Geography Q2 Agriculture PDF

Agriculture in the (Sub-)Tropics Plantation farming - A form of commercial farming where crops are grown for profit (cash crops – only for the world market) - Large land areas are needed for this type of agriculture → deforestation - Plantations are mainly found in countries th...

Agriculture in the (Sub-)Tropics Plantation farming - A form of commercial farming where crops are grown for profit (cash crops – only for the world market) - Large land areas are needed for this type of agriculture → deforestation - Plantations are mainly found in countries that have a tropical climate (high annual temperatures, high annual rainfall) - Crops intensively cultivated in monocultures (e.g. bananas, soy, palm oil, rubber, coffee, tea, sugar cane, cocoa, tobacco) + high utilisation of fertilisers and pesticides ➔ ecological consequences Sustainability?! - Ecology: extreme deforestation, loss of nutrients by monocultures, pollution & loss of biodiversity through the use of chemicals, additional irrigation necessary - Society: bad working conditions + health issues for plantation workers, only few indigenous plantation owners left (high competition), cultivation not as food crops for feeding the own population but cash crops only - Economy: big investments by multinational companies for the country (but most profits flow out of the country), creation of jobs (but often poorly paid) Shifting cultivation (also: slash-and-burn) - A form of agriculture used especially in tropical Africa, in which an area of ground is cleared of vegetation (burned because the ash provides nutrients for the infertile soil) and cultivated for about 2-3 years and then abandoned for a new area until its fertility has been naturally restored (fallow field for about 6-15 years with regrowing secondary forests) - Mixed crops (polycultures), mostly subsistence farming (food crops for self- sufficiency) - A sustainable form of agriculture, however only worthwhile in sparsely populated areas with a lot of space → due to population growth in the tropics, there is a higher demand in fields → more and more rainforest is cleared Agroforestry / Ecofarming - Land use management system involving the growing of trees & shrubs (forestry providing shade & nutrients & wood) in association with food crops (in polycultures) and livestock (providing nutrients through manure) - All components interact positively, aiming to achieve increased productivity + a more ecologically diverse & socially productive output from the land than is possible through conventional agriculture - Practical & low-cost form of sustainable land management, especially for small-scale producers (less suitable for large-scale production) - Advantages for the environment: increased biodiversity, reduced global warming, reduced erosion, restored soil fertility → increased food security Livestock farming (often on pastureland) – livestock = domesticated animals for the production of meat, milk, eggs, fur, leather, wool (special form: nomadism) Agronomic dry boundary → beyond this border dry farming isn’t possible anymore due to a lack of precipitation – irrigation is necessary Agronomic cold boundary → temperatures are too low for plant growth so that the growing season for crops is less than 100 days 1 Rainfed farming - The cultivation of crops without irrigation because of a sufficient availability of precipitation (most climate zones) - Only seasonal, depending on warm enough temperatures and rainy seasons Dry farming - The cultivation of crops without irrigation at the border zone of rainfed farming – in (semi-)arid regions of limited precipitation (typically less than 500mm annually) → close to the agronomic dry boundary - It depends on efficient storage of the limited moisture in the soil and the selection of crops & growing methods that make the best of this moisture and that are drought- resistant (e.g. barley, millet, olives, almonds) Irrigation farming - The cultivation of crops is supported with artificial irrigation in periods of little precipitation, often in (semi-)arid areas to guarantee high yields (about 3-5 times higher than in dry farming, but also more expensive [in terms of money and water]) Irrigation methods - Irrigation channel/ditch, also: surface irrigation: the water is applied and distributed over the soil surface by gravity; it is the most common form of irrigation in the world through open ditches & furrows the water is directed onto the fields where it seeps into the ground suitable e.g. for row crops like potatoes or tomatoes; only on even areas (in hillside locations terracing is necessary to prevent the water from running off) pro: cheap & simple (without the use of big technical devices) con: high loss of water through evaporation, so a lot of water is needed to irrigate the fields properly; higher chance of soil salinisation - Sprinkler irrigation: water is applied to the soil surface in a controlled manner that is similar to rainfall; either permanent or moving (often as carousels) suitable for most row, field and tree crops that grow closely together, e.g. grains, sugarcane, cotton, vegetables, fruits, flowers; mostly even areas needed pro: less water loss than with irrigation channels; water is distributed evenly across the field; fertiliser & pesticides can be mixed with water and spread easily con: high evaporation and thus water loss on hot days; uneven distribution on windy days; higher implementation & energy costs - Drip irrigation: small water pipes/hoses are placed directly into the root zone (on the surface or buried below) to minimize evaporation and achieve the most efficient water absorption by the plant suitable for row & tree crops like on fruit & vegetable plantations; possible on every terrain pro: saves water & nutrients by allowing water to drip slowly to the plant’s roots; fertiliser & pesticides can be mixed with water and spread easily con: the implementation is very expensive & labour-intensive – not everybody can afford it Fertilizers → substance such as animal waste (manure) or a chemical mixture of nitrates that is spread on the ground in order to make plants grow more successfully (increasing their productivity) Pesticides → chemical substance to kill insects/pests Herbicides → chemical substance to kill weeds 2 Green Revolution - = widespread introduction of industrial agriculture into developing countries since the middle of the 20th century (~1940s-1970s) - Result: Great increase in the production of food grains (especially wheat, rice & corn) by the introduction of new high-yielding varieties as well as modern agricultural technologies (machinery, irrigation, chemicals etc.) in developing countries (esp. Mexico, the Indian subcontinent, the Philippines and Indonesia) - Pro: greater yields + more than 1 harvest a year → feeding the