Rise of the Seljuk Empire PDF

# Chapter 3: Muslim Dynasties ## The Rise of the Seljuk Empire The Seljuk Empire was an important but short-lived empire that, at its strongest, stretched across a large area from western Anatolia (modern Turkiye) through central Asia, across to the Middle east and to the Hindu Kush mountain range...

# Chapter 3: Muslim Dynasties ## The Rise of the Seljuk Empire The Seljuk Empire was an important but short-lived empire that, at its strongest, stretched across a large area from western Anatolia (modern Turkiye) through central Asia, across to the Middle east and to the Hindu Kush mountain range and the Persian Gulf. It was founded by a warlord called Seljuk as the Samanid Empire collapsed and expanded by his two of his grandchildren, the brothers Tughril Beg (990-1063ce) and Chaghri Beg (989–1060ce). The empire was ruled by Oghuz-Turks who were people living in the steppes of Central Asia and Mongolia, and spoke the southwestern branch of the Turkic language. The Seljuks ruled using the same approach as the neighboring peoples, placing family members in key roles, and giving control of areas of land to younger brothers and nephews of the ruling family, and to clansmen. ## The Achievements of the Seljuk Empire 1. **Culture**: This was a multi-ethnic empire, with Turkic languages and Persian spoken. The empire's culture was heavily influenced by the Persian and Turkic civilizations as well as the people of the Eurasian Steppes (grasslands). 2. **Governance**: As the empire expanded the Seljuk generals were given large regions to control, and as was standard at the time, leading government roles were often shared amongst their family members. Further expansion to the border with China continued under the next Seljuk Emperor, Malik Shah. 3. **Military Power**: The nature of warfare changed as the empire developed. At first, tribal groups and their families went on campaigns together. Later, a more professional army of perhaps 400,000 men, with nomadic Turkmen, and enslaved mainly non-Muslim Mamluk troops became the main source of military power. The Sultan also had his own force of guards. As a result, the Seljuks were an important force during the First Crusade (1096-1099ce), with some initial success; and at the time of the alliance during the Second Crusade (1147-1149ce). 4. **Social Reforms**: The social structure of the Empire consisted of the Sultans on the top, followed by Amirs, who were the governors. The Begs were regional military commanders, who also had a significant influence on society. Malik Shah's Persian Viziers, Nizam al-Mulk and Taj al-Mulk were responsible for social reforms including: - the foundation of Nizamiyyah University at Baghdad; - the Iqta system, a tax system where officials called mugti or wali were granted control of land, and were responsible for paying the tax on that agricultural land to the government, while being able to levy local taxes on the land users and owners. 5. **Art and Architecture**: Beautiful and distinctive muqarnas, or vaulted ceilings were part of the design of new Masjids, which also often included coloured ceramic tiles created locally. Glazed ceramics with a distinctive series of blue decoration are also a feature of the era. Archaeologists have found many pottery objects including models of houses, pottery toys and figures from the Seljuk period. ## How Did the Seljuk Empire End? Ahmad Sanjar, Malik Shah I's son, took the empire by defeating each of his three brothers and a nephew and went on to rule most of Persia (modern Iran) and then the empire. A defeat and capture in 1141ce meant the loss of a section of the empire, and being held prisoner by other Seljuks until his escape in 1156ce. The empire collapsed as Turkmen groups sacked Khorasan. Decline continued and in 1194ce the Khwarazmian Empire took all the Seljuk lands except the Sultanate of Rum in Anatolia after the army of Shah Takash defeated Togrul III, the last Seljuk Sultan. Mongol invasions from the 1260s then split the remaining Anatolian lands, although one of the beyliks (administrative area led by a Bey) under the Ottomans would later rise to greatness, take over the others, and form what was the great Ottoman Empire. ## Where Was the Fatimid Caliphate? This Caliphate, centered on Egypt from 969CE, covered much of North Africa from the