General Botany (BMIC 101) 2024 PDF

‫)‪General Botany (BMIC 101‬‬ ‫‪Prepared by‬‬ ‫‪Dr. Mahmoud Saadeldin‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪Message of Faculty of science Sohag university‬‬ ‫رؤية و رسالة كلية العلوم جامعة سوهاج‬...

‫)‪General Botany (BMIC 101‬‬ ‫‪Prepared by‬‬ ‫‪Dr. Mahmoud Saadeldin‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪Message of Faculty of science Sohag university‬‬ ‫رؤية و رسالة كلية العلوم جامعة سوهاج‬ ‫رؤية الكلية‬ ‫أن تكون كلية العلوم جامعة سوهاج رائدة في مجاﻻت التعليم والبحث العلمي وخدمة المجتمع المحلى واﻹقليمي والدولي‪.‬‬ ‫رسالة الكلية‬ ‫تلتزم كلية العلوم جامعة سوهاج بإعداد خريج متميز في العلوم اﻷساسية والتطبيقية‪ ،‬يناسب سوق العمل وباحثين ذوي كفاءة‬ ‫عالية للمساهمة في مجاﻻت البحث العلمي والتنمية في ضوء رسالة الجامعة والمعايير القومية للجودة واﻻعتماد وقيم المجتمع‪.‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬  Course Outline Week No. Topic 1 Introduction and Classification of living organisms 2 Plant cell structure and function 3 Viruses 4 Bacteria 5,6 Fungi 7 Algae 8 Plant systematics 9 Plant Tissues 3 What are we going to study? Structure of plant cell and functions of organelles Viruses (shapes, types,….etc) Bacteria (shapes, structure, reproduction, …etc) Fungi (Morphology, structure, reproduction,…etc) Algae (groups, characteristics, reproduction, …etc) Non-vascular plants (e.g. Mosses) Seedless vascular plants (e.g. ferns) Gymnosperms (e.g. pine and cycad) Flowering plants ( structure of flower Monoct & Dicot) Types of plant tissues Anatomy of plant organs (Root, Stem & leaf). 4 2 5 Classification of living organisms Early scientists classified organisms as either Animal or Plant. Animals moved, had nervous systems and showed heterotrophic nutrition, among other features. Plants, in contrast, were photosynthetic with a cell wall enclosing the cytoplasm. Bacteria and fungi aren't usually photosynthetic but as they have cell walls they were looked upon as being plant-like. In this simple system of plants and animals, "plants" which had no recognizable shoot/root/leaf regions were said to have a body termed a thallus and were termed Thallophytes. 6 3  Classification of living world  In this earliest classification system: bacteria, fungi and algae were all put into this grouping (Thallophytes).  Based on cell structure we can divide organisms into: prokaryotes and eukaryotes.  The eukaryotic cells (e.g. plants, animals and fungi) have a nucleus, internal membrane systems (i.e. organelles like mitochondria).  Prokaryotic organisms don’t have nucleus and without internal cellular organelles. 7 Main taxonomic ranks Latin English vitae life regio domain regnum kingdom phylum phylum classis class ordo order familia family genus genus species species 8 4  Classification of living organisms Six Kingdom classification by Cavalier-Smith (2004): A. Prokaryote domain: 1. Bacterial Kingdom: including the cyanobacteria (once called blue- green algae). B. Eukaryote domain: 2. Plant Kingdom - all land plants as well as green and red algae. 3. Animal Kingdom - motile, heterotrophic eukaryotic organisms, the cells of which are not surrounded by cell walls. 9 Classification of living organisms 4. Fungal Kingdom - non-motile, cell wall-bound, spore-bearing eukaryotes with a saprobic or parasitic mode of heterotrophic nutrition, and with chitin cell wall. 5. Protozoan Kingdom- eukaryotic, motile unicells, and include Myxomycetes. 6. Chromist Kingdom - includes brown algae, golden algae, yellow-green algae, diatoms, and water molds (Straminopiles). 10 5  Tree of life based on phylogeny  Living organisms are in three domains: A. Bacteria domain. B. Archaea domain. C. Eukaryote domain: (Kingdoms of Plant, Animal, Fungi, Protozoa and Chromista). 11 Tree of life based on phylogeny Prokaryotes 12 6 13 Classification of organisms The grouping of organisms into Kingdoms is based on three factors: 1. Cell type – 2 kingdoms are prokaryotic; 4 kingdoms are eukaryotic 2. Cell wall – 4 of the 6 kingdoms have a cell wall 3. Body type – unicellular vs. multicellular 4. Nutrition – autotrophic vs. heterotrophic 5. Reproduction – sexual vs. asexual 14 7  Differences between plant cell and animal cell Both animal and plant cells have mitochondria, but only plant cells have chloroplasts. Both plant and animal cells have vacuoles. A plant cell contains a large, singular vacuole that is used for storage and maintaining the shape of the cell. In contrast, animal cells have many, smaller vacuoles. Plant cells have a cell wall, as well as a cell membrane. In plants, the cell wall surrounds the cell membrane. This gives the plant cell its unique rectangular shape. Animal cells simply have a cell membrane, but no cell wall. 15 Types of organisms that are made of plant cells Flowering plants Non- flowering plants (mosses, ferns, gymnosperms) Algae Fungi Bacteria 16 8  Plants fix carbon dioxide into energy- rich molecules where human & animals can use as food CO2 Plants convert CO2 gas into sugars through the process of photosynthesis. 