GSV 542 - Marine Surveying (Draft 4) PDF

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, ENUGU CAMPUS FACULTY OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES DEPARTMENT OF GEOINFORMATICS AND SURVEYING GSV 542 MARINE SURVEYING LECTURER: SURV. DR. AMOS UGWUOTI  TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER TOP...

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, ENUGU CAMPUS FACULTY OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES DEPARTMENT OF GEOINFORMATICS AND SURVEYING GSV 542 MARINE SURVEYING LECTURER: SURV. DR. AMOS UGWUOTI  TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER TOPIC CONTENTS PAGES 1. Introduction To Marine - Definition and Scope of Marine Surveying Surveying - The Importance and Role of Marine Surveyors - Types of Marine Surveys - Tools and Techniques used in Marine Surveying - Applications of Marine Surveying 2. Coastal Engineering - Introduction to Coastal Engineering - Reasons for and Importance of Coastal Engineering - Coastal Structures - Coastal Processes - Coastal Erosion - Coastal Protection Measures - Climate Change and Coastal Adaptations - Coastal Adaptation Strategies - Harbour and Port Development 3. Siltation and Erosion - Introduction - Types of Coastal Erosion - Causes of Siltation and Erosion in Coastal Environments - Human-Induced Causes of Siltation and Coastal Erosion - Coastal Development and its Impact on Siltation and Coastal Erosion - Impact of Siltation and Erosion on Coastal Ecosystems and Infrastructure - Measurement and Monitoring of Siltation and Coastal Erosion - Mitigation Strategies for Siltation and Coastal Erosion 4. Coastal Zone Management - … 1 5. Demarcation Of Harbour - Introduction Limits - Legal Framework - Considerations in Demarcation - Methods and Techniques Used - Maritime Zones - Definition of Important Terms and Concepts used throughout the Chapter 6. Shipping and Harbour - Introduction Laws - International Conventions and Treaties - National Legislation and Regulatory Framework - Safety and Navigation Regulations - Pollution Prevention and Environmental Regulations - Liability and Compensation in Maritime Incidents 7. Large Scale Surveys - - … Dredging 8. Effects of Wind And Wave - … On Sea Bed 9. Tidal Current - … Measurement 10. Introduction To - … Oceanography 2  CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION TO MARINE SURVEYING DEFINITION AND SCOPE OF MARINE SURVEYING Marine surveying is the professional practice of inspecting, assessing and evaluating [i.e., surveying] various aspects of ships, boats, marine structures and other related facilities. It entails conducting a thorough evaluation and investigation of vessels and their various components to ascertain their overall condition, adherence to regulations and appropriateness for particular applications. Its primary objective includes ensuring vessel safety & seaworthiness, identifying potential risks & damages, facilitating transactions (such as vessel purchases), assessing compliance with regulatory standards, and supporting insurance & claims processes. THE IMPORTANCE AND ROLE OF MARINE SURVEYORS Marine surveyors play a crucial role in providing reliable information and expert advice to shipowners, buyers, insurers, maritime authorities and other stakeholders involved in the maritime industry. Other than the inspection of water vehicles, marine surveyors are also involved in: offshore installations; investigating and inspecting port facilities & terminals, marine equipment & machinery and underwater structures; salvage and wreck removal as well as marine insurance. TYPES OF MARINE SURVEYS 1.) PRE-PURCHASE SURVEYS: As the name suggests, pre-purchase or pre-sale survey is conducted before the purchase of a vessel to get a comprehensive assessment of the vessel’s condition and overall sustainability. Since it is carried out majorly for used vessels that are to be resold, it will provide the potential buyer with a thorough understanding of the vessel’s condition, identify any existing problems or deficiencies and assess its value. Sea trials, when carried out, even provide information on the vessel’s performance and handling characteristics. 3  Pre-purchase surveys can also be carried out for entirely new vessels so that the buyers can determine if the vessel has been built according to required specifications & standards and if it agrees with the contractual requirements. 2.) CONDITION AND DAMAGE SURVEYS: Just like pre-purchase surveys, condition and damage surveys also assess the current condition of a vessel or marine asset to provide an accurate evaluation of the asset’s condition, identify any visible or latent damages & defects and assess its overall integrity. The difference is that; while pre-purchase survey focuses on assessing the state of the vessel for purchase purposes, control and damage surveys aim to assess the state of the vessel for repair and maintenance or merely to just have a knowledge of the vessel’s present condition. 3.) INSURANCE SURVEYS: These surveys focus on assessing the insurability and risks of marine vessels. They are conducted to evaluate vessels or marine assets for insurance purposes [i.e., to assess risk, determine coverage and set insurance premiums]. Insurance surveys could be a ‘pre-insurance’ or ‘initial survey’ if it is conducted before the vessels is insured for the first time, or when transferring insurance coverage to a new insurer; a ‘renewal survey’ if it is conducted periodically during the term of an insurance policy (usually annually) to adjust the insurance policy accordingly; or an ‘intermediate survey’ if it is conducted at specific intervals within the renewal survey to determine the compliance with the recommended actions from the previous survey. 4.) CARGO SURVEYS: Cargo surveys are the type of marine surveys conducted to inspect and assess the quantity, condition and stowage of cargoes during loading, transportation and discharge operations to ensure their compliance with contractual agreements, industry standards and regulatory requirements. It is a very important kind of marine survey because it helps in minimizing risks, preventing losses and resolving disputes related to cargo quantity, quality or handling issues. ‘Cargo’ refers to goods, merchandise or commodities that are transported by sea, air or land. 4  ‘Stowage’ is the process of arranging and securing cargo within a vessel or transport unit to ensure safe and stable transport. 5.) DRAFT SURVEYS: This kind of survey is performed in order to determine the weight of the cargo loaded or discharged from a vessel by measuring the submersion (changes in the vessel’s draft) before and after unloading the cargo from the vessel. These are only but a few of the various types of marine surveys. Others include valuation survey, hull and machinery survey, navigational survey, environmental survey, offshore and underwater survey, classification survey and regulatory compliance survey. TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES USED IN MARINE SURVEYING Marine surveyors employ various tools and techniques in carrying out their operations, including; 1.) ‘Measuring Devices’ to obtain precise measurements of dimensions, clearances and structural components. 2.) ‘Moisture Meters’ to identify structural anomalies (such as intrusion, rot, decay, etc.) by assessing the moisture levels in the materials used in the construction of marine assets (like wood and fiberglass). ‘Moisture intrusion’ is the unwanted entry of water or excessive moisture into a building, structure or material due to leaks, condensation, high humidity levels or flooding. 3.) ‘Ultrasonic Thickness Gauges’ which use ultrasonic waves to measure the thickness of metal structures to check for corrosion as well as the structural integrity of these metal structures. 4.) ‘Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) Methods’ such as magnetic particle testing, dye penetrant testing and ultrasonic testing to detect cracks, defects or structural weaknesses of marine assets without causing damages to them. 5.) ‘Bathymetric Surveys’ which use sonar system, echo-sounders or multibeam sonar technology to measure water depths and map the underwater topography. 6.) ‘GPS Technology’ to accurately determine and record the precise locations of survey points, vessels or marine structures. 5  APPLICATIONS OF MARINE SURVEYING Marine surveying finds its applications in various sectors and activities related to the maritime industry including: 1.) Vessel inspection; 2.) Cargo surveys; 3.) Port and harbour assessments; 4.) Marine insurance; 5.) Offshore exploration and construction; 6.) Environmental impact assessment; 7.) Salvage and wreck removal; 8.) Marine research and exploration; 9.) Coastal and shoreline management; and 10.) Legal and dispute resolution. 6  CHAPTER TWO COASTAL ENGINEERING INTRODUCTION TO COASTAL ENGINEERING Coastal engineering is a multi-disciplinary field that combines knowledge from civil engineering, oceanography, environmental science, geology and other related disciplines. It is the science that involves the planning, design and construction of structures and systems to manage and protect the coastal environment. It is also concerned with addressing the effects of human activity and climate change on coastlines as well as tackling the difficulties caused by natural coastal processes such as erosion, sediment transportation, wave action and storm surges. REASONS FOR AND IMPORTANCE OF COASTAL ENGINEERING The major objective of coastal engineering and coastal engineers is to protect coastal areas from erosion, flooding and other natural hazards while also ensuring sustainable development and preserving the natural coastal environment. 