Atlantic, along the Southern Mediterranean to the Red Sea. At its strongest point, it also ruled as far South as Sudan, covering parts of North Africa: modern Algeria, Libya, Morocco, Mauritania, and Tunis. It included Sicily and lands of The Levant (modern Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine-the modern Middle East), and part of modern Türkiye. The social structure of the Fatimid caliphate featured the imams (spiritual heads) as the leaders of the caliphate. The empire also had a dense network of missionaries who worked to spread the influence of their beliefs. ## What Were the Achievements of the Fatimid Caliphate? - State officials and soldiers were promoted on merit- the better your work the higher you could rise, regardless of birth or religious background. - Tax was used to pay for the large Mamluk or slave- soldier army. - At the height of the Fatimid period, trade across the Mediterranean and Indian Oceans and across into China brought wealth to merchants and spread ideas. - Wheat and flax from Egypt were exported around the empire. - Art developed partly through the glass, metal, and pottery crafts. - Distinctive architecture remains from the period. - There was some religious tolerance within the Caliphate. Jews and different branches of Christians including Copts were allowed to worship. - The Al-Azhar university was founded as a centre of Islamic learning, where its students studied the Quran and Islamic law, along with studies in logic, rhetoric, and grammar. This university soon became significant, playing a key religious, intellectual, and political role in the region and the world at large. **Did you know**: The Copts are members of the North African Christian community that pre-dates Islam. They are an ethnic as well as a religious group and speak Coptic-a late form of ancient Egyptian. 10 percent of the population of modern Egypt are Copts. ## How Did the Fatimid Caliphate End? The Fatimid's power started to decline from around 1000s, when tensions between North-African and Turkic elements of the army became problematic. Drought and famine during the 1060s in Egypt destroyed the food supply, the economy, and the trust of the people leading to a ten-year civil war that seriously weakened the caliphate. The North African troops fighting the Turkic troops, and the Berbers switched sides several times, adding confusion to the conflict. Eventually, the Governor of Acre, Badr al-Jamali, suppressed the rebellion by killing most of the Turkic forces. He was rewarded by being appointed the Vizier. As the military power lay with the Viziers, they effectively became the head of the state. Berber independence, Turkic invasions of the Levant and Syria, the Norman conquest of Sicily, and the Crusaders were military events that gradually reduced the Fatimid lands. In 1171CE, after the death of Nur ad-Din, Salah-ud-din-Ayyubi created his own empire: the Ayyubid Caliphate. ## What Area Did the Ayyubid Empire Cover? The empire ruled what is now Egypt, upper Iraq, Syria, and Yemen. In 1260, at its height, the empire covered the area marked green in the adjoining map. ## Salah-ud-din-Ayyubi Salah-ud-din-Ayyubi (1137-1193cE) established the Sultanate of Egypt in 1171CE when his boss, Nur ad-Din, died. Salah-ud-din was Nur ad-Din's general and Vizier, and because he defeated the Crusaders he is still seen as a heroic figure across much of the land he ruled and the eagle from his coat of arms is on some local flags! ## Why Was the Battle of Hattin Important? The Crusader state of Jerusalem was ruled by a reckless warrior, Raynald of Chatillon. When he attacked pilgrims on the Hajj to Makkah, Salah-ud-din ferociously struck against him in what became known as the Battle of Hattin, winning a decisive victory. Salah-ud-din's armies took control of the city of Jerusalem after the Battle of Hattin in 1187ce, marking an important turning point during the period of Crusades. The Muslim armies had either captured or destroyed a great majority of the Crusader forces, using clever military tactics such as directing their attacks to the horses of the Crusaders to impede their mobility. Salah-ud-din's victory at Hattin paved the way for the Conquest of Jerusalem later that year where the Muslim army took the city with very little bloodshed. Unlike when the Crusaders conquered the city ninety years