17 Plants can produce an amazing assortment of chemicals CO2 18 9 19 20 10  We could not live without plants Plants produce most of the oxygen we breathe. Plants produce most of the chemically stored energy we consume as food and burn for fuel. Plants produce an assortment of useful chemicals. 21 22 11  General Botany (BMIC 101) Lecture (2) Prepared by Dr. Mahmoud Saadeldin 23 Plant cell structure and function 24 12  Introduction to the cellular structure What is the plant cell? The cell is the building unit of an organism. The unit of composition and the centre of the physiological processes of the organism and the transfer of genetic traits from one generation to another. 25 Introduction to the cellular structure History The first to identify the cell was the scientist Robert Hooke in 1665 and gave it the name Cell, where he noticed it as small holes organized in a tissue and did not distinguish its internal contents. In 1838, the two scientists, Shelden and Schwann, announced the cellular theory, which is that cells are the units of structure and function that make up an organism. 26 13  Types of cells Generally, there are two types of cells: Prokaryotic- cells that DO NOT have a well-defined NUCLEUS or other cell organelles Eukaryotic- cells have a NUCLEUS with nuclear membrane & cell organelles 27 Prokaryote cells Oldest of cell types- 3.5 billion years ago. Cells without nucleus. DNA in cytoplasm. Have a cell membrane. No membrane-bound organelles. Smaller and simpler than eukaryotic cells. Very diverse in their metabolic process: obligate aerobes (require O2), obligate anaerobes (killed by O2), and facultative anaerobes (can survive with or without O2). Ex., Bacteria and Cyanobacteria 28 14  Eukaryote cells First appeared 1.5 billion years ago. have DNA in nucleus Have a cell membrane.  larger than prokaryotic cells. Have membrane bound organelles (mitochondrion, chloroplast, Golgi apparatus, etc.) Most- highly specialized. Examples: Plants, animals, fungi, and protists. 29 Plant cell structure and function Cell wall A hard envelope that surrounds the cell and consists mainly of cellulose. Consists of :Middle lamella – mostly pectin, cements adjacent cells together,  Primary cell wall: Cellulose, hemicellulose, proteins, pectin, lignin, cutin, and wax. Secondary cell wall : hemicellulose and ligninis - characteristic of mature cells. Cells are connected with each other by plasmodesmata Function: Protection and giving the cell a definite shape 30 15  Plasma membrane Phospholipid bilayer with protein molecules (integral proteins) embedded within. Selectively permeable for materials (controls the entry of water and solutes into and out of the cell. 31 Cytoplasm A watery solution made of cytosol that contains the cell organelles. Contains salts, an assortment of organic molecules, e.g. many enzymes that catalyze reactions, as well as water. 32 16  Nucleus  The Nucleus is enclosed in an envelope which is a double membrane structure  With pore complexes in the membranes for the movement of materials in and out  Contains DNA and proteins in the form of loose threads called chromatin.  During mitosis or meiosis the chromatin supercoils to form chromosomes  The nucleolus - composed of RNA located in the nucleoplasm  The overall function of the nucleus is the regulation of cellular activities. 33 Plant Cell Organelles Plastids  Function in storage and photosynthesis  Amyloplasts (Leucoplastides) - White structure where starch is stored.  Chromoplasts Contain pigments - for colors of fruits and flower.  Chloroplasts: Double membrane structures – photosynthesis.  