any other centrism that discriminates through hegemony (Asante, 1990, 1994; Mazrui & NoorShariff, 1994). Asante (1988) states, for example, “Afrocentricity resembles the black man, speaks to him, looks like him, and wants for him what he wants for himself” (p. 7). The purpose of this study was to develop composite variables that measure elements of “Afrocentricity.” Kam- bon (1992) has done considerable work toward the construction of an African self-consciousness scale. The study examined the following questions: Are the variables identified as measures of Afrocentricity and racial socialization reliable? Is there a relationship between the composite variables of Afrocentricity and racial socialization? Do interitems of the Afrocentricity variables positively correlate with interitems of the racial socializa- tion variables? Construct validity has been used for scales that have not been standardized. Construct validation involves the specification of the theoretical relationship. In this case, we have noted the theoretical relationship between the two scales. Empirical relationships between the measures must be examined and interpreted in terms of how they clarify construct validation (Carmines & Zeller, 1982). Theoretically, we expected Afrocentricity and racial socialization to take place within the same context. Therefore, we expected the two scales to be related. We also expected positive interitem correlations between the Afrocentrism and racial socialization variables. Methods Sample Subjects in this study were college students enrolled at two historically Black institutions in the southeastern part of the United States—one historically Black public university with an enrollment of about 6,000 and one historically Black private college with an enrollment of about 2,000. The sample was selected using conve- nience sample. The total number of respondents was 508. However, when selecting only African Americans, the final JVwas 453 (38% males, 62% females). Handbook of Black Studies Page 5 of 12 Sage Sage Reference © 2006 by Sage Publications, Inc. Procedure Students from mainly introductory sociology classes from the two universities were asked to complete a 45- to 50-minute survey during class time. Almost all students agreed to participate. Students were promised anonymity and were not asked their names or any identifying information. Instrument The instrument was developed from the assumptions derived from Afrocentric theory by (Asante, 1988, 1981, 1993; Bell et al., 1990; Kambon, 1992) and others discussed in the literature. The instrument contained sev- eral background questions and statements. Using face validity, these questions were combined into six state- ments that were general measures of Afrocentricity and seven statements that were general measures of racial socialization (see Table 3.1). The Afrocentric scale variables were general measures of cultural identity and pride. The racial socialization scale variables sought to measure various types of racial socialization from family members and others during the students' upbringing. All statements were coded 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neither agree nor disagree, 4 = agree, and 5 = strongly agree. Cronbachs alpha is a mea- sure of interitem consistency. Alphas range in value from 0 to 1. Cronbachs alpha reliability for the combined Afrocentricity variables was.79, and alpha reliability for the combined racial socialization variables was.70. The alpha reliability coefficients were adequate and suitable for inclusion in the scales (Carmines & Zeller, 1982). See Table 3.1 for a description of the statements. Table 3.1 Reliabilities of Afrocentricity and Racial Socialization Scales Item (statement from questionnaire) Scale 1: Afrocentricitya 1. It is important for African Americans to develop a sense of dignity, consciousness, and pride. 2. African Americans should try to learn more about Africa, its people, culture, and languages. 3. An African American should feel close enough to other African Americans to regard them as sisters and brothers. 4. African Americans should try to fight the American emphasis on the superiority of everything White by a counteremphasis on the beau- ty and dignity of Black people. 5. It is correct for Black people in this country and around the world to call themselves Africans. Handbook of Black Studies Page 6 of 12 Sage Sage Reference © 2006 by Sage Publications, Inc. 6. African Americans should take special interest in the work of African American writers, artists, and musicians. Scale 2: Racial Socializationb 1. My parents stressed the importance of race and to try to get ahead in life. 2. My family life experiences have prepared me to deal with a world that does not always treat Blacks as equals to Whites. 3. I have been socialized to recognize and develop strategies for coping with racism and discrimination. 4. It was always stressed in upbringing that life is not always equal and fair, especially if you are Black. 5. The traditions and life values of my family and ethnic cultural group were stressed during my upbringing. 