earlier, Salah-ud-din granted non-Muslim safe passage and allowed them to take their belongings with them. His dignified treatment impressed the European Christians. ## What Was Distinctive About the Ayyubid Empire? The caliphate brought a period of success against invasion, and relative prosperity. There was a period of building in Jerusalem and Aleppo and the great cities, and the founding of many new madrasas and Masjids. The Ayyubids developed a reputation employing great military engineers, who developed the Citadel of Cairo and the defences at Aleppo. The Citadel of Cairo was constructed as a defense against the Crusaders, and became the seat of government for the caliphate for the next 600 years. Similarly, the defenses at Aleppo were a testament to the military engineering feats that the Ayyubids were capable of. The social structure of the Ayyubids had the emperor as the highest ruling authority. The sultanate also relied on mamluks (slave soldiers) for its military organisation. ## How Did the Ayyubid Empire Decline? When Salah-ud-din died in 1193, his sons fought amongst themselves to take control before being defeated by their uncle who became Caliph and was succeeded by his sons as Caliphs. Internal and external threats reduced the power and size of the Caliphate after the Emirs of Syria tried to break away in the 1240s. The Mongols also took some Ayyubid land as part of their military expeditions across the Islamic world, although Ayyubids rule continued in Egypt, the Levant, and Hijaz for some time. ## The Ottoman Empire ### Who Were the Ottomans? Osman I, the ruler of the Beylik (province) of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum, founded the empire. The word 'Ottoman' was a later anglicised version of ‘Osmania’, coming from a term that described his tribal followers. ### How Did the Ottoman Empire Grow? The Ottoman Empire pursued a process of expansion using military power, and expanded their control over Anatolia and into the European lands of the Balkans, often coming into conflict with the Byzantines and other Christian states such as Venice, a great sea-trading power. In 1387ce the (now Greek) port city of Thessaloniki was captured, two years later Serbian forces were defeated in Kosovo and the last Crusader forces were stopped at the Battle of Nicopolis in 1396CE. A seemingly unstoppable and growing Ottoman Empire was feared across Europe. In 1453ce, Sultan Mehmet ‘the Conqueror’, an Ottoman Caliph, attacked and captured Constantinople (present-day) Istanbul and over-ran the Byzantine Empire. The Janissaries were the elite corps in the Ottoman army who become a powerful political force in the state. They were not only a skilled military force, but eventually used their influence to determine the working of the state. ### The Social Structure of the Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire's population was categorised into five classes. At the top of the hierarchy was the ruling class with close ties to the sultan. Below them were the merchant class, who enjoyed relatively more freedom from government taxation and regulations. Another distinct group was the artisan class, who were organised into guilds. The most extensive group was the peasant class, who cultivated leased land passed down through generations. Lastly, there were the pastoral people, such as tribes and clans led by chiefs who swore allegiance to the Ottoman sultan and lived according to their own rules. ### What Was the Extent of The Ottoman Empire? ## How Did the Ottoman Empire End? The Ottoman decline began in the 1600s when its European neighbours had embraced the Renaissance and later experienced the Industrial Revolution. In 1683ce, Ottoman attempts to defeat the Hapsburg Empire in a siege at Vienna failed; in 1830 it lost Greece, and in 1878, Bulgaria, Romania, and Serbia gained independence from the Ottomans. The Ottomans still ruled a very large area, but were much weaker. Then Ottoman Sultan and his advisors backed the losing side in the First World War (1914-1918) and lost large amounts of land under the Armistice of Mudros (1918ce) and the Treaty of Sevres (1924). Demanding reform and modernization, Mustafa Kemal Ataturk (1881-1938ce) led a revolt against the Ottoman rulers, and deposed the Sultan in October 1923ce. He created the new Republic of Türkiye and became its