Chloroplast consists of : 1. Grana (A stack of thylakoids )- Each thylakoid consists of flattened sacs 2. stroma, the space in between the grana 34 17  Mitochondria  Tiny organelles in the cytoplasm that are round or rod- shaped. Consists of a double membrane structure with an outer membrane which surrounds a highly folded inner membrane.  The site of aerobic cellular respiration (ATP ) production- the powerhouse of the cell  The inner membrane has finger like projection called cristae which increase the surface area.  The inner space within the mitochondrion is called the matrix and contains cytoplasm, ribosomes, and DNA (mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA).  Mitochondria are self replicating 35 Golgi Apparatus (Dictyosome) A series of flattened, stacked, membrane sacs The Golgi apparatus is the center for manufacturing, modifying, and packaging of materials for transport (excretory). It receives secretory proteins from the RER and modifies and packages the materials in small secretory vesicles In plant cells it may be referred to as Dictyosome. 36 18  Ribosomes  The site of protein synthesis in the cell. The ribosome reads the messenger RNA (mRNA) sequence and translates that genetic code into a specified string of amino acids, which grow into long chains that fold to form proteins.  Found free floating in the cytoplasm or attached to the nuclear envelope or the rough endoplasmic reticulum.  Found in all prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells  Composed of two subunits.  Prokaryotic cells (70s) 70S ribosome in bacteria is composed of large 50S and small 30S ribosomal subunits.  Eukaryotic cells (80s) (large 60S and small 40S subunits). 37 Endoplasmic Reticulum  A series of single membrane channels which run throughout the cytoplasm of the cell.  Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) no ribosomes - functions in lipid synthesis, metabolism of carbohydrates, and as a detoxification center of the cell  Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)- with ribosomes bound to its outer membrane layer and is the active site of protein synthesis. 38 19  Vacuoles Are storage areas - serve as the site of chemical digestion within the cell Plant cells often have a large central vacuole - contains water and dissolved solutes, surrounded by a membrane called the tonoplast. Freshwater Protists contain specialized vacuoles - act as “water pumps” to remove excess water that enters their cytoplasm. These specialized vacuoles are called contractile vacuoles ( in algae). 39 General Botany (BMIC 101) Lecture (3) Prepared by Dr. Mahmoud Saadeldin 40 20  Course Outline Week No. Topic 1 Introduction and Classification of living organisms 2 Plant cell structure and function 3 Viruses 4 Bacteria 5,6 Fungi 7 Algae 8 Plant systematics 9 Plant Tissues 41 42 21  VIRUSES  Simple and acellular infectious agents.  Obligate intracellular parasites  Require the presence of a host cell in order to multiply.  Smaller than bacteria - pass through bacterial filters.  Seen only by electron microscope 43 44 22  Virus structure  Consisting of nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coat (capsid ) in non- enveloped viruses).  The capsid is composed of smaller protein components (capsomers).  The capsid+genome combination is called a nucleocapsid. 45 Virus structure  Some viruses have membranous layer surrounds the nucleocapsid, called an envelope (in enveloped viruses).  The envelope is actually acquired from the nuclear or plasma membrane of the infected host cell,  A complete virus, with all the components is referred to as a virion. 46 23  Virus Genome  Cells contain double-stranded DNA for their genome  In viruses, there are dsDNA -ssDNA –dsRNA and ssRNA  The ssRNA - positive-sense (+ssRNA, meaning it can transcribe a message, like mRNA)  or it can be negative-sense (-ssRNA, , i.e. it is complementary to mRNA).  Generally, a virus contains only one type of Nucleic acid (DNA or RNA but not both).  75% of plant viruses have genomes that consist of single stranded RNA (ssRNA), animal viruses (RNA or DNA). 47 48 24  Morphology of Viruses Based on shape, viruses can be classified into helical, icosohedral, spherical, complex. Spherical viruses: Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), herpes virus, poliovirus, and coronavirus. 