GEO312 Exam PDF

Artificial Intelligence (AI) - AI Encompasses technologies enabling machines to mimic human intelligence. - Includes decision trees, logic-based systems, and machine learning, with subsets like Generative AI (GenAI) for content creation. - AI Evolution: Tools mimicking human c...

Artificial Intelligence (AI) - AI Encompasses technologies enabling machines to mimic human intelligence. - Includes decision trees, logic-based systems, and machine learning, with subsets like Generative AI (GenAI) for content creation. - AI Evolution: Tools mimicking human cognition using decision trees, logic, and machine learning. - Generative AI (GenAI): Produces new content (text, images, code) based on learned patterns. - Large Language Models (LLMs): Specialized for text processing (summarization, translation, dialogue) - Machine learning includes deep learning, focusing on data pattern recognition. - AI “understands” data structures to generate similar but unique outputs. - LLMs lack comprehensive user manuals; self-exploration is key. - Ethan Mollick’s “Fourth Rule”: Assume today’s AI is the least capable you’ll ever use. - AI capabilities double every 5–14 months, varying by task complexity. - AI progresses from word generation to conversation and problem-solving. - LLMs require about 10 hours of use for basic functional expertise. - AI tools improve autonomous navigation, disease diagnosis, and decision-making. - Ethical concerns arise from AI’s imperfections and biases in outputs. - Advanced AI models may replace repetitive tasks, impacting job markets. - The future of AI involves integration with planning and negotiation systems. History of Las Vegas - The USA was under Prohibition from 1920 to 1933 and alcohol was banned, but there were “underground” bars and brothels on one block in the city (the infamous Block 16), where one could also gamble. 1930s Growth: - Hoover Dam construction (1931-1936) brought jobs and economic stability. - Gambling legalized in Nevada (1931); casinos like the Northern Club opened. - Liberal divorce and marriage laws attracted visitors. 1940s-50s Expansion: - WWII industries like Basic Magnesium attracted Black workers from the South.  - Casinos proliferated, e.g., Flamingo (1946), spearheaded by organized crime figures like Bugsy Siegel. - Segregation confined Black residents to the Westside community. Post-War Boom: - The rise of themed resorts on the Strip (e.g., The Sands, 1952; Riviera, 1956). - Organized crime’s influence grew through skimming and Teamster-funded projects like Caesars Palace. Corporate Transition (1960s-70s): - Howard Hughes’ investments (e.g., Desert Inn) curbed mob influence. - Nevada laws allowed corporations to own casinos. - Modernization (1980s-2000s): - The Mirage (1989) set the standard for mega-resorts with high-cost attractions and luxury themes. - Family-friendly attempts faded, giving way to exclusive luxury-focused developments. Recent Developments: - COVID-19 disrupted tourism; recovery marked by projects like the MSG Sphere and Resorts World (2020). - Climate adaptation with infrastructure like the “Third Straw” water tunnel (2015) - Climate challenges led to water infrastructure projects like the “Third Straw” tunnel. - Las Vegas transitioned from mob-run operations to corporate-controlled casinos. - Organized crime played a significant role in shaping early Las Vegas. Housing in Las Vegas - CIDs (Common Interest Developments): Dominated new developments, emphasizing gated communities, HOAs, and privatized amenities. - Homelessness Challenges: Severe affordable housing shortages (e.g., only 13 units per 100 low-income households) and high homelessness rates. - Gated communities with private amenities, governed by Homeowners Associations (HOAs). - Benefits include enhanced property values, amenities, and maintenance services. - Criticisms: Exclusionary practices, privatized services, and reduced civic engagement.  - Homeowners Associations (HOAs) govern CIDs with strict rules and fees. - CIDs enforce strict regulations on home aesthetics and behavior. - Las Vegas requires HOAs for new developments with landscaped areas. - CIDs can restrict freedom of speech (e.g., campaign signs and complaints). - Las Vegas has one of the highest homelessness rates in the U.S. - Solutions like Housing First prioritize permanent housing with support services. Social and Economic Structures - Social Classes: Divided into four tiers (upper, middle, working, and lower), with income and education as key differentiators. - Economic Inequality: The 1% captured disproportionate income growth; productivity gains often bypassed workers. - HOAs and Social Dynamics: HOAs act as quasi-governments, limiting constitutional rights and fostering privatized governance. - The upper class derives wealth from investments, not wages. - The middle class includes professionals and small business owners. - The working class relies on skilled labor but faces job instability. - The lower class, or precariat, deals with poverty and lack of benefits. - Social mobility in the U.S. is limited compared to Nordic countries. - Education is a key factor in increasing mobility but isn’t sufficient alone. - Economic inequality widened as the top 1% captured disproportionate gains. - The