HBS&DS: Introduction to Human Body PDF

HBS&DS: Introduction to Human Body Pharmacy Technician Year 1 - group of organs that work together in LESSON 1: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY: WHAT the body to perform a complex function THEY ARE...

HBS&DS: Introduction to Human Body Pharmacy Technician Year 1 - group of organs that work together in LESSON 1: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY: WHAT the body to perform a complex function THEY ARE 7. Organism - The human being 1. Anatomy - Studies the structure of the body MAJOR ORGAN SYSTEMS - Came from greek word that means 1. Integumentary System dissect - Consists of skin, hair, and nails - EX: describes what the heart looks like, - Covering for the body how big, etc. - Regulates body temperature 2. Physiology - Contains structures for sensation - Describes how the body functions 2. Skeletal System - Ex: how the heart pumps blood - Basic framework of the body - Pathophysiology: describes the - Consists of bones, joints, and cartilage consequences of the improper - Protects and support body organs functioning of the body - Enables us to move around - Bone Marrow: produce most of the THE BODY’S LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION blood cells 3. Muscular System - Skeletal Muscle: attach to the bones & responsible for movement of skeleton and posture - Cardiac Muscle: found in heart & enable heart to pump blood - Smooth Muscle: found in various organs and tubes, helps move body fluids 4. Nervous System - Consists of brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sense organs - Sensory nerves will bring information to the spinal cord and brain - Our brain performs all those higher-level 1. Atoms functions - the basic particles of the chemical 5. Endocrine System elements - Contains numerous glands that secretes 2. Molecules hormones and chemical substances - a group of two or more atoms that form - Regulates body activities (e.g growth, the smallest identifiable unit reproduction, metabolism, and water 3. Cells balance) - Basic unit of life 6. Circulatory System - Organized larger molecules - Consists of the blood, heart, and blood 4. Tissue vessels - a group of cells that have similar - Pumps and transport blood throughout structure and that function together as a the body unit - Carries nutrients and oxygen to all the 5. Organs body’s cells - a part of the body that is made up of 7. Lymphatic System cells and tissues that perform a specific - Made up of lymph nodes, lymphatic function vessels, lymph, and other lymphatic 6. Organ Systems organs 1 HBS&DS: Introduction to Human Body Pharmacy Technician Year 1 - Important role in fluid balance - Anterior (Ventral) : Toward the front - Defends the body against pathogens surface (e.g belly surface) and foreign substances - Posterior (Dorsal): Toward the back 8. Immune System surface - Defense system that protects the body 3. Medial and Lateral - Widely distributed throughout the body - Imagine a line drawn through the middle 9. Respiratory System of your body, left & right - Contains the lungs and other structures - Mideal: toward the midline of the body that conduct air to the lungs - Lateral: away from the midline of the - The oxygen is picked up by the blood body and distributed throughout the body 10. Digestive System 4. Proximal and Distal - Organs designed to ingest food and - Proximal: nearer to the point of break it down attachment, often the trunk - Distal: part is farther away from the 11. Urinary System point - Consists of kidneys, ureters, bladder 5. Superficial and Deep and urethra - Superficial: located on or near the - Excrete waste products through the surface of the body urine - Deep: away from the surface of the - Control the water, electrocyte, and body acid-base balance in the body 6. Central and Peripheral 12. Reproductive System - Central: the part is located in the center - Enable humans to reproduce - Peripheral: away from the center HOMEOSTASIS: STAYING THE SAME PLANES OF THE BODY Homeostasis - Homeo = Staying, Stasis = Staying - Body’s ability to maintain a stable internal environment in response to a changing environment - Homeostatic Mechanisms: Mechanisms that help to maintain homeostasis - Homeostatic Imbalance: results in disease or dysfunction ANATOMICAL POSITION - Body is standing erect 1. Sagittal Plane - Face forward - Divides the body lengthwise - Arms at the side - Right and left portions - Toes and palms of the hands directed forward 