49 50 25  Coronavirus 51 Virus Replication Cycle Replication cycle of viruses can vary from virus to virus- consisting of five steps Attachment –attaches to the correct host cell. Penetration or Viral Entry – the virus or viral nucleic acid entrance into the cell. Synthesis – the viral proteins and nucleic acid copies are manufactured by the cells’ machinery. Assembly – viruses are produced from the viral components. Release – newly formed virions are released from the cell. 52 26 53 The phage replicates without destroying the host The viral DNA molecule is incorporated into the host genome This integrated viral DNA is known as a provirus in the case of retroviruses or prophage in the case of prokaryotic viruses. When the host divides, prophage copies are produced, and passes the copies to daughter cells 54 27  An environmental signal (UV light, low nutrient conditions, or chemicals like mitomycin C, ) can trigger the virus genome to exit the bacterial chromosome and switch to the lytic mode Phages that use both the lytic and lysogenic cycles are called temperate phages 55 Kingdom : Bacteria 56 28  Kingdom: Bacteria EUBACTERIA  Bacteria are tiny, unicellular prokaryotic organisms.  They are cosmopolitan in their distribution and found in most of the habitats on earth like soil, marine and fresh water and inside or outside of large organisms.  Live as SAPROPHYTES, PARASITES (causing diseases), -SYMBIOTIC.  They can also live as autotrophes (photoautotroph or chemoautotroph). 57 58 29 59 Bacterial Morphology 60 30   Spherical are called cocci (Monococci - diplococci -streptococci - tetracocci (Tetrad), four cells in two planes,, sarcinae (three planes resulting in 8 cells, cubes) and staphylococci (like grape) 61 62 31   Rod-shaped are known as bacilli (monobacilli- diplobacilli- streptobacilli) 63 64 32   Spiral forms (spirilla) : Vibrion (comma or curved), spirillia (coiled forms with flagella), and spirochete (intermediate between bacteria and protozoa, they don’t have cell wall and flagella, move like a worm) 65 66 33  Bacterial cell structure A. Essential structures Any bacterial cell contains: 1.Cell wall (peptidoglycan) 2.Cytoplasmic membrane (Selective permeability. 3.Cytoplasm 4.Nuclear body (single circular DNA ) 67 B. Non Essential Structures: Not all bacteria may contain 1.Capsule (gelatinous- against phagocytosis and drying, and helps bacteria in adherence to surfaces. 2. Flagella (single Flagellum)-protein subunits (flagellin)-motility 3.Fimbria (pili) -hair-like surface appendages- Ordinary pili for bacterial adherence -Sex pili for transfer of genetic material (conjugation). 4.Inclusion granules: storage of energy or structural building blocks: volutin granules in Diphtheria bacilli (reservoir of inorganic phosphate 68 34  Reproduction in Bacteria 1. Binary fission- under favorable conditions - Cell divides into two similar daughter cells. The daughter cells soon grow to maturity within 20-30 minutes. 69 Reproduction in Bacteria 2. Spores: Bacteria can also reproduce asexually by endospore formation - gram positive bacteria-during unfavorable conditions: Common on Bacillus and Clostridium 70 35  Cyanobacteria (Prokaryotic algae )  Cyanobacteria are autotrophic gram-negative bacteria that can obtain biological energy by photosynthesis.  Prokaryotes and also called "blue-green algae.  Unlike heterotrophic prokaryotes, cyanobacteria have flattened sacs like internal membranes called thylakoids help in the photosynthesis.. 71 1. Membrane-bound organelles are absent 2. Cell wall: peptidoglycan 3. Pigments: Chlorophyll A: Imparts green color Phycocyanin: Imparts blue color Phycoerythrin: Imparts red color 4. Reserve food material: glycogen 5. Do not have chloroplast - photosynthetic lamella called thylakoids for photosynthesis. 6. Do not have mitosis or meiosis. 72 36  Cyanobacterial morphology 1. Unicellular: These are single-celled, having mucilage sheath covering, example Chroococcus 2. Colonial: individual cells colonize themselves. Examples: Microcystis sp. Filamentous: These exist in the form of a row of cell with or without a mucilage sheath outside. Examples: Oscillotoria and Nostoc 73 74 37  Nostoc Oscillatoria 75 Reproduction in Cyanobacteria Vegetative Reproduction Binary fission: Fragmentation Hormogonia Asexual Reproduction - unfavorable conditions Akinetes Heterocyst Endospores Exospores 76 38   Some filamentous species can differentiate into several cell types: Vegetative cells: normal, photosynthetic cells that are formed under favorable conditions. Akinetes: climate-resistant spores that may form when conditions become harsh. Heterocysts: contain the enzyme nitrogenase, vital for nitrogen fixation.  