post-war consensus emphasized welfare and collaborative labor relations. - Policies since the 1970s reduced union power and worker protections. - Right-to-Work laws weakened unions and collective bargaining. - Productivity gains no longer translate to wage growth for most workers. - Intergenerational wealth transfer perpetuates class disparities. - The precariat is overrepresented among the homeless and marginalized groups. - Social class now influences consumption patterns more than production roles. Homelessness Issues - Key Factors: Lack of affordable housing, suburban NIMBY attitudes, and systematic urban policies marginalizing the homeless. - Anti-Homeless Measures: Criminalization of homelessness (e.g., bans on camping, feeding programs) and “hostile architecture.” - Proposed Solutions: “Housing First” initiatives aimed at permanent housing with supportive services. - Defining Homelessness: Includes rough sleepers, car dwellers, and those in shelters. Causes: Gentrification, family breakdown, domestic violence, and economic instability.  - Anti-Homeless Policies: Criminalization: Bans on camping, panhandling, and public feeding. - Hostile architecture: Designed to deter loitering (e.g., anti-sleeping benches, noise deterrents). - Las Vegas criminalizes activities like camping, panhandling, and feeding programs. - Las Vegas has the second-worst affordable housing shortage in the U.S. - NIMBY attitudes hinder shelter and affordable housing development. - The 2023 estimate for homeless individuals in Southern Nevada was 16,251. - Anti-homeless strategies include clearing encampments and restrictive ordinances. - Critics highlight that criminalization shifts the issue rather than solving it. - Shelters face criticism for strict rules, separation of families, and curfews. - Anti-loitering laws and “leafblower” approaches relocate homelessness issues. - Public opinion often supports homelessness initiatives but opposes local siting. - Advocacy groups push for visible recognition of homelessness to spur action. - Homelessness arises from economic instability, social dislocation, and personal challenges. - Affordable housing shortages force many into homelessness or overcrowded living conditions. - Gentrification and slum clearance reduce affordable housing in urban centers. - Suburban NIMBYism blocks low-income housing and shelters. - Shelters often impose strict rules, discouraging use by the homeless. - High rates of substance abuse and mental illness complicate homelessness solutions. - Advocacy groups focus on making homelessness visible to spur public action. - The Housing First approach prioritizes stable housing with supportive services. - Homelessness is concentrated in large cities, especially downtown areas. - Anti-homeless measures displace populations without addressing root causes. - Las Vegas criminalized sitting or camping in certain areas under threat of fines or jail. - The city’s homeless population includes “rough sleepers,” shelter users, and car dwellers. - Public and private spaces form critical survival networks for homeless individuals. Economic Theories - Marxism: Focused on class struggles between capital owners (bourgeoisie) and workers (proletariat). - Modern Developments: Corporate capitalism reshaped power dynamics; meritocracy emphasized education’s role in social mobility.  - Workers’ wages stagnated despite rising productivity. - Meritocracy and Mobility: Education and occupational selection now critical to class status. Intergenerational mobility is limited, especially for Black families in the U.S. - Marxist Critiques: Class struggle remains central, with corporations dominating modern capitalism. Workers depend on jobs more than corporations depend on workers, enabling exploitation. - Policy Shifts: Deregulation, reduced union power, and tax cuts for the wealthy widened the wage-productivity gap. - Impact on Workers: Decline in union membership and fewer strikes since the 1970s eroded collective bargaining power. - Marx emphasized class struggle between the bourgeoisie (owners) and proletariat (workers) - Modern capitalism shifted power from individuals to corporations. - Workers’ dependence on corporations enables exploitation and wage suppression. - Deregulation since the 1970s reduced union power and widened income inequality. - The wage-productivity gap grew as productivity outpaced wages significantly. - Right-to-Work laws weakened union influence, reducing collective bargaining power. - Unions in Right-to-Work states represent both members and non-members, diluting their resources. - The post-war consensus promoted government intervention, welfare, and union cooperation. - By the late 20th century, neoliberal policies eroded worker protections. - Tax cuts and deregulation favored the wealthy, exacerbating income disparities. - Globalization increased labor supply, creating downward pressure on wages. - Social mobility in the U.S. is lower compared to Canada and Nordic countries. - Marxist critiques highlight growing wealth gaps despite reduced absolute poverty. - Capitalism’s focus on consumption redefines social class beyond production roles. - Education and occupational selection are now key to meritocratic mobility. Gated Communities - Characteristics: Privatized public services, physical barriers fostering exclusivity, and HOA governance.  - Criticism: Segregation, insularity, and undermining of broader community engagement. - Gated communities are widespread in countries with income inequality. - Canadian gated communities are less exclusive and security-focused than U.S. counterparts. - U.S. gated communities often reflect income inequality. - Gates and walls symbolize status but also create urban segregation. - HOA fees fund amenities but add financial burdens to residents. - Privatized governance shifts costs away from municipalities to homeowners. - “Government by legal contract” undermines broader social contracts. - Gated communities lack connectivity, reducing urban vitality. - Age-restricted communities dominate gated developments in Canada. - HOAs are quasi-governments but evade constitutional and legal regulations. - Their global spread is fueled by marketing leisure, security, and exclusivity. Las Vegas and Urban Development - Tourism and Pedestrian Infrastructure: The Strip transformed into a pedestrian-friendly area with attractions, shopping malls, and entertainment hubs. - Cultural Impact: Las Vegas epitomizes consumer culture and hyperreality, inspiring critiques from social theorists like Jean Baudrillard. - Tourism and Urban Development in Las Vegas - Las Vegas’ economy relies heavily on tourism and the hospitality industry. - The Strip evolved into a pedestrian-friendly hub with shopping, attractions, and casinos. - The Mirage (1989) marked a new era of mega-resorts with themed experiences - COVID-19 disrupted tourism, but recovery efforts introduced new projects like the MSG Sphere. - Water supply challenges led to infrastructure investments like the “Third Straw.” - Casinos transitioned from family-friendly themes to exclusivity and luxury branding. - Organized crime played a foundational role in early casino development. - The decline of Atlantic City as a competitor renewed Las Vegas’ focus on innovation. - Fremont Street remains a historic hub with older-style casinos. - The image of Las Vegas is carefully marketed to attract a global audience. - Social theorists view Las Vegas as a symbol of consumerism and hyperreality. - Themed resorts faded, with modern developments emphasizing luxury over design.  - Corporate ownership of casinos dominates the Strip, led by MGM and Caesars Entertainment. - Climate challenges threaten Las Vegas’ sustainability, with a focus on resource management. - Las Vegas serves as a model for urban development and postmodern critique. Segregation - Critical Race Theory (CRT) Developed in the 1970s and 1980s as a critique of traditional civil rights approaches. Argues that race is a social construct used to establish and maintain power hierarchies. - Central idea of CRT: racism is embedded in legal systems and social institutions, not just individual biases. - The 13th Amendment, abolishing slavery, was passed in January 1865 after Lincoln’s support post-re-election. - Officially adopted on December 6, 1865, after ratification by two-thirds of Northern states. - Mississippi ratified the amendment only in February 2013, completing the ratification process for all states. - Racial identifiers (e.g., Black, White, Hispanic) are often capitalized to signify their status as proper nouns. - Enforced spatial isolation occurs through: Defensive clustering:** Communities forming in response to discrimination. Market isolation: Limited housing access due to economic opportunity disparities leading to segregation in low-cost neighborhoods. - Congregation fosters mutual support, cultural preservation, and familiarity within minority communities. - Various cities have unique histories with ethnic areas; Las Vegas's growth is relatively recent compared to older cities. - - The Housing Act of 1934 and the Fair Housing Act (1968) ended official policies of segregation. - Detroit’s Eight Mile Wall: Built in 1940 as a separation between a developing all-White subdivision and an existing Black community. - The wall symbolized systematic racism and exclusion in housing development. - FHA approved loans for housing developments that excluded Blacks. - Public Housing Act of 1937 created local housing authorities with discretionary power to develop public housing, leading to uneven distribution. Challenges in Public Housing - Persistent funding issues hindered the construction and maintenance of authorized units. - Racial and income/ethnic segregation established in the 1950s due to explicit policies. - Public housing projects often located in low-income areas; once Black families moved in, White families tended to relocate. - New constructions were generally of poor quality and inadequately maintained. - Homeownership is linked to wealth accumulation and intergenerational wealth transfer. - Racial disparities evident in family income (1.5 times higher for Whites) and family wealth (8 times higher for Whites). - Segregation is a constructed outcome, with concentrated poverty among Blacks compared to Whites. - Black communities experience disinvestment, resulting in lack of infrastructure, including essential services. - Affordable housing is primarily situated in impoverished neighborhoods with limited job