1.) Protection from coastal erosion. 2.) Storm surges and flood management especially during extreme weather events. 3.) Sustainable coastal zone development management. 4.) Development of adaptive strategies to cope with adverse climate change conditions. 5.) Design and construction of relevant harbour and port infrastructure. 6.) Conservation and preservation of coastal ecosystems [dunes, wetlands, estuaries, etc.]. 7.) Maintenance of safe harbour entrances and navigation channels. 8.) Preservation of the shoreline (the boundary between the land and the sea). COASTAL STRUCTURES These are structures designed to manage and shape coastal environments, protect shore and control the impact of natural forces on them. 7 (i) Seawalls: Seawalls are vertical structures built parallel to the shoreline to protect coastal areas from wave action and erosion; using durable materials like concrete or steel. (ii) Revetments: These are sloping structures along the shoreline that protect against wave action and erosion made of rocks or concrete mats (a large continuous slab of concrete). (iii) Breakwaters: They are offshore structures constructed parallel, perpendicular, or at an angle to the coast; to act as a barrier and absorb and dissipate wave energy before it reaches the shoreline. It could also be submerged and not very visible. (iv) Groins (or Groynes): Groins are built perpendicular to the shoreline for the purpose of capturing sediments moving along the shoreline and prevent longshore drift. They encourage the deposition of sand on one side; thus, strengthening and widening the beach. (v) Jetties: These are long, narrow structures extending from the shoreline into the water built for the purpose of sediment control and creating safe passage for vessels. (vi) Tidal Barriers: Also called tidal gates or barrage systems, these are tall structures built to regulate tidal flows and prevent the flooding of coastal areas during high tides and storm surges. Examples are floodwalls and levees. COASTAL PROCESSES Coastal processes are the naturally occurring processes or events at the coast. These processes. These processes are dynamic and play a crucial role in shaping the coastal environment over time. They also create landforms [such as beaches, cliffs, sand dunes, spits, barrier islands, estuaries and tidal flats] on the coast and influence the distribution of sediments and ecosystems in the coastal area. (i) Shoreline Erosion: This is the process by which water waves and currents remove soil and rock materials from the shoreline; thereby, resulting in the loss of coastal land and infrastructure and altering the shape of the coastline. (ii) Sediment Transportation: Sediment transportation is the after effect of shoreline erosion. It is the process by which the sediments eroded from the shore are transported along the coastline or offshore; creating depositional and erosional features like beaches, cliffs and sandbars. 8 (iii) Wave Action: Wind-generated waves carry enormous energy and can erode shorelines and transport sediments. (iv) Tides And Tidal Currents: As you should already know, tide is the periodic rise and fall of water level due to the gravitational effects of the moon and sun. It is a phenomenon that causes tidal currents which influence sediment transportation, erosion and deposition along the coast. (v) Storm Surges: These are also temporary increases in sea levels, but they are caused by tropical storms, hurricanes or intense weather systems. They lead to significant coastal flooding and cause erosion and damage to coastal structures. (vi) Longshore Drift: This is the movement of sediment along the coastline in a zig-zag pattern due to the angle at which waves approached the shore. The process could result in the formation of sandbars, barrier islands or spits. (vii) Sea-Level Rise: When the sea-level rises [this is a global phenomenon], there is a high possibility of coastal erosion, increased flooding frequency and a negative impact on the coastal ecosystem. Coastal subsidence, caused by natural or human-induced factors could also add to the vulnerability of coastal regions to sea-level rise. (viii) Deposition: Coastal deposition is the opposite of erosion; where sediments are added to the shoreline, often resulting in the building up of beaches and the formation of new landforms. COASTAL EROSION Coastal erosion is a natural geological process that causes land erosion along the coast, due to various factors like wave action, storm surges, tidal currents, sea-level rise and human activities [such as development, construction and mining activities]; thus, impacting coastal environments, human settlements and coastal infrastructure. It affects coastal communities and ecosystems by destroying natural habitats, displacing wildlife and reducing biodiversity. It also threatens human settlements, infrastructure and cultural heritage sites. The retreat of coastlines exposes properties, roads and utilities to damage from high tides, storm surges and undermining. Another important coastal process that can interact with coastal erosion is ‘shoaling’. It is like an amplified form of wave action. It describes the process by which ocean waves (deep- water waves) move into shallower depths [i.e., move near the coastline], causing the usual 9 coastal wave height to increase and its crest to become way steeper. As waves shoal, they can lead to more significant erosion along the coastline, especially in areas with already vulnerable shorelines. To mitigate and reduce the effects of coastal erosion, a combination of hard and soft engineering strategies will be employed. ‘Hard engineering’ involves building breakwaters, seawalls, groins and other coastal structures to directly protect the coast against wave action. ‘Soft engineering’ rather incorporates natural processes and the vegetation in maintaining the coast. It utilizes coastal protection measures like beach nourishment, dune restoration and coastal vegetation planting. COASTAL PROTECTION MEASURES These refer to the numerous engineering and non-engineering strategies and activities implemented to safeguard coastlines, coastal communities and coastal infrastructure from the adverse effects of natural forces and human activities. They are measures that are able to separate coastal areas from the ocean, thus, reduce the likelihood of erosion, floods and other harm brought on by coastal hazards. The engineering-based coastal protection strategies would definitely be to build certain coastal structures such as seawalls, revetments, breakwaters, groins and tidal barriers. The establishment of all of these structures would contribute greatly to maintaining the stability of the coastal environment. Other than these, there are also some non-engineering activities that could be implemented as coastal protection strategies. 1.) BEACH NOURISHMENT: Sometimes referred to as beach replenishment or beach renourishment, beach nourishment is a technique used to enhance and restore eroded or depleted beaches. The process involves adding of sand or sediment to an eroded beach so as to increase its width and height, as well as widen the shoreline. It could be a naturally-occurring phenomenon [for example, as a result of shoaling or other coastal processes] or a human-induced one. A human-induced beach nourishment strategy would involve sourcing suitable sediment from offshore sources, transporting it to the beach, sanding and grading it to ensure that it matches the already existing beach profile, and then, planting vegetation to stabilize the newly nourished beach. 10 2.) DUNE RESTORATION: Sand dunes (as they are often called), are naturally-occurring coastal landforms made up of wind-blown sand and vegetation that acts as natural barriers in protecting inland areas from the impacts of coastal erosion and storm surges. However, dunes are susceptible to disturbances caused by human activities, invading species and harsh weather conditions – all of which, result in dune loss and degradation. The dune restoration process involves assessing the dune system’s condition, removing invasive species, adding sand, planting native vegetation installing fencing structures and monitoring it. It is a process that enhances beach stability and helps restore ecosystems. 3.) COASTAL VEGETATION PLANTING: Here, native vegetation is being planted in coastal areas to enhance dune stability, restore natural habitats and protect the shoreline from erosion and other natural hazards. Planting vegetation like mangroves and salt marshes along shorelines help to absorb wave energy, stabilize sediments and provide protection against erosion. Coastal vegetation planting is a part of the coastal restoration and management processes aimed at rehabilitating sand dunes, stabilizing shorelines and promoting ecosystem recovery. Local community involvement, collaboration with the necessary environmental agencies, regular monitoring and management, weed control as well as the removal of invasive species all contribute to ensuring the long-term health and sustainability of the restores coastal vegetation. 