Many cyanobacteria form motile filaments of cells, called hormogonia, that travel away from the main biomass to bud and form new colonies elsewhere. 77 Economic importance of Cyanobacteria  Cyanobacteria improve the fertility of the soil because they can fix nitrogen.  used as food e.g. Spirulina.  produce many therapeutic drugs e.g., antibacterial, antiviral and anticancer.  can deplete the amount of oxygen in the water and leads to the death of aquatic organisms.  produce neurotoxins and hepatotoxins that affect plant, animal and human health. 78 39  General Botany (BMIC 101) Prepared by Dr. Mahmoud Saadeldin 79 Kingdom: FUNGI Prepared by Dr. Mahmoud Saadeldin Bakhit 80 40  General characteristics of fungi 1. Eukaryotic 2. Achlorophyllous ‫ﻻتحتوى ﻋلﻰ بﻼستيدات خضراء‬ 3. Heterotrophic ‫غير ذاتية التغذية‬ 4. Reproduce sexually and asexually 5. Saprobic and/or parasitic and symbiotic ‫تعيش‬ ‫معيشة مترممة أو متطفلة او متﻛاﻓلة‬ 6. Absorptive nutrition (Osmiotrophic : get their food by absorption) ‫تحصل ﻋلﻰ غذائها ﻋن طريق‬.‫اﻷمتصاص‬ 7. Spore producing. 81 General characteristics of fungi 8. Unicellular (yeast), filamentous or dimorphic. 9. Surrounded by cell wall that contain fungal chitin. 10. Composed of branched somatic structures known as hyphae. 11. Most are aerobes or facultative anaerobes (Not obligate anaerobes) 12. Food storage - lipids and glycogen 13. Cytoplasmic membrane contains Ergosterols. 82 41  Fungal Morphology  Two basic morphological forms: 1. Molds 2. Yeasts (Budding fungi). In addition some fungi are 3. Dimorphic (can switch between yeast and mold forms) 83 Molds (filamentous fungi) Growth- by production of hyphae. Hyphae are long tubular branching filaments of fungal cells. The mass of intertwined hyphae – called a mycelium. Septate (divided by septa) Non-septate (not divided by septa). 84 42  Yeast Unicellular fungi. Usually spherical or oval in shape. Most yeasts reproduce by budding 85 Dimorphic fungi Some species of fungi are dimorphic capable of growth as a yeast or mold depending on environmental conditions: In nature or when incubated at 25°C they occur in a mold form In infected tissues or when incubated at 37°C, they occur in a yeast form. 86 43 87 Fungal Reproduction  Fungi reproduce asexually and/or sexually.  most commonly- spores.  The type of spore and the way in which they develop are important in identification and classification of the different species of fungi. 88 44  Yeast Reproduction Yeast usually reproduces asexually through budding process. 89 Mold Reproduction Molds reproduce by producing large numbers spores. Mold spores can be asexual (the products of mitosis) or sexual (the products of meiosis). 90 45  Sexual reproduction in fungi  involves three phases: Plasmogamy (fusion of protoplasm), Karyogamy (fusion of nuclei) and Meiosis  Sexual fusion in fungi is of different types including planogametic copulation, gametangial contact and spermatization - no gametes, sexual process occurs by minute spore called spermatia (male) and receptive hyphae (female) 91 Benefits that we get from fungi 1. Food (e.g. edible mushroom and ascomycetes), cheese production, wine and soy sauce. 2. Antibiotic producers (e.g. Penicillin, cephalosporin). 3. Fungi produce alcohols, organic acids (Citric acid, oxalic acid, gluconic acid, Kojic acid), organic solvents, vitamins, fatty acids and pigments. 4. Organic matter decomposer. 5. Degrade harmful compounds (e.g. heavy metals, herbicides etc…) 92 46  Produce antibiotic 93 Edible mushroom and ascomycetes 94 47  Cheese, wine and soy sauce production. 95 Harmful effects Plant disease (e.g Rusts, Smuts). Damage to timber and timber products. Destruction of food, paper and cloths. Animal and human diseases including allergies (ZYGOMYCOSIS, ASPERGILLOSIS, BLASTOMYCOSIS, BASIDIOMYCOSIS). Toxins produced by poisonous mushrooms and within food(e.g. grain, crops etc.) Aflatoxin Aspergiulus flavus - Ochratoxins A. ochraceus, Fumonisin Fusarium spp. 96 48  (ZYGOMYCOSIS, ASPERGILLOSIS, BLASTOMYCOSIS, BASIDIOMYCOSIS). 97 Fungal Habitats. Most fungi are terrestrial and are found in all temperate and tropical areas. A few species live in the Arctic and Antarctic regions, usually as part of lichens. Soil rich in organic matter is an ideal habitat for many species, and only a small number of fungi are found in drier areas or in habitats with little or no organic matter. 