6. I was socialized to maintain a positive perspective about myself and the Black community. 7. Exposure to different cultures, people, and situations was a major part of my upbringing. a. Alpha =.79. b. Alpha =.70. Analysis Data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS). For Question 1, we computed reliabilities on the items of Afrocentricity and Racial Socialization Scales. For Question 2, we performed a Pearson moment correlation between the Afrocentricity and Racial Socialization Scales. For Question 3, we performed Pearson moment correlations for each item from the Afrocentrism Scale with each item of the Racial Socialization Scale. Results As noted, reliabilities for both composite variables were adequate to combine into scales (see Table 3.1). Table 3.2 shows the correlation between the composite variables Afrocentricity and racial socialization. This relationship was strong and positive (p <.001)—that is, the greater the levels of Afrocentricity, the greater the racial socialization (or vice versa). Also, almost all interitems of Afrocentricity are significantly related to almost all items of the Racial Socialization Scale (Table 3.3). All significant relationships were positive, the Handbook of Black Studies Page 7 of 12 Sage Sage Reference © 2006 by Sage Publications, Inc. expected direction. Discussion The purpose of this exploratory study was to ascertain if the variables measuring Afrocentricity and racial socialization demonstrated adequate reliability and to ascertain if there was a relationship between Afrocen- tricity and racial socialization. Both composite variables were found to be reliable and positively related. We also wanted to examine construct validity. In this case, we wanted to examine the relationship between the two scales because theoretically, they might take place within the same social context. We examined the relationship of each Afrocentricity-related item with each item of the Racial Socialization Scale. Almost all items showed significant correlations, and all significant correlations were in the expected (positive) direction. This finding enhances construct validity. Findings note that if parents socialize their children regarding race, they also socialize them about Afrocentric Handbook of Black Studies Page 8 of 12 Sage Sage Reference © 2006 by Sage Publications, Inc. related issues (and vice versa). Because both scales in this study were interrelated, it appears that all types of socialization may occur within the same general context. That is, when parents or others discuss issues regarding racial socialization, they also discuss issues related to Afrocentric identity, or it is most likely that Afrocentric messages are imparted through racial socialization. A more comprehensive Afrocentric scale might be developed to incorporate additional dimensions of the scale. Background and other variables could be added to explore associations with these various dimensions of the proposed scale. It is particularly important to note the strength of these relationships. This would allow researchers to gain greater clarity about the specific roles that background and other variables might have on the socialization of African American children, adolescents, and young adults. There is a strong need to study Afrocentricity in the general population and to expand beyond university students. It has been somewhat thought that non-Afrocentric orientations can have a negative impact on African Amer- icans and their interpersonal relationships (Bell et al., 1990). As we enter the 21st century, it is important to note that African Americans are increasing demographically There is a great need to develop more positive identities among youth and adolescents as well as offer a framework of socialization for survival and leader- ship. Educational leadership and teaching should focus on being proactive rather than reactive, and it should be aimed at liberating and humanizing African American cultural identity, which has not been the norm in the past. Future studies could explore the relationship between Afrocentricity, racial socialization, and other posi- tive outcomes such as happiness and self-esteem. Implications There are also educational implications. Culturally responsive teaching is needed now more than ever (Delpit, 1996; Hernandez Sheets & Hollins, 1999). Curricula should include cultural identity components that view cultural differences between African Americans and European Americans as positive and not stereotypical. Teachers should recognize the African American cultural identity differences as positive and integrate them in teaching African American students, as well as allowing non-African Americans to become aware of the positive attributes and uniqueness of these cultural differences. American students should be able to “see themselves” in the curriculum. Schools at all levels might offer and reinforce those courses, experiences, and interactions that foster Afrocentric ideas and beliefs through African American Studies and African languages, emphasizing cultural heritage. Approaches might lend themselves to intracultural, intercultural, and cross-cul- Handbook of Black