GenBio107_Eco_2024 Interactions of Organisms and Environment PDF

General Biology (2303107) 1/2024 Unit 6: Interactions of organisms and environment Varanya Aranyavalai, PhD (sec 1) [email protected] Chawatat Thanoosing, PhD (sec 2) [email protected] Unit 6: Interactions of o...

General Biology (2303107) 1/2024 Unit 6: Interactions of organisms and environment Varanya Aranyavalai, PhD (sec 1) [email protected] Chawatat Thanoosing, PhD (sec 2) [email protected] Unit 6: Interactions of organisms and environment 6.1 Environmental Biology 6.2 Ecosystem function and energy in the ecosystem 6.3 Interaction within the same group of organisms 6.4 Interaction with others of different groups 6.5 Organisms in different levels interact with the environment as a whole 6.6 Effects of human on ecosystems 6.7 Applied ecology and conservation biology 6.1 Environmental Biology Environmental Biology Ecology + the study of human impacts on the environment, conservation efforts, and environmental policy Harmonized green space in Luxembourg City  What is Ecology? Ene Ecology = Oikos + Logos Ecology is the scientific study of interactions between organisms and the environment These interactions determine the M 180. distribution of organisms and their d egesabundance. Observation and experimentation  Levels of ecological organization Biosphere -> Global ecology Biome Landscape -> Landscape ecology Ecosystem -> Ecosystem ecology Community -> Community ecology Population-> Population ecology Individual -> Organismal ecology * (including behavioral ecology) https://ecologyproject10.weebly.com/uploads/2/8/7/9/28792783/486911175.gif?499  Kangaroos/km2 Climate in northern Australia is hot and wet, with seasonal > 20 drought. 10–20 5–10 1–5 0.1–1 < 0.1 Red kangaroos Limits of occur in most distribution semiarid and arid regions of the interior, where precipitation is relatively low and variable from year to year. Southeastern Australia has a wet, cool climate. Southern Australia has cool, moist winters and warm, dry summers. Tasmania  1 66578 M Mor ?) Dispersal and distribution.. -18009agval8image sizens Distribution Dispersal is the movement of dispersal individuals or gametes away from the the center of high population density or from their area of origin Dispersal contributes to the global distribution of organisms. Kangaroos/km2 > 20 Climate in northern Australia is hot and wet, with seasonal drought. 10–20 Species distributions are the result of 5–10 1–5 ecological and evolutionary 0.1–1 < 0.1 interactions through time Red kangaroos Limits of occur in most distribution semiarid and arid regions of the interior, where precipitation is Evolutionary time spans many generations relatively low and variable from year to year. and captures adaptation through natural selection Brigid Both biotic and abiotic factors influence Southeastern Australia species distribution has a wet, cool climate. Southern Australia has cool, moist winters and warm, dry summers. Tasmania What is environment? Living things & non-living things Biotic factors & abiotic factors Types of environment 69g Regulators or conditions (e.g. Temperature, pH, Salinity, Predators, Parasites, etc.) Resources (e.g. Sunlight, oxygen, CO2, nutrients) Biotic factors ge All of the organisms in an area or the living components of the environment. Biotic factors that affect the distribution of organisms may include: Predation, Herbivory, Competition, Mutualism, Parasitism Abiotic factors The environment’s nonliving component, the physical and chemical factors. Abiotic factors affect the distribution of organisms, for example, Temperature, Water, Oxygen, Salinity, Sunlight, Rocks, and Soil. Abiotic factors vary in space and time. https://library.88guru.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/Abiotic-factor.png  Temperature Temperature is an important factor in the distribution of organisms because of its effects on biological processes Cells may freeze and rupture below 0°C, while most proteins bette denature above 45°C &ge Mammals and birds expend energy to regulate their internal temperature (Endotherm) d.88  Figure 52.7 Current range and predicted ranges for the American beech under two climate-change scenarios Distribution and phenological patterns of organisms can be changed due to climate change. Species that have difficulty dispersing may have smaller ranges or could become extinct. (a) Current range (b) 4.5C warming (c) 6.5C warming over next century over next century © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Sunlight Light intensity and quality (wavelength) affect photosynthesis. Shading by leaves makes competition for light intense on the forest floor. Water absorbs light; as a result, in aquatic environments, most photosynthesis occurs near the surface. In deserts, high light levels increase temperature and can stress plants and animals. Diel vertical migration (DVM) Water and oxygen Water availability in habitats is another important factor in species distribution. Desert organisms exhibit adaptations for water conservation. Water affects oxygen availability as oxygen diffuses slowly in water. Oxygen concentrations can be low in deep oceans and deep https://www.nps.gov/orpi/learn/nature/images/Merriam-s_Kangaroo_Rat_Chihuahuan_Desert_New_Mexico_cropped.jpg lakes. Kangaroo rats in the desert lose little water and can recover 90% of the loss from metabolic water (long loop of Henle). Salinity Salt concentration affects the water balance of organisms through osmosis (osmoregulation). Most aquatic organisms are restricted to either freshwater or saltwater habitats. Few terrestrial organisms are adapted to high- salinity habitats.  Wind Wind is considered an important factor in flat plains, sea coasts, and high altitude mountains. Wind affects plant 7518889We transpiration, shape, pollination, and seed white8096gnd dispersion. & 1666 https://www.treehugger.com/thmb/6T9KbIU8Yn4dCyOCd3QQjA1hgIM=/1500x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/Lead- 8ba060bb458d4011a5547edd2ed659c3.jpg Rocks and Soil Many characteristics of soil limit the distribution of plants and thus the animals that feed on them. Physical structure pH Mineral composition https://qph.cf2.quoracdn.net/main-qimg-ec119c87a59ba24c04af2d2cbc811c30-lq Can you identify the biotic and abiotic factors in this picture? Climate and seasonality Four major abiotic components of climate are temperature, precipitation, sunlight, and wind. Macroclimate consists of patterns on the global, regional, and landscape level Microclimate consists of very fine patterns, such as those encountered by the community of organisms underneath a fallen log. Seasonal variations of light and temperature increase steadily toward the poles and control the phenology of organisms. Climate is very important in determining why terrestrial biomes are found in certain areas. Biomes Biomes are major life zones characterized by vegetation type (terrestrial biomes) or physical environment (aquatic biomes). Terrestrial biomes 6.2 Ecosystem function and energy in the ecosystem What is an ecosystem? An ecosystem consists of all the organisms living in a community, as well as the abiotic factors with which they interact. Regardless of an ecosystem’s size, its dynamics involve two main processes: energy flow and chemical cycling. Ecosystem function The various biological, geochemical, and physical processes within an ecosystem contribute to its overall health, productivity, and stability. Ecosystem function to ecosystem services Biodiversity, Ecosystem Functioning, Resilience, and Ecosystem Services 57 Ecosystem service: The benefits that humans derive from ecosystems. Figure 1 Categories (UNEP, 2005) and examples of ecosystem services (Daily, 1997; Daily et al., 2000; Malmqvist and Rundle, 2002; UNEP, 2005), according to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment framework. (Song et al., 2014) (Truchy et al., 2015) 25 disturbances (Frainer and McKie, 2015; Wardle and Jonsson, 2014). Insights Ecosystem services entston 1568 26 we Provisioning services Food & resources Food production, medicine, freshwater Ecosystem services M dis grade Regulating services. Maintain environmental conditions and regulate natural process Climate regulation, clean air, soil erosion control, Pollination Ecosystem services n fontsanzigersseg Cultural services Cultural heritage, recreation, aesthetic enjoyment, education, tourism https://mpics.mgronline.com/pics/Images/567000008718702.JPEG Ecosystem services n Wonsangie site sig Supporting services. Maintain all services Fundamental ecosystem processes, including soil formation, nutrient cycling, primary production, and habitat formation. https://media.geeksforgeeks.org/wp-content/uploads/20230207152946/Carbon- Cycle.png Energy transfer Conservation of Energy: 1st law of thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed. Energy enters an ecosystem as solar radiation, is conserved, and is lost from organisms as heat. The second law of thermodynamics states that every exchange of energy increases the entropy of the universe. In an ecosystem, energy conversions are not completely efficient, and some energy is https://media.geeksforgeeks.org/wp-content/uploads/20230612102721/Energy-flow.png always lost as heat. Components and structure The trophic structure of a community is determined by the feeding relationships between organisms. The transfer of food energy from its source in photosynthetic organisms (Autotrophs) through herbivores and carnivores (heterotrophs) is called the food chain.  