98 49  Dead Wood Dead wood supports complex fungal communities, and the structure and the community composition varies with the stage of succession in the decay process Living Plants Fungi living internally in live plants, often loosely termed as endophytes 99 Aquatic fungi include those that occur in freshwater, marine, and brackish water habitats. Aquatic fungi include any species which, for the whole or part of their life cycle, rely on free water. Freshwater fungi have been collected on a wide range of substrata from lentic habitats (lakes, ponds) and lotic habitats (rivers, streams, creeks, peat swamps) and include ascomycetes, anamorphic fungi and a few basidiomycetes. 100 50 101 102 51  Biodiversity of fungi  Around 138,000 fungal taxon have been described so far (Kirk 2019).  However, mycologists believe that around 1.5 million fungal species exist on the earth (Hawksworth 2001). 103 Taxonomy of fungi  Although commonly included in botany curricula and textbooks, fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants.  The taxonomy of the fungi is in a state of constant flux, especially due to recent research based on DNA comparisons.  There is no unique generally accepted system at the higher taxonomic levels and there are frequent name changes at every level, from species upwards. 104 52  Taxonomy of fungi Ten phyla were named in Bauer et al. 2015 and we will follow this scheme in this course: 1. Ascomycota (ca 90,000). [Terrestrial and Aquatic] 2. Basidiomycota (ca 45,000) [Terrestrial and Aquatic] 3. Blastocladiomycota (ca 140) [Aquatic] 4. Chytridiomycota (ca 700) [Aquatic] 5. Entomophthoromycota (ca 250) [Terrestrial] 6. Entorrhizomycota (ca 20) [Terrestrial] 7. Glomeromycota (ca 100) [Terrestrial] 8. Kickxellomycota (ca 460) [Aquatic] 9. Mucoromycota (ca 350) [Terrestrial] 10.Neocallimastigomycota (ca 30) [Terrestrial] 105 106 53  1. Phylum: Ascomycota Ascomycota contains 17 classes, 115 orders, 485 families, 6540 genera and 90,000 species (Kirk 2019). However, 1000-1500 new taxa are introduced each year Characteristic feature: The largest group of fungi, for which the ascus ‫ الكيس الزقى‬is the diagnostic character. Produce the sexual spores in ascus. 107 General characteristics  Characterized by the production of the sexual spore, the ascospores in a sac called an ascus.  Eight ascospores typically are formed within the ascus, but this number may vary from one to over a thousand according to the species (1-1024 ascospores). 108 54  Types of Ascomata The multicellular structures (ascomata) that produce the asci, and act as the platforms from which the spores are launched ‫تنطلق‬, come in five main designs, sectional views of which are shown in the diagrams below. 109 Types of Ascomata Fig. Drawing shows different shapes of Ascomatal types: (a) Gymnothecium. (b) Cleistothecium. (c) Apothecium. (d) Perithecium. (e) Pseudothecium. 110 55 111 112 56 113 Aspergillus There are more than 250 Aspergillus species, with over 30 known to be human pathogens. The fungus is also commercially important. Aspergillus niger is the source of enzymes such as amylases, lipases, and proteases and is used to produce the majority of the world’s citric acid. Diseases caused by Aspergillus species can vary widely, from superficial colonization to invasive and allergic disease. 114 57  Aspergillus is typically long, thin, and perpendicular to the foot cell or vegetative hyphae. Vesicle: The vesicle is either spherical, elliptical, or club- shaped, and it forms a layer of phialide cells. Conidia: These are reproductive elements that develop from sterigmata. 115 Aspergillus sp. Penicillium sp. 116 58 117 118 59 119 2. Phylum: Basidiomycota Basidiomycota contains 16 classes, 52 orders, 177 families, 1589 genera, 45000 species (Kirk 2019).  Characteristic feature: The presence of a basidium bearing basidiospores. 120 60 121 122 61  ‫الش ل مثل‪ :‬ع ش الغراب ‪– Mushrooms‬‬ ‫ تكون أجساما ثمر ة متباينة‬ ‫‪ –Boletes‬فطر ات نجوم اﻷرض ‪ – earthstars‬فطر ات أعشاش الطائر‬ ‫‪ - Bird’s-nest fungi‬فطر ات جيﻼتي ية ‪ – Jelly fungi‬فطر ات القرون الن نه‬ ‫‪ – Stinkhorns‬فطر ات اﻷرفف )‪- Bracket or shelf fungi (polypores‬‬ ‫فطر ات اﻷصداء ‪ - Rust fungi‬فطر ات التفحمات ‪. Smut fungi‬‬ ‫‪123‬‬ ‫ﻋيش الغراب ‪Mushrooms‬‬ ‫‪124‬‬ ‫‪62‬‬  Boletes 125 Earthstars fungi ‫ﻓطريات نجوم اﻷرض‬ 126 63  ‫‪ Bird’s-nest fungi‬ﻓطريات أﻋشاش الطائر‬ ‫‪127‬‬ ‫ﻓطريات جيﻼتينية ‪Jelly fungi‬‬ ‫‪128‬‬ ‫‪64‬‬  Bracket or shelf fungi (polypores) ‫ﻓطريات اﻷرﻓف‬ 129 Stinkhorns ‫ﻓطريات القرون النتنه‬ 130 65  ‫ﻓطريات التفحمات ﻓﻰ الذرة ‪Corn smut fungus‬‬ ‫‪131‬‬ ‫ﻓطريات ‪Rusts fungus‬‬ ‫اﻻصداء‬ ‫‪132‬‬ ‫‪66‬‬  9. Phylum: Mucuromyota  The phylum contains four subphyla, 10 orders, 27 families, 168 genera, 1065 species (Kirk et al. 2008).  