opportunities. - Environmental hazards disproportionately affect poor, Black communities. - Reconstruction Era (1863-77) followed the devastation of the Southern economy post-Civil War, leading to the emergence of 4 million newly freed Black citizens. - Initial appeasement policies by President Andrew Johnson shifted to a Radical Reconstruction approach under a Republican Congress, ensuring legal rights for Blacks. - The Civil Rights Bill was passed by overriding Johnson's veto, marking a significant legislative achievement. - Freedmen's Bureau: Established in 1865 to assist former slaves and impoverished Whites in the South post-Civil War. - The Redeemers, a Democratic political coalition, emerged during the Reconstruction Era and dominated Southern politics from the 1870s to 1910s. - Anti-Miscegenation Laws in Nevada (1929): Prohibited intermarriage between Caucasians and individuals of specific races (Ethiopian, Malay, Mongolian). The Hays Code (1930) forbade depictions of miscegenation in films. - The Supreme Court's Loving v. Virginia (1967) declared state anti-miscegenation laws unconstitutional. - Racial Zoning Practices: Baltimore (1910-11) and other cities employed zoning laws to restrict Black populations. - Jim Crow Era Developments (1930s – 1960s): By the 1940s, Las Vegas city ordinances confined Black residents to Westside housing. Black businesses faced licensing restrictions and increased segregation in housing, healthcare, and schooling. Infrastructure disparities existed, with neglected services in predominantly Black areas. - The NAACP began anti-discrimination efforts in 1939; public housing initiatives like Marble Manor started in 1952. - Significant judicial rulings like Brown v. Board of Education (1954) challenged school segregation. - I-15 routing decision (1956) negatively impacted Westside communities. - A city ordinance banned Black dealers in casinos in 1958. - The first open housing law in Nevada was enacted in 1971, effectively banning redlining practices. Inconvenient Indian - Indian: Term acknowledged for its inherent absurdity; seen as racist by some. - In Canada: Often frowned upon, yet utilized by organizations like the Saskatchewan Indian Gaming Authority. - In U.S.: Generally accepted, insisted on by organizations such as American Indian Movement. - Tribal/national identities (e.g., Paiute, Mojave, Hopi) preferred by some over collective identities. - Collective terms necessary for broader identification (e.g., Europeans, Pasifika). - In the U.S: Indians, Alaskan Natives (Yupik, Inupiat, Aleuts) Native Hawaiians - In Canada: First Nation, Inuit, Metis (similar to Mestizos in Mexico) - Range of social organizations and cultural practices among Indigenous peoples. - Varying systems from nomadic, egalitarian hunters to urbanized, stratified horticulturalists. - Evidence from Denevan (1992) suggesting a humanized landscape due to Indigenous populations altering environments - Significant population decline in Mexico from 1518 to 1605: 1518: 25.2 million 1605: 1.075 million (97.5% decline) - Henry Dobyns (1983): Identified 93 epidemics affecting Indigenous Americans (1520-1918). - Diseases: smallpox, measles, influenza, bubonic plague, tuberculosis. - 1763-1854: Separation (General Removal Act, 1830). - 1854-1887: Reservation System (Indian Appropriations Act,1851) - 1887-1934: Assimilation (General Allotment Act, 1887) - 1934-1953: Indian New Deal (Indian Reorganization Act, 1934). - 1953-1975: Tribal Termination (Termination Act, 1953). 1969-today: Resistance and confrontation. - 1989-today: Tribal development and self-reliance (Indian Gaming Regulatory Act, 1988). - King’s Proclamation Line of 1763 Established Indian Country west of the Appalachians after the French and Indian War. - Post-independence, U.S. claimed Indian lands based on perceived loss of war by tribes. - U.S. aimed at colonial expansion, with race-based actions against Indigenous peoples.  - Among Five Civilized Tribes, resistance to relinquishing land led to the General Removal Act of 1830. - Indian Intercourse Act (1834) initiated forced migration to reservations. State laws aimed at ending Cherokee sovereignty (e.g., Georgia laws against Cherokee mining). - The Cherokee Nation sought assimilation and took legal actions to assert their rights, leading to important court cases (Cherokee v. Georgia, Worcester v. Georgia Supreme Court ruled in favor of the Cherokees, but U.S. government didn't comply. Resulted in the Trail of Tears, causing extensive suffering and death during forced relocation - 1778-1871: Congress signed 371 treaties with various tribes, reflecting evolving federal Indian policies. - Shifted from recognizing sovereignty to unilateral termination of tribal status in 1871. Indian Appropriations Act established reservations, confining Indian nations Reservations often reduced through government fiat after 1871. - The Dawes Act (1887) Allowed individual allotments of reservation land to incentivize assimilation. Resulted in significant loss of tribal landholdings (from 138 million ha to 58 million ha by 1934). - Beginning in the late 19th century, boarding schools aimed to assimilate Native American children. First large school: Carlisle Indian Industrial School (1879). Policies included banning