4.) TIDAL INLET MANAGEMENT: Tidal inlets are narrow channels that connect coastal bays or lagoons (enclosed bodies of water separated from the open ocean by barrier islands, sandbars or other natural barriers) to the open ocean, allowing for tidal water to flow in and out with the changing tide. These inlets are dynamic systems influenced by tidal currents, sediment transportation, wave action and other natural coastal processes. Managing tidal inlets through dredging or jetty construction can control sediment transportation and reduce the impact of tidal inlet dynamics on coastal erosion. 5.) INTEGRATED COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT (ICZM): Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) is a coastal protection measure that seeks to balance the social, economic and environmental needs of coastal communities; while also protecting and conserving coastal ecosystems. It is an approach to manage the complex interactions and conflicts between human activities and the naturally-occurring processes in coastal areas. 11 This coastal management strategy involves the coordinated planning and management of coastal resources, considering ecological, economic and social factors to ensure sustainable development and protection of coastal environments. CLIMATE CHANGE AND COASTAL ADAPTATIONS Climate change continues to pose significant threats to coastal areas globally. With rising sea levels, stronger storms and altered weather patterns; coastal populations, coastal infrastructure and coastal ecosystems face serious challenges as a result of this climate change. The negative effects and impacts include; sea-level rise (the gradual rise in sea levels due to melting ice caps and thermal expansions), extreme weather events (the increased frequency of storms, hurricanes, cyclones and tsunamis which lead to storm surges and other adverse coastal processes), erosion and coastal retreat (increased and accelerated coastal erosion; leading to the loss of beaches and coastal land), saltwater intrusion (the intrusion of saltwater into freshwater sources) and even biodiversity loss (the loss of various coastal ecosystems – coral reefs, mangroves, wetlands, etc.). Coastal adaptation strategies have therefore been set in place to tackle and address (efficiently and effectively manage and respond to) these effects of climate change on coastal areas and regions. COASTAL ADAPTATION STRATEGIES 1.) Implementing and enhancing coastal protection measures, such as; building the necessary coastal structures, beach nourishment, dune restoration, etc. can mitigate the impacts of sea-level rise and storm surges. 2.) Encouraging naturally-occurring coastal processes and employing them to enhance coastal stability and restore coastal ecosystems. 3.) Raising critical infrastructure and buildings above projected flood levels can prevent damages from coastal flooding due to rising sea levels. 4.) In some cases, it is necessary to relocate coastal communities and coastal infrastructure prone to flooding away from high-risk coastal areas to safer locations. 12 5.) Employing zoning and land use planning measures to reduce to completely restrict development in hazard-prone coastal areas and regions. 6.) Designing and constructing coastal buildings and infrastructure to be able to withstand adverse climate and weather conditions. 7.) Efficient and effective monitoring to detect and prepare for extreme weather events and rising sea levels. HARBOUR AND PORT DEVELOPMENT This aspect of coastal engineering involves the planning, design, construction and management of certain coastal facilities to support maritime trade, transportation and other marine-related activities. Harbours and ports serve as gateways for the movement of people, goods and resources between the land and the sea. There is therefore a need for a sustainable harbour and port development as it will facilitate international trade, economic growth and connectivity. The development of modern harbours and ports requires a careful consideration of various factors including navigational requirements, cargo handling capacity, environmental impact as well as its integration with other modes of transport. The process begins with meticulous site selection where factors like water depth, shipping routes, land availability and environmental impact are of utmost importance. It is then followed by feasibility studies which are conducted to assess the viability and potential challenges of the chosen site. Dredging [i.e., the removal of sediment to create water depth for safe navigation and docking] is one of the crucial elements of harbour and port development. It requires an adequate channel design strategy to ensure smooth movement and navigation, minimal sedimentation and maximum operational efficiency. There is also the need to construct robust quay walls and berths to provide stable mooring locations; as well as efficient cargo handling facilities (such as cranes, conveyor systems and container terminals) to optimize port throughput. In addition to all of these port development measures, it is also essential to ensureport security and safety by implementing strict protocols to protect the facilities, vessels and personnel from threats and accidents. 13  Understanding, managing and maintaining good coastal habits depend heavily on coastal engineering and a good knowledge of it. It will guarantee security, sustainability and even global connectivity. Embracing nature-based solutions like ICZM would promote ecological balance; and efficient harbour and port development strategies would foster trade and economic growth. Future-proof beaches are assured by coastal engineering’s dedication to environmental preservation and climate change adaptation. 14  CHAPTER THREE SILTATION AND EROSION INTRODUCTION Siltation and erosion (or ‘coastal erosion’, since we’re referring to erosion along coastal regions and not erosion within the land) are two interconnected coastal processes that play a significant role in influencing coastal landforms, habitats and infrastructure. These processes are driven by the movement of sediment (which consists of sand, silt and clay particles). Water currents usually carry sediments, but as they slow down, they lose their ability to carry these sediments, thus, leading to the settling and deposition of these particles at unwanted locations. When this happens along the coast, it is referred to as siltation. ‘Siltation’ is therefore the deposition or accumulation of fine silt particles (with a diameter ranging from 0.002 to 0.006 millimeters) in coastal waters and environments. Siltation majorly occurs in areas like harbours, estuaries and shallow coastal regions where the flow of water is relatively low. ‘Coastal erosion’ on the other hand, is the process by which the shoreline and coastland progressively wears away due to the continuous action of natural forces like waves, water currents, tides and wind. As waves and water currents continually erode coastal materials, they transport them away from the coast – in an offshore direction – thus, leading to the loss of valuable land, coastal habitats and threaten human settlements and coastal infrastructure as well. Siltation and erosion are two closely related coastal processes that occur simultaneously. Erosion transport sediments and deposits them in other areas, which results in siltation. Maintaining a balance between these two is very necessary as excessive erosion may lead to increased sediment input, causing siltation; while siltation can smother habitats and disturb coastal ecosystems, leading to further erosion. TYPES OF COASTAL EROSION Coastal erosion can take various forms depending on the specific coastal environment, they type of sediment being transported and the prevailing erosional forces (the things that cause the erosion). 15 1.) Shoreline Erosion: This is the most common and widely recognized type of coastal erosion. It is the kind that occurs along the coastline; where waves and water currents wear away the shoreline and remove sediments. 2.) Bluff Erosion: This is a specific type of coastal erosion that occurs along steep coastal cliffs known as bluffs, causing sections of it to collapse and retreat. The location and steepness of this coastal landform formed by the continuous action of waves, weathering and other natural processes make it extremely susceptible to erosion. 3.) Dune Erosion: Dunes (sometimes referred to as ‘sand dunes’) are naturally-occurring barriers formed by the accumulation of wind-blown sand and vegetation on the coast. Dune erosion occurs when waves and tides remove sand from the dune system; weakening its structure and reducing its protective function. 4.) Coastal Retreat: Coastal retreat is a naturally-occurring long-time process where the coastline gradually moves landward over time. It is a phenomenon that occurs as a result of various factors including; sea-level rise, wave action, storm events and coastal geology. 