Characteristic features: Produce Zygospore‫ جراثيم زيجوتية‬, sporangiospores ‫ جراثيم حاﻓظية‬and thallus is coenocytic. 133 134 67  ‫خطوات تﻛوين الجرثومة الزيجوتية تحت الميﻛروسﻛوب اﻷلﻛترونﻰ الماسح‬ ‫‪135‬‬ ‫‪136‬‬ ‫‪68‬‬  ‫ﻋويمد‬ ‫جرثومة‬ ‫حامل الحواﻓظ‬ ‫الجرثومية‬ ‫رئد‬ ‫أشباه الجذور‬ ‫التﻛاثر الﻼجنسﻰ‬ ‫‪137‬‬ ‫‪ALGAE‬‬ ‫‪Prepared by‬‬ ‫‪Dr. Mahmoud Saadeldin Bakhit‬‬ ‫‪138‬‬ ‫‪69‬‬  Algae General characteristics of algae  Non-vascular, primitive plants having no true roots  Algae can be prokaryotic or eukaryotic. Cyanobacteria are prokaryotic, but all other classes of algae are eukaryotic  contain chlorophylls and accessory pigments i.e. autotrophic 139 Green algae ( Chlorophyta)  Eukaryotic  Cell wall; cellulose  Pigments: Chl.a, Chl.b, carotenoids  Contain Chloroplast and membrane bound organelles  Reserve food material: Starch 140 70  Morphology of green algae 1. Single-celled (Chlamydomonas) 2. Colonial (Volvox) 3. Filamentous (Spirogyra, Cladophora), 4. Multicellular body (Ulva) 141 142 71 143 Reproduction in green algae 1. Asexual reproduction occurs by zoospores in aquatic organisms and aplanospores in terrestrial ones 2. Sexual reproduction is common- Isogamy (fusion of gametes similar in size), Anisogamy (fusion of two gametes dissimilar in size) and Oogamy (fusion between one large, non-motile (static) female gamete and a smaller, motile male gamete). Gametes fuse to form zygote, which gives rise to new alga. 144 72  Diatoms (Bacillariophyta) Eukaryotic (Chromista), unicellular and sometimes colonies Centric diatoms,, and pennate diatoms Cell wall: silica Pigments: Chl a, Chl c, Carotenes and fucoxanthin (golden color) Reserve food material: oil, volutin and crysolaminarin. 145 146 73 147 Importance of diatoms Primary productivity, in the global carbon cycle and in aquatic food chains. The major constituent of glass They are chemically inert and suited for use as industrial filters. The manufacture of structural materials such as heat and fire resistant products, polishes such as porcelain; Cosmetic products such as ‘Sozodont’ tooth powder, and abrasives such as toothpast. 148 74  Brown algae (Phaeophyta) Eukaryotic, multicellular, macroalgae Cell wall: cellulose with alginic acid and fucoidan Pigments: Chl-a, Chl-c, Carotenes and Fucoxanthin (brown pigment). Reserve food material: laminarin and mannitol 149 Importance of brown algae  Food for herbivorous fish and shellfish.  Source for human food, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals  Source for Algin, a starch-like chemical  used as a stabilizer and emulsifier in making dairy products.  In textiles, alginates thicken fiber-reactive dye pastes  contain fucoidans (sulfated heteropolysaccharides) --inhibits lipid accumulation -treatment of obesity due to its stimulatory lipolysis.  Fucoidans also exhibit anticancer activity 150 75 151 Plant systematics 152 76  Plant systematics Mosses (nonvascular plants)– Bryophytes (15,600 species) Ferns (vascular seedless plants)– Pterophytes (11,000 species) Gymnosperms (vascular with naked seeds)- Cone-bearing Plants (760 species) Angiosperms (vascular with covered seeds)-Flowering Plants (245,000 species) 153 Nonvascular Plants the most primitive forms of land vegetation. lack the vascular tissue system- for transporting water& nutrients. do not produce flowers, fruit, or seeds. lack true leaves, roots, stems lack of vascular tissue must remain in moist environments Exhibit alternation of generations - cycle between sexual ( gametophyte , 1n) and asexual (sporophyte ,2n) phases. Example: Bryophyta (mosses- Funaria). 154 77 155 156 78 157 Vascular Plants 1. They contain vascular system. 2. Xylem tissue carries water and minerals upward from the roots 3. Phloem tissue carries sugars made by photosynthesis from the leaves to other organs 4. Sap is the fluid carried inside the xylem or phloem. 5. include seedless vascular plants and seed vascular plants. 