first president. ## Mahmud of Ghazni and the Ghaznavids ### What Were Mahmud's Achievements? Mahmud's military tactics often included destroying non-Islamic sites, for example at Maratha and the Kesava Deo Temple (1017ce) and the idol at the Somnath Temple (1025ce). The Ghaznavids were not just warriors, they also traded, and so brought gunpowder, tea, paper, and fine pottery from China to the subcontinent, and cotton, sugar, spices, and perfumes from the subcontinent to China and Europe. Cities such as Lahore became important regional centres known for the cultural life. When Mahmud died, the Ghaznavid Empire broke up into smaller states, all fighting for power and the emphasis on culture and scholarship faded. Mahmud also wanted to make his cities beautiful centres of learning and culture. He encouraged many artists, architects, musicians, writers, and scientists to live there including the poet Firdosi, the historian Behqi, and the scientist Al-Biruni. ## Muhammad of Ghor Muhammad of Ghor is remembered as a great general of Muslim and Indian history. His expedition to India was to expand influence in the region. Muhammad of Ghor's attack on northern India in 1191ce resulted in a defeat at the (first) Battle of Tarain (1191ce). Some accounts suggest his army surrendered and he escaped. The next year, Muhammad of Ghor returned and this time was victorious against the Rajputs at the Second Battle of Tarain (1192ce). This battle was one of decisive in the history of South Asia. Until then, for nearly 500 years since the year 700ce, Muslim conquest had not advanced further than the Punjab: the Hindu kingdoms of the upper Ganga Valley had prevented it from flowing further. As a result of his victory, Mohammad Ghori and his generals took Delhi and made it their capital. After that, it was easier to both the east and the south from there. General Qutbuddin later campaigned. ## The Mamluk Dynasty ### Why Can the Mamluk Dynasty Be Described as Turbulent? The sixth Mamluk sultan, Muiz-ud-din Bahram, reigned ineffectively between 1240-1242ce and faced long in-fighting between the nobles, and was criticised for failing to defend the country against Mongol attacks. The Mongol sacking of Lahore triggered the siege of the Sultan's fort-palace and his murder by members of the Chihalgani (the group of the powerful forty nobles in court). The Chihalgani (also commonly known as the Forty) was the group the official nobility of slaves, set up by Iltutmush. This group played a key role in the administration of the Delhi Sultanate, and grew to be powerful enough to hold significant political sway during the time. Bahram's successor, Ala-ud-din Masud only held the title of Sultan for the next four years, and was the almost powerless puppet of some of the Chihalgani. His drinking and bad lifestyle led to his removal. ### How Did a Soldier Restore Stability? The Iltutmush's grandson Nasiruddin Mahmud, aged about seventeen, was installed as Sultan between 1246-1266ce, though he actually took little part in ruling. His father-in-law, General Ghiyas-ud-din Balban, usually referred to as Balban, ruled the Sultanate on behalf of Nasiruddin, then as Sultan in his own right to 1287ce. Balban ruled while the Sultan studied and worshipped. An investment in defensive forts protected the country from Mongol attacks and in 1260ce, Balban negotiated with Changez Khan's son over control of the Punjab. Their agreement reduced raids into the Sultanate. Balban faced opposition from the Turkic members of the ruling classes, and removed many rivals, thereby ending the influence of the Forty. ### How Did the Mamluk Dynasty End? After Balban died, seventeen-year-old Muiz ud-Din Qaiquabad became Sultan (ruled 1287-1290CE) until his chief general Jalal ud-Din Firuz Khilji murdered him and his son and established the Khilji dynasty. ## Timeline of Important Events of the Ottoman Empire | Date | Event | |---|---| | 1299 | Ottoman Empire begins | | 1387 | Port city of Thessaloniki was captured | | 1396 | Battle of Nicopolis | | 1453 | Takeover of Constantinople | | 1683 | A failed siege of Vienna | | 1830 | Loss of Greece from the empire | | 1878 | Serbia, Bulgaria, and Romania gained independence | | 1914-1918 | World War I | | 1918 | Armistice of Mudros | | 1921 | Treaty of Sevres | | 1923 | Kemal Ataturk established the Republic of Türkiye |