5.) Headland Erosion: Headlands are rocky extensions into the sea [they are basically elevated landforms that extend into the sea]. Though they are more resistant to erosion than their surrounding coastlines, their exposure to wave energy from multiple directions increases their susceptibility to erosion. Overtime, the erosion of headlands can lead to the formation of bays. 6.) Cliff Collapse: Heavy rainfall, wave action and natural weathering processes can cause sections of coastal cliffs to crumble and collapse into the sea. Cliff collapse poses a safety risk to people and structures located at the base of the cliff. 7.) Riverbank Erosion: Riverbank erosion is very common in marine environments where rivers meet the sea. It occurs when there is a gradual wearing and washing away of the banks of rivers, streams or waterways due to the erosive forces of flowing water. CAUSES OF SILTATION AND EROSION IN COASTAL ENVIRONMENTS Siltation and erosion in coastal environments are caused by a combination of naturally- occurring processes and human-influenced activities. These causes can vary depending on the specific coastal setting and local conditions. 16 1.) Wave Action: Coastal erosion is primarily driven by forces of waves hitting the shoreline. The energy of these waves can erode coastal landforms and transport sediments; and their impact – wear away shorelines and coasts, thus, leading to erosion. 2.) Tidal Currents: The transport of sediments along the coast by these tide-induced currents cause erosion where the sediments are being transported from and erosion where the sediments are transported to and deposited. 3.) Sea-Level Rise: The erosive power of coastal waves increases with rising sea levels (primarily due to climate changes) and this contributes greatly to the shoreline retreating landwards. 4.) River Discharge: high river discharge transport sediments from inland areas to the coastal areas, causing sediment deposition (i.e., siltation). These sediments can erode riverbanks, increase downstream transport and contribute to coastal erosion through waves and currents. 5.) Climate Change: Changes in climate patterns, such as increased rainfall or drought, can alter sediment delivery and other coastal processes, thus, influencing siltation and erosion rates. HUMAN-INDUCED CAUSES OF SILTATION AND COASTAL EROSION We humans have consistently been affecting our environment from day-one, both positively and otherwise; and while we have done quantifiable good in ensuring coastal development and enforcing coastal management, we have also contributed greatly to some of the adverse coastal processes and have influenced many of the naturally-occurring ones; causing them to be more frequent, and their effect – much sever than normal. 1.) Coastal Development and Constructions: Various coastal development strategies like the construction of coastal infrastructure, which leads to urbanization, have contributed a great deal to siltation and coastal erosion. They disrupt natural sediment transportation, remove protective features like sand dunes and increase surface runoff – all of which, cause erosion and siltation in adjacent and opposite areas. ‘Surface runoff’ is the flow of water that occurs when precipitation elements, like rain or snowmelt, fall to the earth’s surface and are neither absorbed into the ground nor evaporate 17  into the atmosphere. The water rather flows over the land surface through the path of least resistance and eventually collects in streams, rivers, lakes or other water bodies. 2.) Dredging: Dredging is the process of removing sediment, silt, sand or other materials from the bottom of water bodies. The process disturbs sediment balance and leads to increased sedimentation and siltation wherever the excavated sediments are being deposited. 3.) Sand Mining: Sand mining is a very frequently-occurring process at coastal regions. It is the extraction of sand from beaches, riverbeds, oceans and inland sand dunes for various construction and industrial purposes. It could deplete coastal sediment sources, reduce natural beach replenishment and also contribute to erosion along the shoreline. 4.) Coastal Agriculture: Agricultural practices close to the coast can lead to soil erosion and sediment runoff; impacting coastal water quality and contributing to siltation. 5.) Deforestation and Vegetation Loss: Deforestation and poorly planned removal of coastal vegetation for whatever development purpose can reduce natural barriers that protect the coastal areas from erosion and siltation or reduce their impact. 6.) Land Use Changes: Alterations in coastal land use, including urbanization and agricultural practices, can modify sediment runoff; and thereby, contribute to siltation and erosion. 7.) Dam Construction and River Diversion: These human-influenced activities successfully trap sediments upstream; reducing the amount available for downstream use and making the downstream areas more prone to siltation and erosion. 8.) Poor Coastal Engineering: Also, improperly designed coastal engineering structures, such as poorly places seawalls or groins, can disrupt natural sediment transportation and increase the risk of siltation and erosion in opposite and adjacent areas. COASTAL DEVELOPMENT AND ITS IMPACT ON SILTATION AND COASTAL EROSION Coastal development is basically the sum totality of all the human activities and interventions that occur in coastal areas for the purpose of development. It involves the 18 establishment of various types of infrastructure (such as residential, commercial and industrial buildings); the construction of ports, harbours, marinas and other coastal facilities; as well as the construction of roads – all with the intention of development. Coastal development can take different forms such as land reclamation, where coastal areas are converted to dry ground for urban expansion or industrial purposes. It could also be in the form of coastal armoring, where coastal engineering structures like seawalls, groins and breakwaters are built to protect coastal properties and habitats from erosion and flooding. While development is essential for economic growth and prosperity, economic activities and population growth-driven coastal development can have a major impact on a coastal environment’s siltation and erosion. Various coastal development strategies modify the natural coastal processes in that region; increasing their frequency and amplifying their impact. The result is usually speedy erosion in some places, and increased sedimentation and siltation in some others. By balancing the need for development with sufficient environmental conservation, the long-term sustainability of coastal areas and regions is guaranteed. To be able to mitigate and reduce the effects of coastal development and protect coastal ecosystems for both the present and future generation to come, it is essential to implement responsible coastal planning strategies, employ nature-based solutions and adopt resilient infrastructural designs. IMPACT OF SILTATION AND EROSION ON COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND INFRASTRUCTURE These coastal processes can alter the physical, biological and ecological characteristics of coastal areas; affecting both natural habitats and human-built structures. These are some of the effects of these coastal processes; 1.) COASTAL HABITAT DEGRADATION: There is a possibility of coastal habitats being buried when there has been excessive sedimentation and deposition of sand and silt at coastal regions. The progressive loss of these valuable habitats due to coastal erosion and siltation eventually reduces the ecosystem’s resilience to storms, sea-level rise and other coastal processes. 19 Additionally, both siltation and coastal erosion can affect the functioning of coastal infrastructure; making them vulnerable to damage and increasing the risk of property loss and infrastructure failure. They also contribute to reduction in water depths, and an increased maintenance cost for harbours, navigation channels and other coastal facilities. 2.) IMPACT ON MARINE SPECIES AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS: Turbid waters (i.e., waters with a lot of sediments) block sunlight from reaching underwater plants; affecting their photosynthesis and thus, the growth of marine vegetation. As a result, the marine species that would normally thrive in these habitats are being affected and their feeding, shelter and reproduction are being disrupted. Their feeding efficiency is reduced and their shelter and reproductive cycles are affected as well. The result of this is a dent in the successful thriving of these coastal ecosystems. 3.) WATER QUALITY IMPAIRMENT: Transported sediments are carriers for nutrients and minerals, especially nitrogen and phosphorous, which are usually present in sand and silt. As these sediments move from land to water; either by erosion, siltation or a combination of both; the mineral concentration of the water body increases. This promotes excessive algal growth and potentially harmful algal blooms; thereby, contaminating the water body. Other than the elevated nutrient levels, the presence of sediments in the water reduces water clarity and increases water turbidity. The combination of both of these factors contribute to increasing the level of impurity of that water body. 4.) LOSS OF BEACHES AND COASTAL LAND: When there is a loss of beaches and coastal land due to siltation and coastal erosion, the available recreational space reduces, and tourism and other local economies that rely on beach-based activities are being negatively impacted. These natural barriers that would have absorbed the effects of storm surges and reduced the potential damage to properties and other coastal infrastructure are being lost; and coastal communities are left more vulnerable to the impacts of storms, flooding and other coastal processes. 