Studies Page 9 of 12 Sage Sage Reference © 2006 by Sage Publications, Inc. tural methods in their dissemination that would lead to a positive cultural identity that seems to be lacking among some African Americans. This appears not to be the case in most schools in the United States, espe- cially when it comes to teaching culture and languages. There is more emphasis on diversity in teaching and learning today. However, the content emphasizing an Afrocentric curriculum, specifically African languages is still not as evident. Limitations This study was based on a convenience sample of university students at two historically Black universities and may not be generalizable to the larger population. The questionnaire was constructed from assumptions about Afrocentric theory. We also assumed that the students understood the items and honestly responded to them. References Asante, M. K. (1980). Afrocentricity. Buffalo, NY: Amulefi. Asante, M. K.Notes on demystification of the intercultural encounter. Communication Yearbook5 (1981). 345–352. Asante, M. K. (1987). The Afrocentric idea. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Asante, M. K. (1988). Afrocentricity. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press. Asante, M. K. (1990). Kemet, Afrocentricity and knowledge. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press. Asante, M. K.Racing to leave the race: Black postmodernists off track. The Black Scholar23(3, 4) (1993). 50–51. Asante, M. K. (1994). Malcolm X as cultural hero and other Afrocentric Essays. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press. Banks, J. A. (2001). Cultural diversity and education: foundations, curriculum and teaching. Boston: Allyn & Handbook of Black Studies Page 10 of 12 Sage Sage Reference © 2006 by Sage Publications, Inc. Bacon. Bell, Y. R., Bouie, C. L., Baldwin, J. A.Afrocentric cultural consciousness and African-American male-female relationships. Journal of Black Studies21(2) (1990). 163–189. Billingsley, A. (1992). Climbing Jacob's ladder: The enduring legacy of African-American Families. New York: Touchstone. Blassingame, J. W. (1979). The slave community: Plantation life in the antebellum South. New York: Oxford University Press. Boykin, A. W., & Toms, F. (1985). Black child socialization: A conceptual framework. In H. P. McAdoo & J. L. McAdoo (Eds.), Black children: Social, educational, and parental environments (pp. 33–51). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Carmines, E. G., & Zeller, R.A. (1982). Reliability and validity assessment: Quantitative applications in the social sciences. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Delpit, L. (1996). Other people's children: Cultural conflict in the classroom. New York: New Press. Du Bois, W. E. B. (1903). The souls of Black folk. Chicago: McClurg and Co. Freire, P. (1994). The pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Herder & Herder. Grills, C., Longshore, D.Africentrism: Psychometric analyses of a self-report measure. Journal of Black Psy- chology22(1) (1996). 86–107. Hernandez Sheets, R., & Hollins, E. R. (Eds.). (1999). Racial and ethnic identity in school practice: Aspects of human development. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Johnson, J. A., Dupuis, V. L., Musial, D., Hall, G. E., & Gollnick, D. M. (2002). Introduction to the foundations of American education. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Kambon, K. K. (1992). The African personality in America: An African-centered framework. Tallahassee, FL: NUBIAN Nation. Kunjufu, J. (1983). Countering the conspiracy to destroy Black boys. Chicago: African American Images. Marimba, A. (1994). Yurugu: An African-centered critique of European cultural thought and behavior. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press. Handbook of Black Studies Page 11 of 12 Sage Sage Reference © 2006 by Sage Publications, Inc. Mazrui, M. A., & NoorShariff, I. (1994). The Swahili: Idiom and identity of African people. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press. Myers, L. J. (1993). Understanding and Afrocentric world view: Introduction to optimal psychology. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt. Richards, D. M. (1980). Let the circle be unbroken. Trenton, NJ: Red Sea Press. Stevenson, H. C., Reed, J., Bodison, P.Kinship social support and adolescent racial socialization beliefs: Ex- tending the self to family. Journal of Black Psychology22(4) (1996). 498–508. Taylor, R. J., Chatters, L., Tucker, M. B., & Lewis, E. (1991). Developments in research on Black families: A decade review. In A. Booth (Ed.), Contemporary families: Looking forward, looking back (pp. 275–296). Min- neapolis, MN: National Council on Family Relations. Van den Berghe, P. L. (Ed.). (1975). Race and ethnicity in Africa. Nairobi, Kenya: East African Publishing House. Woodson, C. G. (1992). The miseducation of the Negro. Washington, DC: Associated Publishers. Afrocentricity socialization African Americans Asante African people cultural identity scale https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412982696 Handbook of Black Studies Page 12 of 12