native languages and traditional practices. - Post-1934, Indian Reorganization Act encouraged political participation and preservation of traditions. - 1953 termination policies aimed at assimilating tribes and eliminating reservations. Democracy - The U.S. government was created by revolution, emphasizing individualism and distrust of government, while Canada was formed through legislation with a focus on collectivism and strong state authority. - The U.S. follows a classical liberal model with a focus on personal liberty, whereas Canada follows a conservative Tory model prioritizing peace, order, and good government. - The U.S. is a republic with an elected president serving as both head of state and government, while Canada is a constitutional monarchy with the British monarch as head of state represented by the Governor General. - In the U.S., power is divided among three branches (legislative, executive, judicial) to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful; in Canada, power is more consolidated under the Prime Minister. - The Canadian Prime Minister can override majority opinion and direct government policy, whereas the U.S. President’s powers are checked by Congress and the judiciary. - Both Canada and the U.S. have bicameral legislatures: Canada’s Parliament consists of the House of Commons and Senate; the U.S. Congress consists of the House of Representatives and Senate. - In Canada, legislation is ratified by the Governor-General once passed by both houses; in the U.S., it requires presidential approval or a two-thirds congressional override to pass. - Canadian Senators are appointed until age 75, while all members of the U.S. Congress are elected. - The Canadian system allows for greater control by the Prime Minister over party members compared to the U.S. system where Congress members have more independence. - The Canadian Constitution divides powers between federal and provincial governments; in contrast, the U.S. Constitution emphasizes checks and balances among branches. - Only two developed countries (U.S. and South Korea) directly elect their head of government; others use parliamentary systems where executive legitimacy comes from the legislature. - In Canada, local governments handle education, health care, and local issues, while the federal government handles defense, trade, foreign affairs. - The Canadian Parliament’s Senate serves as a house for “sober second thought,” providing oversight alongside lawmaking responsibilities shared with the House of Commons. - The American President can veto legislation from Congress but can be overridden by a supermajority vote; similarly, courts can declare laws unconstitutional. - Federal court appointments in the U.S. involve nomination by the President followed by Senate Judiciary Committee review and confirmation. - Both countries’ legislative bodies operate through decentralized committee structures to manage heavy workloads effectively. - Canada’s political culture is less populist compared to the U.S., which values ordinary people’s political voice highly. - The Canadian Prime Minister does not have term limits unlike the American President who serves a maximum of two four-year terms. - Canada’s hierarchical religious traditions support its conservative state model; in contrast, American congregational traditions reinforce individualism. - In practice, Canada’s federal government influences provincial responsibilities through control over transfer payments for programs like healthcare.  - Thomas Jefferson’s quotes highlight America’s revolutionary spirit valuing resistance against rulers to preserve liberties. - Differences in organizing principles between Canada and the U.S. continue to shape their distinct political systems today. - Canada’s Constitution Act guarantees peace, order, and good government as foundational principles for governance. - 2 Culture of Excess Greed is a psychological issue characterized by unchecked egoism and self-centeredness, leading to a perpetual craving for more material possessions. Socioculturally, greed is influenced by economic systems like capitalism, which incentivizes profit-seeking behavior and wealth accumulation. Las Vegas epitomizes the dream of becoming a millionaire overnight, fueling gambling and consumerism. The 2008-10 economic crisis was linked to speculative bubbles in the Las Vegas housing market. Las Vegas experienced massive in-migration, leading to an oversupply of housing by 2005. Speculative bubbles are unsustainable price increases driven by investor behavior rather than fundamental value. Problematic mortgages in the U.S. included subprime rates, weak documentation, and “liar loans.” Zero down payment mortgages and negative amortization loans contributed to housing market instability. The availability of loanable funds and soaring home prices fueled speculation and risky lending practices. Non-performing housing loans were concentrated in areas like Las Vegas, Phoenix, and South Florida. The collapse of the property bubble led to a crisis with many homeowners having negative equity. The 2008 subprime housing crisis resulted in increased foreclosures and vacancies, driving down prices. The recession caused a significant drop in median American family net worth and homeowner net worth. Las Vegas saw a dramatic decrease in home sale prices during the economic downturn. Foreclosures had a snowball effect, with properties selling below market value and deteriorating neighborhoods. A significant percentage of children were affected by foreclosure since 2007.  