5.) IMPACT ON COASTAL INFRASTRUCTURE: Erosion can undermine the effectiveness of coastal roads, bridges and coastal protection structures; making them less stable and less resistant to erosive forces over time. Coastal utilities such as power lines, sewage 20 systems and communication networks located along the coastlines could be affected as well and public safety, compromised in the process. The structural damage of these coastal infrastructure leads to a need for costly repairs or relocation as well as an increased insurance costs and the potential loss of their investment value. 6.) NAVIGATION CHALLENGES: Excessive sedimentation from erosion-prone areas and sediment runoff fills navigation channels and harbors, resulting in shallower water depths. These shallow waters limit the smooth navigation of vessels and prevent larger ships from accessing ports. It also reduces the widths of navigable waterways; making it difficult for ships to pass through and increasing the risk of collisions and impeding smooth maritime traffic. These coastal processes could also introduce underwater obstacles, such as sandbars or submerged rocks, in navigation channels and coastal waters. It eventually poses a risk to vessel safety; potentially causing groundings and accidents. ‘Grounding’ is the unintentional striking of the ground of a water body. It occurs when a ship or boast comes in contact with the seabed or riverbed, either due to shallow waters, navigational errors or unforeseen obstacles like sandbars or rocks. 7.) ECONOMIC IMPACT: First and foremost, the property damage and loss due to coastal erosion results in significant financial losses for property owners and insurance companies. The increases property damage and loss therefore, leads to higher insurance premiums for properties in these erosion-prone areas. These properties could also experience a reduced market value due to the perceived risks and potential damage. MEASUREMENT AND MONITORING OF SILTATION AND COASTAL EROSION The following measurement and monitoring strategies would help in understanding the extent and rate of siltation and erosion; identify the vulnerable areas so as to plan appropriate and efficient mitigation strategies; and assess the effectiveness of the already existing or mewly applied mitigation measures. 21 1.) BATHYMETRIC SURVEYS: Bathymetric surveys involve measuring the depth and topography of the seabed of waterbodies using echo sounding devices, sonar, LiDAR or other acoustic methods. The information these surveys provide can prove very useful in avoiding grounding accidents. Also, repeated bathymetric surveys can identify changes in sea floor elevations over time; estimate siltation and erosion patterns; and therefore, predict their occurrences. 2.) SEDIMENT SAMPLING: By deploying sediment traps and samplers at various locations on the seabed, sediment samples can be collected and studied to obtain information on their composition, grain size and organic content. This analysis helps in understanding the sediment deposition rate, identify potential sources and take necessary actions to reduce the rate of deposition. 3.) COASTAL MONITORING: These coastal processes can be monitored using aerial photographs and satellite imageries, high-resolution images from UAVs equipped with cameras or LiDAR sensors, or even video camera recordings. With these, the changes in coastal landforms can be monitored (even in real-time) and erosion hotspots, identified. 4.) GROUND-BASED SURVEYS: Using Total Station, GPS, drone technology or other surveying techniques; marine surveyors can collect data on coastal topography, beach profiles and dune heights; with which they can track changes in shoreline positions over time. 5.) LiDAR (LIGHT DETECTION AND RANGING): Since LiDAR is a technology that uses laser pulses to measure distances, it can be used to create detailed elevation maps of coastal areas. These maps can then be used to study changes in the coastal terrain and also prove useful in erosion management and control processes. 6.) GPS BUOYS AND TIDE GUAGES: Instruments like GPS buoys, tide gauges, current meters and wave gauges are used in coastal waters to measure water currents and wave heights (i.e., water level changes). With these measurements, the dynamic and changing hydrologic processes influencing siltation and coastal erosion can be understood and appropriate defensive measures taken to condense its impact. 7.) ACOUSTIC DOPPLER CURRENT PROFILERS (ADCP): ADCPs are devices used to measure the speed and direction of water currents. They are therefore useful in the prediction of potential sediment deposition sites and the rate of the sedimentation as well. This will aid in estimating the impact of these coastal processes and give room to plan efficiently, ahead of time. 22 MITIGATION STRATEGIES FOR SILTATION AND COASTAL EROSION These mitigation strategies are somewhat similar to the coastal protection measures we studied in the previous chapter. The idea is to protect coastal ecosystems, coastal infrastructure and coastal communities from the negative impacts of these adverse coastal processes. They aim at managing sediment transportation, stabilizing shorelines and enhancing natural resilience – all of which, will ultimately lead to more stabilized coastal environments. 1.) BEACH NOURISHMENT: Beach nourishment involves replenishing eroded beaches by adding sand and sediment to restore their widths and volume. This activity counteracts the effects of the erosion and improves resilience and stability against extreme erosion-causing wave energies. 2.) DUNE RESTORATION: Planting vegetations can restore dune systems – the natural barriers against erosion and storm surges – and reduce the impact of eave action and storm surges. The restoration of dunes also preserves habitats for coastal flora and fauna (i.e., the plant and animal species that inhabit coastal environments). 3.) SOFT ENGINEERING TECHNIQUES: As we explained earlier, soft engineering techniques (the natural mitigation strategies) would curb the effects of siltation and coastal erosion. Engaging in coastal vegetation planting techniques would stabilize the soil and also help control sediment trail and runoff. 4.) COASTAL STRUCTURES: This is basically employing hard engineering techniques. The construction of groins, breakwaters and other coastal structures would go a long way in managing the negative impacts of these severe coastal processes. 5.) MANAGED RETREATS: In some extreme cases, a retreat is the best option. If it is predicted that the gravity of the effects of any of these coastal processes would be very severe and the management strategies are inadequate, a well-planned early retreat is the best option as a lot of lives and properties would be preserved. By the way, who hears of impending doom and just stands there moping? 6.) DREDGING AND SEDIMENT MANAGEMENT: Though dredging is a very major part of this course, we’ve not yet delved into it sufficiently. Hopefully, we will do so in subsequent chapters. Now, dredging is the process of removing and excavating sand and sediment from the bottom of water bodies for development purposes at other locations, easing 23 the flow of navigation (i.e., addressing issues of grounding accidents) and environment restoration. The entire process is a great way to deal with the negative impacts of siltation and coastal erosion. 7.) MANAGED SEDIMENT PLACEMENT: Strategic placement of dredged sediments in eroded areas (i.e., well-planned and executed beach management projects) can help redistribute sediments in a manner that encourages less severe coastal processes. This mitigation strategy can also help maintain water quality. 8.) COASTAL ZONING AND LAND USE PLANNING: When appropriate coastal zoning and land use regulations that consider erosion-prone areas and avoid construction in hazardous zones are being implemented, improper development in erosion and siltation-prone areas is prevented. Implementing a combination of these mitigation strategies, tailored to the specific coastal conditions and challenges, is paramount for achieving a sustainable coastal zone management system. The study of siltation and coastal erosion is essential in marine engineering to predict their effects, design appropriate mitigation strategies and implement sustainable coastal management practices. By understanding and managing these interconnected processes, marine engineers can appropriately safeguard coastal environments, maintain navigational channels and protect coastal infrastructure from the impacts of sediment movement. 