population in times of great population growth (self-sufficiency) → enabling food exports (increased income which can then be used to develop the country) due to higher yields per field, there is less demand for new arable land → saving natural habitats of flora & fauna (e.g. forests) less deaths of famine in the respective countries - Con: new varieties need large amounts of chemical fertilizers, pesticides & irrigation → harmful effects on the soil, humans & the environment promotes monocultures → loss of species diversity small farmers cannot afford the seeds of the new varieties, the fertilizers or pesticides → increasing social disparities increasing global power of multinational corporations selling the new varieties old varieties were often better adapted to local conditions and were sometimes more resistant to pests & diseases Future: - Finding more sustainable ways to provide food for the growing world population - Water-saving irrigation methods; increasing the use of natural fertilizers & pesticides - Cultivating/breeding varieties that are resistant to drought, flooding or salt more and more genetically modified (GM) food plants with special characteristics → however, unknown effects on humans & the environment Environmental problems of agriculture: - Water pollution (e.g. through chemical fertilizers/pesticides) - Sinking ground-water level (e.g. through intensive irrigation) water shortage - Soil salinisation (especially in arid regions with high evaporation and through intensive irrigation without drainage) - Soil erosion and degradation: natural erosion through wind, water, heat, melting snow and gravitation erosion caused by humans through intensive livestock or food crop farming, soil compaction and deforestation (lack of shrubs and trees that protect the soil from natural factors) soil erosion & salinisation cause soil degradation → permanent, irreversible change or loss of soil → loss of arable land → desertification - Desertification: causes: ○ population growth → higher demand in food and natural resources ○ cultivation of land despite unfavourable natural conditions ○ overexploitation and improper land use (deforestation [also for firewood], over- grazing, high water consumption, cash crops in monocultures) consequences: ○ carrying capacity of the soil is exceeded → salinisation + erosion + degradation ➔ once arable land turns into a desert, causing hunger, poverty, social & political tension (which leads to migration and flight) countermeasures: ○ crop rotation, wind breakers (shrubs, stone walls), controlled irrigation, terracing, cultivation of salt-tolerant plants, smaller herds, agroforestry → educating the local population about such sustainable cultivation methods; “bottom-up” 3 Feedlots: open cowshed with a capacity of about 200.000 cattle with labour - saving, technical investments to feed the animals and remove their manure => intensive livestock farming/factory farming („Massentierhaltung“) especially in Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma & Texas fattening an animal within 6 months with special food (e.g. corn, soy) + additives in the food for faster growth + antibiotics —> meat sold cheaply to supermarkets and fast food chains environment: soil degradation, high demand in water, lots of manure that needs to be disposed of animal husbandry = Viehhaltung humane husbandry = artgerecht Tierhaltung Greenport —> a cluster of companies needed for greenhouse cultivation farms which produce horticultural products logistics maintenance quality control research centres auctions fertilisers & other equipment packaging —> advantages: exchange of knowledge & material short and cheep transport efficient production Agricultural terms - agribusiness/ agrobuisness structural change: change in a socio-economic structure for improvement —> in agriculture = change from traditional ways to intensification & specialisation for mass production intensification: increased yields through high investments & intensive measures like fertilisation, use of machinery, GE (genetic engineering) etc. specialisation: reducing the production diversity by producing only one crop/ type of livestock by outsourcing caretaking tasks (e.g. supply & processing) for easier organisation & lower costs mechanisation: increased use of machinery (e.g. tractors, harvesters, feeding robots) for faster and more cost-effective cultivation/ production agribusiness = business of agricultural mass production includes various businesses that are involved in the production process: growing crops, supply seeds, farm equipment, processing of crops, marketing/selling crops on a large scale, often done by big private companies Aquaculture / Aquafarming cultivation/ farming of salt and fresh water aquatic organisms (fish, crustaceans, molluscs, plants) in water under controlled conditions (e.g. cages) for production can be contrasted with commercial fishing (=the catching of wild fish) which leads to overfishing + plastic pollution Ecological agriculture / farming: agriculture in harmony with nature and with a mix of traditional techniques and modern scientific advances farm = „organic“ with the components human, animal, plant and soil mostly closed nutrient cycle to uphold and improve soil fertility + to keep livestock appropriately ensures healthy farming & food for the present & future by protecting soil, water & climate promotes biodiversity and does not contaminate the environment with chemical input or genetic engineering ,QIREODWWbNRORJLVFKHU/DQGEDX 6FKHPDGHVbNRORJLVFKHQ/DQGEDXV.OHWW bNRORJLVFKHU/DQGEDX:LUWVFKDIWHQLP(LQNODQJPLWGHU1DWXU 'HU/HLWJHGDQNHGHVgNRORJLVFKHQ/DQGEDXVLVWHLQ:LUWVFKDIWHQLP(LQNODQJPLWGHU1DWXU'HUODQGZLUWVFKDIWOLFKH%HWULHE ZLUGYDDOVHLQ2UJDQLVPXVPLWGHQ%HVWDQGWHLOHQ0HQVFK7LHU3kDQ]HXQG%RGHQZDKUJHQRPPHQ'LH0HWKRGHQGHV 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cancer cells or new viruses Can be made more nutritious → there may be no natural → e.g. helping people with a defense against new viruses vitamin deficiency in poor → possible destruction of plants, countries animals, even humans Can provide immunization against Lack of obligatory labeling diseases and viruses, e.g. by food → people are unaware that they → cheaper + easier way than are consuming GM food vaccinating - However, labeling is a costly process and could mean higher food prices for consumers Generally cheaper in production → cost savings can be passed on Superiority of a few multinational to consumers corporations in GM food → patenting new genes Scientific evidence: necessity (feeding → rising seeds prices the growing population) + safe use of → widening gap between the GM food wealthy and the poor (small farmers + farmers in third world countries) Necessity of proceeding with caution to avoid unintended, disastrous effects on humans and the natural environment