158 79  Seedless Vascular Plants PTEROPHYTA (True ferns)  Ferns are vascular plants with leaves , roots and sometimes true stems  Ferns from tropical rain forests are Epiphytes -grow on other plant species;  There are also some aquatic ferns such  Ferns do not have seeds or flowers -reproduce via spores. 159 The typical fern, a sporophyte, consists of stem, leaf, and root; it produces spores. The sporophyte of most ferns is perennial (it lives for several years) and reproduces vegetatively by branching of the rootlike underground stem, or rhizome. 160 80  ‫أديانتم )ﻛزبرة البئر(‬ ‫‪Adiantum‬‬ ‫ينمو بريا ً في بعض المناطق من اﻹقليم المصري‪ ،‬وخصوصا ً ف ي اﻷم اكن الظليل ة الرطب ة‪،‬‬ ‫وقد سمي كزيرة البئر ﻷنه ينمو أحيانا ً بجوار اﻵبار‪ ،‬كما أنه يشبه في تركيبة نبات الكزيرة‪.‬‬ ‫‪161‬‬ ‫‪162‬‬ ‫‪81‬‬  Seed vascular plant Gymnosperms are flowerless vascular plants that produce cones and seeds. The term gymnosperm means "naked seed," as gymnosperm seeds are not enclosed within an ovary. Examples of Gymnosperms are conifers and cycads. Gymnosperms are abundant in temperate forest and boreal forest -tolerate moist or dry conditions. 163 164 82 165 Angiosperms (flowering plants) Flowers are sexual reproduction organs. Seeds are enclosed within an ovary and protected by ovary wall The flower arises from an axillary bud found in the axil (the area between the base of a leaf and the stem) Angiosperms include monocotyledon and dicotyledon plants. 166 83 167 Angiosperms (flowering plants) Flower structures include calyx, corolla, stamens, and pistil. The calyx consists of modified leaves called sepals, usually green. It protects the bud as the flower develops. The corolla consists of modified leaves known as petals, often brightly colored. It attracts pollinators, which transfer pollen from one flower to another.  The stamens constitute the male organ called" androecium". Each stamen is made of a( filament and anther, producing pollen).  The Pistils - the female organ called " gynoecium". Each pistil , sticky stigma, a neck-like style and an ovary containing one or more ovules. 168 84  Angiosperms (flowering plants) 169 Plant Tissues  A tissue is an organization of cells that work together as a functional unit  They are of two types i.e., meristematic tissues and permanent tissues 170 85  Meristems (Plant Stem Cells) young tissues – in the embryo or parts of mature plant responsible for growth and development the ability to divide. 3 main types -apical, intercalary and lateral meristems 171 172 86  Permanent tissues  Stem from meristematic tissue  The cells of these tissues do not have the capability to divide  There are three plant tissue systems: vascular, dermal, and ground. 173 Dermal tissue Covers the plant body consists of epidermis in young plants Epidermis is made of parenchyma cells in a single layer. Epidermis on stem and leaves prevents water loss by transpiration produces a waxy material called cuticle. Dead cork cells replace epidermis in woody stems & roots 174 87  Dermal tissue Covers the plant body consists of epidermis in young plants Epidermis -parenchyma cells in a single layer. Epidermis prevents water loss by transpiration produces a waxy material called cuticle. Dead cork cells replace epidermis in woody stems & roots 175 Ground tissue Ground tissues synthesize organic compounds , support the plant. In some cases, stores food in the form of starch. Three types of cells: parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma. 176 88  Parenchyma the most numerous type of cell in young plants. The photosynthetic cells, called chlorenchyma parenchyma cells store lipids parenchyma cells function in gas exchange 177 Collenchyma supporting cells compose the cortex and pith tissues of the root and stems. 178 89  Sclerenchyma supporting cells of a plant. have a thick secondary cell wall with lignin, a component of wood. Therefore they are found in woody plants two types of sclerenchyma cells: elongated fibers and variously shaped sclereids.-stone cells 179 Vascular Tissue (Transport) Xylem: The xylem conducts water from roots to plant parts. Vessel elements and tracheids undergo apoptosis (die) and do their jobs as empty cells (only the cell walls remain). 180 90  Vascular Tissue (Transport) Phloem Cells  of the phloem are alive. Cells of the phloem are arranged end-to-end and form long sieve tubes (dead cells)- transport carbohydrates and  other materials. The  sieve tube has adjacent companion cell. Companion cells retain all their organelles 181 91