Clark County casino revenues dropped significantly during the recession, impacting local economies. Taxable sales in Nevada decreased across various sectors, including construction and motor vehicle parts. The construction industry in Nevada experienced a 28% decline in sales from July 2008 to July 2009. Merchant wholesalers of durable goods saw a 35.7% decrease in sales during the same period. Motor vehicle parts dealers experienced a 31.7% drop in sales from July 2008 to July 2009. General merchandise stores saw a 10.8% decline in sales during this time frame. Clothing and accessories stores experienced a 9.7% decrease in sales from July 2008 to July 2009. Food services and drinking places were one of the few sectors with an increase (+2.3%) in sales during this period. Moral Panic - Street gangs have historical roots, dating back to the 14th and 15th centuries in Europe, and were prevalent among immigrants in the U.S. during the early to mid-1800s. - Gangs formed for social and economic reasons, often with ethnic or immigrant ties, such as Irish, Chinese, Italian, Mexican-American, motorcycle gangs post-WWII, and African American gangs in the 1960s. - A street gang is typically defined as a group with three or more members aged 12–24, sharing an identity linked to a name or symbols, recognized by themselves and others as a gang. - Street gangs are distinguished from other types of gangs by their focus on territory or “turf” and involvement in criminal activities. - The number of cities reporting gang activity increased significantly from 58 in 1960 to 769 in 1992. - Gang involvement in drug distribution is significant, with law enforcement using various indicators to identify gang members. - Police methods for identifying gang members have evolved from association-based criteria to more restrictive measures requiring documented evidence. - Being labeled as a gang member can lead to harsher sentencing guidelines and legal consequences such as gang injunctions. - Social media monitoring has become a primary method for police to identify potential gang affiliations.  - The STEP Act of 1988 in California aimed to address perceived excessive violence by gangs, allowing for enhanced sentences based on gang membership. - The STEP Act also facilitated heavy-handed policing practices like stop-and-frisk based on criteria such as association with known gang members or wearing certain attire. - Racial and ethnic disparities exist in U.S. youth gang membership, with higher prevalence among minority groups compared to white youths. - Moral panics are characterized by exaggerated threats leading to societal fear and often target marginalized groups or behaviors deviating from cultural norms. - Moral panics can influence public opinion and policy decisions, sometimes resulting in lasting social change. - Historical examples of moral panics include hysteria over activities like drug use, rock music, sexual abuse, pornography, and drinking. - The concept of moral panic involves amplification of perceived threats through sensationalized media coverage and political rhetoric. - Gang databases have been criticized for lack of transparency; individuals may not be notified when added to these lists without committing crimes. - There are parallels between gang databases and other government lists like the FBI’s No-Fly List where individuals can be listed without notice or knowledge. - The racial composition of reported gang members shows significant representation of Hispanics and Blacks compared to Whites and Asians. - Misconceptions about crime rates often involve overestimations related to visible minorities and aboriginal populations in Canada. - Moral panics can be initiated intentionally to shape public opinion or policy decisions against certain groups or behaviors. - The political response to gangs often involves creating laws that increase surveillance and criminalization based on perceived threats rather than actual criminal activity. - Gang membership identification practices vary across jurisdictions but generally require multiple indicators substantiated by reliable information. - Legal consequences for those labeled as gang members can include deportation or restrictions on otherwise legal activities through injunctions. - Public perceptions of crime can be influenced by factors such as urban vs. rural settings, income levels, and media portrayals. Mega Drought - Las Vegas is considered one of the least sustainable large cities in the U.S. due to its reliance on the Colorado River. - The Colorado River basin supplies water to about 40 million people across seven states and Mexico, irrigating approximately 4 million acres of farmland. 