2. Frontal Plane - Divides the body into anterior and RELATIVE POSITIONS posterior - Front and back 1. Superior and Inferior - Also called as Coronal Plane - Superior: Above another part or closer 3. Transverse Plane to head (e.g head is superior to chest) - Divides the body horizontally - Inferior: Below another part or closer to - Upper and lower body feet (e.g chest is inferior to head) 2. Anterior and Posterior 2 HBS&DS: Introduction to Human Body Pharmacy Technician Year 1 REGIONAL TERMS DIVISIONS INTO FOUR QUADRANTS AND NINE REGIONS CAVITIES OF THE BODY - The organs (viscera) are located within the LESSON 2: BASIC CHEMISTRY cavities of the body Matter Two Major Cavities: - Anything that occupies space and has weight 1. Dorsal Cavity - Chemistry is the study of matter - Located toward the back of the body - Three states - Has two divisions a. Solid: definite shape and volume a. Cranial Cavity b. Liquid: takes the shape of the container b. Spinal (vertebral) Cavity c. Gas: has neither shape nor volume 2. Ventral Cavity - Two Changes: - Located toward the front of the body a. Physical Change - Two divisions: b. Chemical Change a. Thoracic Cavity b. Abdominopelvic Cavity Elements - Matter composed of atoms that have the same number of positive charges in their nuclei - All matter, living or dead, is composed of elements - Four elements that make up about 96% of human body weight: a. Carbon b. Hydrogen c. Oxygen d. Nitrogen - Trace Elements: present in tiny amounts, but essential for life 3 HBS&DS: Introduction to Human Body Pharmacy Technician Year 1 - Atomic Number: the number of protons in the Atoms nucleus - Smallest unit of an element with that element’s - Atomic Mass: sum of the numbers of protons chemical characteristics and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom - Elements are composed of atoms, the basic unit - Isotope of matter a. A different form of the same atom; - Three Subatomic Particles: same atomic number, different atomic a. Protons: carry a positive electrical mass charge b. Often unstable and their nuclei break b. Neutrons: carry no electrical charge down or decay c. Electrons: carry a negative electrical c. Radioisotopes: unstable isotopes charge d. Radioactivity: spontaneous break down (decay) Electron Shells - Surround nucleus in orbits called electron shells or energy levels - Each shell can hold a specific number of electrons: a. Inner (1st) shell: 2 electrons b. 2nd and 3rd shell: 8 electrons each - The only electrons that are important for chemical bonding are the electrons in the outermost shell Chemical Bonds - Atoms are attracted to each other because they want to achieve a stable outer electron shell - Electrical attraction between atoms Three types of Chemical Bond 1. Ionic Bond: caused by a transfer of electrons between atoms 2. Covalent Bond: Involves a sharing of electrons by the outer shells of the atoms (next page) 4 HBS&DS: Introduction to Human Body Pharmacy Technician Year 1 3. Hydrogen Bond: an intermolecular attraction, not caused by transfer of electrons or sharing of electrons by outer shells of the atoms Electrolytes and Ionization - When an electrolyte breaks apart in solution, the electrolyte is said to dissociate or ionize Ions - Atoms or groups of atoms that carry an electrical charge - Ions are formed when electrons in the outer shell are lost or gained - Two types of Ions a. Cations: positively charged b. Anions: negatively charged - Electrocytes a. substance that forms ions when it is dissolved in water Molecules and Compound b. Capable of conducting an electrical - Molecule: when two or more atoms bonded current together - Compound: Molecules formed by two or more different atoms - Water is considered both a molecule and a compound 5 HBS&DS: Introduction to Human Body Pharmacy Technician Year 1 - Alkalosis Some Important Compounds and Molecules a. Too few H+ ions 1. Water b. pH greater than 7.45 - Most abundant compound in the body - Universal solvent - Temperature regulator - Ideal lubricant - Crucial part of most chemical reactions - Protective mechanism 2. Oxygen - Composed of two oxygen atoms and exists in nature as a gas - The air we breathe contains 21% oxygen 3. Carbon Dioxide - Compound that consists of one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms - CO2 is a waste product and must be eliminated from the body Chemical Reactions - The interaction of atoms of molecules or compounds to form new chemical combinations - Catalysts: chemical substances