24  CHAPTER FIVE THE DEMARCATION OF HARBOUR LIMITS INTRODUCTION The term ‘Demarcation of Harbour Limits’ is used to describe the process of defining the boundaries of a harbour. By definition, it is the definition and marking of the spatial extent of a port – both on the water and on land – so as to ensure safe and efficient maritime operations. The process will involve surveying the harbour and establishing a series of benchmarks that define the boundaries; and then marking these benchmarks on nautical charts and other navigational documents. The general reasons (purposes/objectives) for the demarcation of harbour limits are: - to determine the area of water that is subject to the jurisdiction of the ports authority; - to establish the limits within which ships may navigate safely; - to regulate the activities that are permitted within the harbour, such as fishing, dredging and the construction of docks or other infrastructure; - to provide a clear and unambiguous reference point for ships, pilots and other users of the harbour; and - to ensure that the demarcation of harbour limits is consistent with the international laws and other relevant laws and regulations. LEGAL FRAMEWORK As you would presume, since there is always a legal aspect/dimension to everything pertaining to property delineation and demarcation, the Demarcation of Harbour Limits also has its legal aspect. Internationally, the ‘International Maritime Organization (IMO)’ plays a significant role in formulating the regulations and guidelines on the technical aspects of demarcating harbour limits. They have developed the ‘United Nations’ Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)’, which is a key international treaty that defines the rights and responsibilities of 25 coastal states and provides a legal framework for maritime activities including the demarcation of the port boundaries of all international waters, archipelagic waters and territorial seas. Other than the international laws, there are also a number of national and local laws varying from country to country. The national laws address matters relating to port operations, maritime safety, environmental protection and security. The local laws are much more specific to individual ports and harbours and address more detailed aspects of port operations, zoning, restrictions and environmental considerations. CONSIDERATIONS IN DEMARCATION As an extension of the ‘Legal Framework’, there are a number of factors that need to be taken into account when determining the boundaries or limits of a harbour or port area. They are referred to as ‘Considerations in Demarcation’ and they influence the decisions made during the demarcation process and ensure that the demarcation is well-planned, effective and aligned with various requirements and conditions. (i) Navigational Safety: The primary consideration in the Demarcation of Harbour Limits is the safety of navigation within the port area. It should be designed and constructed in such a way that water depths, underwater obstructions, tides, currents, channel widths, etc. are being considered, thus, indicating safe channels, navigable waters and potential hazards. (ii) Environmental Conditions: Another consideration should be the environmental and ecological factors within the port area (such as sensitive habitats, protected species, ecological conservation areas and their impacts on marine ecosystems). The idea is that these “special areas” should be avoided by establishing additional restrictions so as to prevent potential negative impacts. (iii) Stakeholder Interests: The various stakeholders involved in port operations [i.e., port authorities, shipping companies, pilotage services, local communities and other relevant authorities] should be considered in the Demarcation of Harbour Limits so that their inputs are gathered; concerns, addressed; and needs, considered. There should also be considerations for “minor” activities such as commercial shipping, fishing activities and even recreational boating. (iv) Coastal Dynamics: Erosion, sedimentation and changes in shoreline configuration can affect the boundaries of the harbour over time. The demarcation process therefore needs to 26 account for these changes and ensure that the defined boundaries are adjusted accordingly to reflect the current (yet, ever-changing and dynamic) coastal conditions. (v) Technological Advances: Harbour limit demarcation should incorporate the recent technological advancements to provide real-time positioning and navigation data to mariners. It will enhance the accuracy, reliability, accessibility, safety and efficiency of navigational information. METHODS AND TECHNIQUES USED The establishment of clear boundaries and the definition of the extent of the port area would incorporate a combination of various methods, tools and techniques ranging from surveying, mapping and other navigational tools. 1.) GEODETIC SURVEY: This method employs satellite-based positioning systems like GPS to establish control points and reference coordinates for the demarcation process. It provides geospatial data which forms the foundation for boundary determination. 2.) BATHYMETRIC SURVEY: Since this method focuses on mapping the depth and underwater topography of the seabed within the harbour area, it is useful for determining the limits of navigable waters and for identifying potential hazards or shallow areas. 3.) LAND SURVEY: This method involves measuring and documenting the physical features, landmarks and existing structures along the coast or within the port area using various land surveying instruments (such as total stations and theodolites). 4.) AERIAL AND SATELLITE IMAGERY: High-resolution visual data (aerial photographs and satellite imagery) offers an overview of the coastal area and its surrounding environment. The information obtainable from this visual data is useful in mapping natural features, land-use patterns and potential areas of interest within the port limits. 5.) NAVIGATIONAL AIDS: By ‘navigational aids’, I refer to buoys, beacons, lighthouses, etc. which are strategically positioned to mark the entrance, channels and navigable waters of the harbour. 6.) GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS): GIS software allow for the visualization, analysis and manipulation of geospatial data, thus, aiding in the harbour 27 demarcation process. These software are useful in the accurate representation of harbour limits, creation of digital maps and management of the associated data. 7.) Electronic nautical charts as well as LiDAR (which create high-resolution maps of the sea-floor) are also useful in the harbour demarcation process. MARITIME ZONES The Laws of the Sea is a body of international law governing the rights and duties of states in maritime environments. It concerns matters such as navigational rights, sea mineral claims and coastal waters jurisdiction. While drawn from a number of international customs, treaties and agreements; modern Law of the Sea derives largely from the United Nations’ Convention on Laws of the Sea (UNCLOS). The rights of coastal states to regulate and exploit areas of the ocean under their jurisdiction are one of the foundations of the UNCLOS which allows them to establish different maritime zones. Maritime zones refer to specific areas of the sea that are defined by international law and are subject to different rights and jurisdictional regimes. As earlier suggested, they have been enacted to regulate the use and resources of the ocean. As seen in the diagram below, UNCLOS divides the ocean into six maritime zones; Internal Waters, Territorial Seas, Contiguous Zones, Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs), Continental Shelfs and High Seas & Deep Ocean Floors. 28  The ‘Demarcation of Harbour Limits’ has to take these maritime zones into account, so as to ensure safe navigation, delineate port boundaries and establish regulatory frameworks for the use and protection of coastal areas and resources. Before we go into sufficient detail about the six maritime zones, let us first of all address the topic of baselines and how they are determined. The ‘baseline’ refers to an imaginary line drawn along the coast that serves as a reference point for measuring the breadth of maritime zones from a coastal state’s land territory. They mark the outer limit of a coastal state’s territorial sea and are used to determine the extent of other maritime zones. The determination of the ‘baseline’ involves considerations of geographical features, legal requirements, historical practices and consultation with neighbouring states when necessary. UNCLOS recognizes these four parameters as the major considerations when determining the baseline of any coastal state. They therefore established three methods for determining the baseline; (i) The Low-Water Line Method: This is the most commonly used method for baseline determination. In this method, the low-water line (which is being represented by the average low tide) is being traced along the coast. This low-water line then serves as the baseline for that coastal state. It is also called ‘the normal baseline method’. (ii) The Straight Baseline Method: In this method, straight lines connecting appropriate points are drawn along the coast. These lines usually do not exceed 100 nautical miles (115 miles/185km on land) and are drawn while taking the configuration of the coastline into account. (iii) The Combination Method: The combination method (which is a combination of the low-water line method and the straight baseline method) is used for special cases where the coast has indentations [i.e., inward curves, bays or gulfs] and fringing islands [i.e., small islands that are located close to the shoreline and are considered part of the coastal state’s land territory since they are directly connected to the mainland coast]. Now, let us discuss the maritime zones. 