90% - An acre-foot is a unit of volume used in the U.S. to measure large-scale water resources, equivalent to 325,851 gallons. - The Colorado River Compact and subsequent agreements allocate water among the states and Mexico. - Lake Mead and Lake Powell are critical reservoirs for water storage and hydroelectric power generation. - The current drought has led to historically low river flows, exacerbated by higher temperatures increasing evaporation rates. - Climate change is expected to further reduce river flows due to rising temperatures, with potential declines of 20% by mid-century and 35% by end-century. - A Drought Contingency Plan was established in 2019 among California, Arizona, and Nevada to manage water shortages from Lake Mead. - Southern Nevada has implemented aggressive water conservation programs, reducing per capita consumption by 36% from 2002 to 2015. - Water banking strategies have been developed by Southern Nevada Water Authority (SNWA) to store unused water for future use. - Legal systems of water rights include riparian rights based on land ownership and appropriation rights based on actual use. - Tribal appropriation rights also play a role in water distribution in regions like New Mexico. - The risk of multidecadal megadroughts increases with continued global warming. - Las Vegas relies heavily on the Colorado River for its water supply, with significant infrastructure investments like Intake #3 at Lake Mead. - The probability of Lake Mead’s elevation falling below critical levels poses a threat to water availability and hydroelectric power generation. - Arizona, Nevada, and California have agreed to share cutbacks in water usage during shortages as part of the Drought Contingency Plan. - Water conservation efforts include incentives for removing grass lawns and installing low-flow appliances. - Population growth in Southern Nevada has increased demand for water despite conservation efforts. - Salinity levels in reservoirs could rise above legal standards if current trends continue, affecting water quality. - Hydroelectricity generation could be significantly reduced due to lower reservoir levels impacting power output from dams like Hoover Dam. - The Southern Nevada Water Authority’s historical and projected water demand highlights challenges in meeting future needs.  - Climate models predict that temperature-driven declines in river flow will not be offset by potential increases in precipitation in the Upper Basin. - The All-American Canal plays a crucial role in delivering Colorado River water to California and Mexico. - Historical droughts have shown that temperature increases have a more significant impact on river flows than precipitation declines alone. - Water rights conflicts are resolved based on reasonable use under riparian rights or priority under appropriation rights. Lost Wages - Gambling involves a prize, consideration, and chance, with games categorized as either pure chance or some skill. - Expected value in gambling represents the average outcome over many bets, often resulting in a loss due to the house advantage. - Casino games must be entertaining, appear to have reasonable odds for players, but actually favor the casino. - Slot machines and table games are popular in casinos, with slot machines generating significant revenue. - Technological advancements have increased gambling accessibility and tempo, with innovations like dealerless games and player tracking systems. - RFID technology is used in casinos for tracking chips and player activity, enhancing security and data collection. - The gambler’s fallacy is the mistaken belief that past outcomes affect future probabilities in games of chance. - Casinos use real-time analytics to monitor player behavior and manage customer experiences through personalized comps. - Roulette has a house edge of about 5.26%, meaning players typically lose over time. - Blackjack is a card game where players aim to get closer to 21 than the dealer without exceeding it. - Craps is a dice game with various betting options based on the roll outcomes. - Baccarat involves betting on whether the “player” or “banker” hand will have a higher score or if it will be a tie. - Slot machines use virtual reel mapping to create near-miss effects, influencing player perception of winning chances. - Casino revenues include not only gaming but also shows, retail sales, and other services. - Nevada’s gaming industry reports substantial annual wins from both slot machines and table games. - Casinos calculate individual pain points for players to manage their experiences and encourage continued play. - The American Gaming Association (AGA) provides data on commercial and tribal casinos’ operations and revenues. - Cashless machines and RFID chips enhance casino operations by tracking transactions and preventing fraud. - The Nevada State Gaming Control Board oversees gaming activities and reports financial data for transparency. - Roulette offers various betting options with different probabilities, affecting expected values for players. - Slot machine profits per square foot surpass those of table games like blackjack and craps in Nevada casinos. - Video slot machines offer multiple paylines, increasing complexity and engagement for players. - Casinos utilize advanced surveillance systems to ensure security for both operators and patrons. - The influence of technological change has led to more interactive and immersive gambling experiences. - Real-time monitoring allows casinos to adjust strategies based on player behavior patterns.