that speed up the rate of a chemical reaction - Enzymes: Proteins that serve as catalysts - Most chemical reaction require a catalysts 1. Acids - An electrolyte that dissociates into H+ (Hydrogen Ion) and an anion - Sour - Hydrochloric Acid can cause severe burns Energy 2. Bases - Ability to perform work - Substance,m, often OH- (hydroxyl ion), - Our body depends on a continuous supply of that combines with H+ to make a energy solution less acidic - Without energy, the body ceases to function - Base has a bitter taste and is slippery - Chemical energy stored in the muscle is like a soap converted into a mechanical energy - The conversion of energy in the body is The pH Scale generally accompanied by the release of heat - pH: Unit of measurement indicating how many hydrogen ions are in a solution Six Forms of Energy - pH scale: ranges from 0 to 14 1. Mechanical: Energy that causes movement - Midpoint of scale: pH 7, or neutral 2. Chemical: Energy stored in chemical bonds - Acidosis 3. Electrical: energy released from the movement a. Too many H+ ions of charged particles b. pH less than 7.35 4. Radiant: energy that travels in wave 6 HBS&DS: Introduction to Human Body Pharmacy Technician Year 1 5. Thermal: energy transferred because of a - Two types of Solutions temperature difference a. Aqueous Solutions: if water is the 6. Nuclear: energy released during the decay of solvent radioactive substances such as isotopes b. Tinctures: if alcohol is the solvent Suspensions and Precipitates Energy Transfer - Mixtures with relatively large particles - Energy used to power the body comes from the - Colloidal Suspension: particles remain food we eat suspended within the liquid - Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP): Energy - Precipitates: Solids are formed and fall out of transfer molecule solution during a chemical reaction - Three parts of ATP a. Base LESSON 3: CELLS b. Sugar c. Three phosphate groups Cells - Basic units of living matter Source of Energy - The structural and functional unit of all living - As the food is broken down, energy is released matter - This energy is transferred to ATP so that it can - Considerably in size, shape, and function be used by the cells of the body - Cell structures reflect their specialized functions Storage of Energy Mixtures - Combination of two or more substances that can be separated by ordinary physical means Cell Membrane - Ex: A sugar-iron mixture can be separated by a - Also called plasma membrane magnet - Encases the cell - Separates intracellular material from Solutions extracellular - Have two parts that remain evenly distributed - Chief function: selection of substances allowed (e.g., normal saline) to enter or leave the cell a. Solute: substance present in smaller - Since the membrane chooses the substances amount; is the substance being allowed to cross it, the membrane is dissolved semipermeable b. Solvent: part of solution present in - Substances can move across in two ways: greater amount; does the dissolving 7 HBS&DS: Introduction to Human Body Pharmacy Technician Year 1 a. They can dissolve in the lipid portion of - Composed of: the membrane, as do oxygen and a. Cytosol: medium composed of water carbon dioxide and dissolved solute; organelles b. By flowing through the pores (water and suspended in the cytosol electrically charged substances) b. Organelles: little organs - Found outside the Cell membrane a. Cilia: contains the cellular contents; Mitochondria selects what enter and leaves the cell - Power house/plant of the cell b. Flagellum: single long hair for - Tiny, slipper-shaped organelles swimming movement of the sperm - The more metabolically active the cell, the c. Microvilli: accordion-like folds in the greater the number of mitochondria membrane; increase transport of water - Site of the adenosine triphosphate production and dissolved solute - Two Layers a. Outer Layer: Smooth b. Inner Layer: Has many folds called cristae Inside the Cell Nucleus Ribosomes - Control center of the cell (controls the workings - Sites of protein synthesis of the entire cell) - Fixed Ribosomes: attached to the endoplasmic - Contains the genetic information and controls all reticulum protein synthesis - Free Ribosomes: float freely within the - Surrounded by double-layered nuclear cytoplasm membrane - Contains large pores Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) - Found inside the nucleus - Network of membranes within the cytoplasm a. Nucleoplasm: gel-like substance - It form channels through which substances b. Nucleolus: involved in synthesis of move ribosomes - Two Types: c. Chromatin: threadlike structure that a. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum contains genes (RER): Fixed ribosomes on surface; d. Chromosomes: DNA-containing rough sandpaper-like appearance structures b. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum e. Nuclear Membrane: separates (SER): No ribosomes; site of lipid and nucleoplasm from the cytoplasm steroid synthesis Cytoplasm Golgi Apparatus - A gel-like substance found inside the cell but - Puts finishing touches on protein after synthesis outside the nucleus on RER 8 HBS&DS: Introduction to Human Body Pharmacy Technician Year 1 - Pachanges protein in Golgi Membrane 2. Facilitated Diffusion - A helper molecule within the membrane Lysosomes assist with the movement of substances - Breakdown waste for “housekeeping” within the from higher to lower concentration cell - Membranous sacs containing powerful enzymes - Lysosomal enzymes breakdown intracellular water and debris Cytoskeleton - Microfilaments and microtubules that form spindles and help separate the chromosomes during mitosis - Helps maintain the shape of the cell and assists the cell in various forms of cellular movement Centrioles - Paired, rod-shaped, and short microtubular 3. Osmosis structure - Movement of water (solvent) from area - Help separate chromosomes during mitosis with more water to area with less water - The water compartments are separated Passive Transport Mechanism by a semipermeable membrane 1. Diffusion - Movement of a substance from an area of higher concentration to one of lower concentration - Equilibrium: point at which concentration is equal and no further net diffusion occurs 9 HBS&DS: Introduction to Human Body Pharmacy Technician Year 1 2. Endocytosis 4. Tonicity - Taking in or ingestion of substances by - Ability of a solution to affect the volume the cell membrane and pressure within a cell - Phagocytosis: engulfing of solid particles by the cell membrane (cellular eating) - Pinocytosis: Engulfing of liquid droplets (cellular drinking) 5. Filtration - Movement of water and dissolved substances from an area of higher pressure to an area of lower pressure - Water and dissolved substances are pushed 3. Exocytosis – secretion of cellular products out of the cell (protein, debris) Cell Division - Types of Cell Reproduction a. Mitosis: bodily growth and repair b. Meiosis: sex cells only - Cell Cycle: the sequence of events that a cell Active Transport goes through one mitotic division to the next 1. Pumps - Move substances from area of lower Two phases of cell cycle concentration to area of higher 1. Interphase concentration a. First gap phase (G1) - Require input of energy (ATP) b. Phase (S) c. Second gap phase (G2) 10 HBS&DS: Introduction to Human Body Pharmacy Technician Year 1 Cell Differentiation 2. Mitosis Stem Cells - Relatively undifferentiated or unspecialized cells whose only function is the production of additional unspecialized cells - The rate of stem cell division varies with the tissue type a. The stem cells within the bone marrow and skin are capable of diving more than once a day b. The stem cells in adult cartilage may Mitosis (M Phase) remain inactive for years - Four Phases a. Prophase Disorders of Cellular Growth b. Metaphase - Abnormal cell growth creates tumors c. Anaphase a. Benign (noncancerous) d. Telophase b. Malignant (cancerous) - Chromosomes line up and split into two identical - Cells extend and invade surrounding tissue sets (chromatids) - Apoptosis leads to cell death - Ends with cytokinesis: Cell membrane pinches a. Helps rid the body of old, unnecessary, to create two identical cells and unhealthy cells - *Necrosis: death of cells or group of cells LESSON 4: CELL METABOLISM Metabolism - Series of chemical reactions necessary for the use of raw materials - Anabolism a. Reactions that build larger, more complex substances from simpler substances b. Require an input of energy in the form of ATP 11 HBS&DS: Introduction to Human Body Pharmacy Technician Year 1 - Catabolism 2. Disaccharides a. Reactions that break down larger, more - Double-sugar compounds complex substances into simpler - Made when two monosaccharides are substance linked together b. Releases energy that is converted into ATP and used to run the body 3. Polysaccharides - Many-sugar compounds - Linked together in straight chains, and others in branched chains