29 1.) INTERNAL WATERS: These include all of the waters that fall landward of the baseline of any coastal state, such as; lakes, rivers and tidewaters. States have the same sovereign jurisdiction over internal waters as they have over other territory. There is no right of innocent passage through internal waters. 2.) TERRITORIAL SEAS: These waters extend up to 12nm (22.224km) from the baseline of a coastal state. Within the territorial seas, a coastal state has full sovereignty and exercises control over activities various including navigation, security and resource allocation. These rights extend not only on the surface, but also to the seabed and the subsoil, as well as vertically to the airspace. 3.) CONTIGUOUS ZONES: This zone extends to about 12nm beyond the territorial seas [i.e., 24 nm from the baseline]. In this zone, a coastal state has the right to protect its interests by enforcing specific laws relating to immigration, fiscal rights, customs and pollution control. Unlike the territorial seas, the contiguous zone only gives a coastal state jurisdiction on the ocean surface and floor; it does not include air and space rights. 4.) EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC ZONES (EEZs): The EEZ extends to up to 200nm from the baseline. Though exclusive right is granted to the coastal state to exploit or conserve any resources found within the water, on the sea floor or under the sea floor’s subsoil, (i.e., whether living or non-living); other states have the freedom of navigation and overflight [but this is subject to very limited exceptions]. 5.) CONTINENTAL SHELFS: The continental shelf is a natural seaward extension of a land boundary, i.e., the submerged extension of a coastal state’s landmass. This seaward extension is geologically formed as the seabed slopes away from the coast; typically consisting of a gradual slope (which is ‘the continental shelf proper’), followed by a steep slope (which is ‘the continental slope’), and then, a more gradual slope leading to the deep seabed floor. These three areas, collectively referred to as ‘the continental margin’ are rich in natural resources including oil, natural gas and other minerals. Coastal states have sovereign rights over the exploration and exploitation of the natural resources on the continental shelf. 6.) HIGH SEAS AND DEEP OCEAN FLOORS: These include all areas beyond any national jurisdiction. According to UNCLOS, the area is being considered as ‘the common heritage of all mankind’. The high seas and deep ocean floors are open to all states and are 30 subject to the principle of ‘freedom of the seas’. Therefore, activities in the high seas, such as navigation, fishing and scientific research are governed by international laws and regulations. In the demarcation of harbour limits, considering the appropriate factors (both legal and otherwise) as well as establishing clear and well-defined boundaries with suitable tools, methods and tools can go a long way in ensuring the safety, efficiency and sustainable management of ports and port operations. Embracing technological advancements, addressing climate change impacts and promoting sustainable practices are the key to future-proof demarcation strategies. The demarcation process is a vital component in shaping the present and future of maritime activities, enabling seamless navigation and facilitating international trade. IMPORTANT TERMS AND CONCEPTS USED THROUGHOUT THE CHAPTER a.) Harbour: A harbour is a sheltered area of water (a part of a body of water that is protected and shielded from the effects of wind, waves and strong currents) usually located along a coast or a shore where vessels can find refuge, load or unload cargo and engage in various maritime activities. While the ‘coast’ refers to the general area of water where the land meets the sea or the ocean and includes beaches, cliffs, dunes, estuaries and coastal vegetation; the ‘shore’ is the specific thin strip of land where the land meets the water and is exposed at low tide. b.) Port: A port is a large facility that where ships, boats and other vessels can access various services including cargo handling, passenger transportation, customs clearance and other maritime operations. It is typically composed of multiple docks or berths, terminal facilities, warehouses, storage yards, administrative buildings and transportation connections (such as roads, railways or airports). A ‘berth’ is a specific location where a ship can moor (i.e., can be tied to an object so that it can 31  stay in place) and is typically marked with a number. A ‘dock’ on the other hand, is a structure made of wood, concrete or steel that extends into the water; and is also used to moor ships and water vessels. Naturally, it can accommodate multiple berths. c.) Nautical Charts: These are specialized maps providing detailed information about water depths, seabed topography, navigational aids, hazards, etc. used by mariners for navigation at sea. The information they provide ensure safe and efficient navigation. d.) The Ports Authority: They are the governing body or administrative organization responsible for the management, regulation and operation of ports within a particular jurisdiction. They oversee various aspects of ports activities including infrastructure development, port security, vessel traffic management, environmental protection and the enforcement of regulations. e.) International Waters: Also known as the ‘high seas’, international waters are the areas of the world’s oceans that are beyond the jurisdiction of any particular country [i.e., they do not exclusively belong to any particular country]. f.) Archipelagic Waters: These refer to the waters surrounding an archipelago (a group or chain of islands situated close to one another). They are therefore subject to the sovereignty and jurisdiction of the archipelagic state which has specific rights and responsibilities over these waters. 32  CHAPTER SIX SHIPPING AND HARBOUR LAWS INTRODUCTION Shipping and harbour laws refer to the legal framework that governs maritime activities, port operations and other related aspects of the shipping and maritime industry. They encompass a range of laws, regulations, conventions and treaties that address safety, security, environmental protection, liability, trade facilitation and other legal aspects pertaining to shipping and harbours. ‘Shipping’ is the transportation of people, goods and commodities by sea. Their significance and importance lie in the fact that they provide the necessary legal structure and guidelines for the maritime industry. That is to say that; they establish standards for vessel construction, navigation, crew training and environmental protection; as well as also promoting safety at sea, protecting the marine environment, facilitating international trade, ensuring fair liability practices and providing a framework for resolving disputes. Shipping and harbour laws establish the rights and responsibilities of the various stakeholders involved in maritime activities, promotes compliance with international norms, safeguards the marine environment and also facilitates smooth and secure trade through ports. INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS AND TREATIES These include the significant agreements and treaties established (at the international level) to regulate various aspects of maritime activities. They have been established to harmonize standards, promote uniformity and ensure cooperation among nations in the maritime domain. Some of them are: 1.) ‘The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS)’ that sets safety standards for the construction, equipment and the operation of ships to safeguard lives at sea; 2.) ‘The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of Ships (MARPOL)’ that aims at preventing and minimizing maritime pollution caused by ships through the regulation of vessel operations, equipment and waste disposal; 33 3.) ‘The International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW)’ that establishes minimum training, certification and watchkeeping standards for seafarers to ensure their competence, safety and professionalism in the maritime industry; 4.) ‘The International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage (CLC)’ that governs the liability of shipowners for oil pollution damage caused by their vessels and provides compensation as well; 5.) ‘The International Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-Fouling Systems on Ships (AFS)’ that eliminates the use of harmful anti-fouling systems on ships so as to protect the marine environment; 6.) ‘The International Convention on Salvage (SALVAGE)’ that establishes guidelines and procedures for the rescue and salvage of distresses vessels and cargo; 7.) ‘The International Convention on Load Lines (LL)’ that sets the standards for the minimum freeboard (i.e., the distance between the waterline and the deck) required for ships based on their sizes; and 8.) ‘The International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships (TONNAGE)’ that establishes a uniform system for measuring the tonnage of ships. These are only but a few as there are others that focus on other areas of shipping, maritime safety, pollution prevention, liability and crew training. The international maritime community continuously develops and updates these agreements accordingly, to address emerging challenges and ensure the effective regulation of global maritime activities. Other than these international conventions, treaties and agreements, there are also other laws, regulations and standards established by individual nations to govern maritime activities within their respective jurisdiction. They are being referred to as the ‘National Legislation and Regulatory Framework’. For Nigeria, we have: 1.) The Nigerian Merchant Shipping Act; 2.) The Coastal and Inland Shipping (Cabotage) Act; 3.) The Nigerian Ports Authority Act; 34 4.) The Nigerian Maritime Administration and Safety Agency (NIMASA) Act; 5.) The Nigerian Oil and Gas Industry Content Development Act; and 6.) The International Maritime Organization (IMO) Conventions. SAFETY AND NAVIGATION REGULATIONS Safety and navigation regulations refer to the rules and standards that ensure the safe operation of vessels. They also address other areas like vessel construction, equipment requirements, crew training, navigational practices and emergency protocols. They include; 1.) NAVIGATION RULES: These rules establish guidelines for vessel navigation; including right-of-way, lights, signals and actions to prevent collisions. They aim to ensure the safe and orderly movement of vessels at sea. One of these is the ‘International Regulation for Preventing Collisions at Sea (COLREGs)’. These regulations aim to ensure utmost safety, prevent accidents, protect lives and property, promote effective navigation and uphold international standards and best practices in maritime operations. 2.) EQUIPMENT STANDARDS: Safety regulations also specify equipment requirements for equipment such as; life-saving appliances, fire-fighting equipment, navigational aids, communication devices and stability systems. These regulations on equipment standards are there to ensure that vessels are properly equipped for safe operations. 3.) CREW CERTIFICATIONS: These regulations set minimum training and certification standards for the various crew members based on their specific roles and responsibilities. These standards have been established to ensure that seafarers possess the necessary skills and knowledge to perform their roles effectively, operate vessels safely and respond to emergencies. 4.) SAFETY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS (SMS): SMS regulations require vessels to implement comprehensive safety management systems to identify risks, establish procedures and promote a culture of safety on board. These regulations minimize hazards and prevent accidents on board. They promote proactive safety measures. One of them is the ‘International Safety Management (ISM) Code’. 5.) INSPECTIONS AND SURVEYS: The safety and navigation regulations explain that there is a need for regular inspections and surveys to verify if vessels are in compliance with 35 each of these afore mentioned regulations. The idea is to ensure an ongoing adherence to safety requirements and identifying areas for improvement. 6.) REPORTING AND INVESTIGATION: They also mandate the reporting of accidents, incidents and near-misses so as to give room for thorough investigations to identify the root causes, implement corrective measures and enhance safety practices throughout the maritime industry. The totality of these safety and navigation regulations contribute to the overall safety of maritime operations and the protection of lives and the maritime environment. POLLUTION PREVENTION AND ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS The pollution prevention and environmental regulations consist of the regulations and measures in place in order to prevent and mitigate pollution from maritime activities. Their objectives are to minimize the negative environmental impact of shipping and harbour operations, preserve the health of the maritime ecosystem and to ensure sustainable practices within the maritime industry. They include; (i) ‘Discharge Regulations’ governing the discharge of pollutants (such as oil, chemicals, sewage, garbage, etc.) into the marine environment as well as the treatment and disposal of such pollutants. (ii) ‘Regulations on Waste Management’ addressing the proper management and disposal of the various kinds of waste generated during maritime operations (including solid waste, hazardous materials and electronic waste – discarded electronic devices or equipment that have reached the end of their useful life or are no longer wanted or needed). (iii) ‘Regulations on Ballast Water Management’ which are concerned with the management and treatment of ballast water which is often responsible for the introduction of new non-native species into the maritime ecosystems. ‘Ballast water’ is the water that is being loaded or discharged by a ship to maintain its balance at stability while at sea. Ships typically take on ballast water to increase their draft and stability 36  when sailing without cargo or just to adjust their trim for optimum performance. Ballast water is typically drawn from one location during cargo loading or unloading operations. (iv) ‘Regulations on Air Emissions’ which set limits on ships’ emission levels to reduce air pollution by the use of cleaner fuels and emission control technologies. Sulphur oxides and nitrogen oxides are the major air pollutants from ships. (v) ‘Regulations on Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs)’ which ensure that adequate environmental impact assessments are conducted prior to the construction of new port facilities or major maritime infrastructure projects to evaluate the potential environmental impacts and propose mitigation measures as well. (vi) ‘Regulations on Preserving Protected Areas and Biodiversity Conservation’ which designate protected areas and establish measures to preserve and protect them and the endangered species they contain. They also seek to ensure biodiversity. Compliance with these regulations is essential to maintain a clean and sustainable marine environment and uphold international environmental standards. LIABILITY AND COMPENSATION IN MARITIME INCIDENTS As regards ‘Shipping and Harbour Laws’, these refer to the principles and regulations governing liability and compensation in case of maritime accidents or incidents. They focus on the legal aspects related to liability, compensation and insurance coverage in the event of maritime incidents or accidents. They encompass various key aspects including: 1.) LIMITATION OF LIABILITY: Regulations on liability and compensation establish the maximum amount that a shipowner can be held liable for in case of various maritime incidents (such as collisions, pollution or cargo damage) – i.e., the limits of the liability he will bear. These regulations help to prevent excessive financial burdens on the shipowners and also ensure fair compensation for the affected parties. 2.) INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS: These regulations (specifically the international conventions) address liability and compensation for specific categories and types of maritime incidents. For instance, the ‘International Convention on Liability for Oil Pollution Damage 37 (CLC)’ establishes liability limits and compensation mechanisms for oil pollution incidents. Also, the ‘Athens Convention relating to the Carriage of Passengers and their Luggage Sea’ establishes liability rules and compensation limits for incidents involving the carriage of passengers at sea (such as accidents, injury or death). 3.) INSURANCE REQUIREMENTS: Since insurance offers protection against potential financial losses and liabilities, regulations on liability and compensation require shipowners and operators to compulsorily maintain adequate insurance coverages [like ‘Protection and Indemnity (P&I) insurance’] so as to ensure that in cases of accidents and incidents, all affected parties are adequately and sufficiently compensated. These will mitigate the financial impact of maritime accidents and incidents. 4.) SALVAGE AND GENERAL AVERAGE: Salvage involves rescuing and recovering a vessel or its cargo from a hazardous situation such as shipwreck or other maritime emergencies. General average suggests that all the parties involved in a maritime venture proportionally share the losses and expenses incurred. Liability and compensation regulations also govern the legal aspects of these salvage operations and general average contributions. 5.) ADMIRALTY COURTS: Regulations for liability and compensation allow for maritime incidents to be settled and resolved in admiralty courts (i.e., courts which specialize in maritime law – handling cases relating to liability, compensation, salvage claims and other maritime disputes). Overall, the regulations on liability and compensation in maritime incidents aim to establish a fair and effective legal framework that ensures prompt and appropriate compensation for those affected by maritime accidents. They also promote accountability among shipowners and operators and encourage the implementation of measures to minimize risks and enhance safety in the maritime industry. 38