Carbohydrates - Are organic compounds composed of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen - Sugars: shorter monosaccharides and disaccharides - Starches: longer chain polysaccharides Carbohydrates are classified according to size: 1. Monosaccharides - Single-sugar compounds - Sugars containing 3-56 carbons 12 HBS&DS: Introduction to Human Body Pharmacy Technician Year 1 - Many hormones secreted by endocrine glands Uses of Glucose stimulate gluconeogenesis - Burned immediately for fuel - Stored as glycogen and burned as fuel later Lipids (Fats) - Stored as fat and burned as fuel later - Organic compounds commonly called fats and oils Breakdown of Glucose - Fats are solid at room temperature, oils are 1. Anaerobic Catabolism: Oxygen absent liquid - Glycolysis: anaerobic process occurs - Lipids found most commonly in the body: in the cytoplasm a. Triglycerides: three long chains of fatty - Glucose → lactic acid acids attached to one small glycerol 2. Aerobic Catabolism: Oxygen Present molecule - Glucose → carbon dioxide, water, and b. Phospholipids: formed when ATP phosphorus containing group attaches to one of the glycerol sites c. Steroids: Cholesterol body can also synthesize cholesterol in the body Uses of Lipids 1. Source of energy Making of Glucose 2. Component of cell membranes and myelin - The body must have a constant supply of sheath glucose for fuel 3. Synthesis of steroids - Glucose can be broken down in the cells as a 4. Long-term storage of energy source of energy - Glucose can be made from non-carbohydrate Good and Bad Cholesterol substances 1. Very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) - Glucogenesis: Making glucose from - Contain mostly triglycerides non-glucose sources (such as, protein) - Role: transport triglyceride to adipose a. Important in blood sugar regulation tissue and muscle 13 HBS&DS: Introduction to Human Body Pharmacy Technician Year 1 Uses of Proteins 2. Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) - Synthesis of hormones, enzymes, antibodies, - Cholesterol is the core lipid plasma, and muscle proteins, hemoglobin, and - Role: Deliver cholesterol to non-hepatic most cell membranes tissue - If needed, can be broken down as source or 3. High-density lipoprotein (HDL) energy for ATP production - Cholesterol is the core lipid - If needed, can be broken down and converted to - Role: carry cholesterol from peripheral glucose (gluconeogenesis) tissues to liver for excretion Urea Protein - Waste product of amino acid breakdown - Most abundant organic matter in the body - Most nitrogen is recycled for new amino acids - Almost every chemical reaction in the body is - Extra nitrogen forms toxic ammonia regulated by an enzymes - Liver removes NH3 from blood and converts it to - Proteins are essential to life urea - Participate in every body function - Kidney excrete urea in urine a. Enzymes b. Hormones c. Hemoglobin d. Contractile muscle protein e. Plasma proteins f. Antibodies g. Structural proteins Amino Acids - Building blocks of Protein - All amino acids have an amine group and acid group - Joined by peptide bonds, amino acids build peptides and proteins - Essential Amino Acids: must be included in diet - Nonessential Amino Acids: body can Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids synthesize these - Nucleotide: Composed of a sugar, a phosphate - Amino acids are joined together by peptide group and a base bonds a. Adenine - Peptide bond: formed when the amine group of b. Thymine amino acid joined with the acid group c. Guanine - Polypeptide: many amino acids are joined d. Cytosine together - Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA - Proteins can bond with other organic a. Composed of nucleotides compounds 14 HBS&DS: Introduction to Human Body Pharmacy Technician Year 1 - tRNA reads code on mRNA (translation) Base Pairing - Amino acids are correctly aligned to form - DNA is a double-stranded nucleotide (ladder) peptides and proteins - Rungs of the DNA ladder are formed by base pairing a. Adenine with thymine b. Cytosine with guanine Base Sequencing: Genetic Code - Genetic information for protein synthesis stores on one strand - Order of three bases= code for one amino acid mRNA: Code copier for protein synthesis - mRNA uses base pairing to copy the code on a DNA strand (transcription) - mRNA detaches, leaves the nucleus, and goes to the ribosomes in cytoplasm tRNA: Code reader for protein synthesis - tRNA connects to a single amino acid in cytoplasm 15