gene9156688 in Grazing Food chain Energy and nutrients pass from primary producers (autotrophs) to primary consumers (herbivores) to secondary consumers (carnivores) to tertiary consumers (carnivores that feed on other carnivores).  · 9519915genizing Detritus Food Chain Detritivores, or decomposers, are consumers that derive their energy from detritus, non-living organic matter. Trophic efficiency Trophic efficiency is the percentage of production transferred from one trophic level to the next. It is usually about 10%, with a range of 5% to 20%. Pyramid of energy Ecological pyramid A pyramid of net production represents the # loss of energy with each transfer in a food chain. Most biomass pyramids show a sharp decrease at successively higher trophic levels. Certain aquatic ecosystems have inverted biomass pyramids. Khan Academy  Food Web Food web All food chains in an ecosystem. Complicated Food Web Food Chains Bioaccumulation The increasing concentration of a substance over time. https://www.cattermoleconsulting.com/wp/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/bioaccumulation-vs-biomagnification-toxic-poisoning-process-outline-diagram.jpg_s1024x1024wisk20cVBUCRalaOqfnTHL9R387DgvedO7FS8B_dhLPsjxlj9Y-830x250.jpg Biological magnification Biomagnification The increasing concentration of a substance, such as a toxic chemical, in the tissues of organisms at  “The increasing concentration of a successively higher levels substance, such in as aa food toxic chemical, in chain. the tissues of organisms at successively higher levels in a food chain. As a Organismsresult at theoftop of the food organisms biomagnification, chain generally at thesuffer top ofgreater the foodharm chain generally from a persistent toxin orharm suffer greater pollutant from a persistent than thosetoxin at lower levels. than those at lower or pollutant levels.” Microplastics: Trouble in the Food Chain (UNEP Frontiers 2016 Report) - Biomagnification of DDT in a Long Island (USA) salt marsh 56 6.3 Interaction within the same group of organisms  What is a population? Population = the number of organisms of the same species that live in a geographic area at the same time, with the capability of interbreeding. Population ecology = study of the processes that affect the distribution and abundance of populations. Population characteristics Density & Dispersion Population density = the number of individuals per unit area or volume. Population dispersion = the pattern of the spacing of individuals in a population Population density Density is the result of an interplay between processes that add individuals to a population (birth & immigration) and those that remove individuals (death & emigration). Population size (N) Measure population density In most cases, it is impractical or impossible to count all individuals in a population. The sampling technique can be used to estimate densities and total population sizes. Population size can be estimated by Vege either extrapolation from small M. samples, an index of population size (e.g., number of nests), or the mark- recapture method. https://thepopularflamingo.com/cdn/shop/articles/Shutterstock_590549576.jpg?v=1654901796 https://a-z-animals.com/media/2018/09/Flamingo-African.jpg Sampling method: Quadrat sampling organisms in the sampling areas are counted directly, We set a boundary of a sampling area, for example, in a square shape (1x1m, 5x5m, etc.). Sampling method: Mark-Recapture Method Scientists capture, tag, and release a random sample of individual (s) in a population. Marked individuals are given time to mix back into the population. Scientists capture a second sample of individuals (n) and note how many of them are marked (x) Population size (N) is estimated by: Demography Demography = The study of the vital statistics of a population and how they change over time. https://static.bangkokpost.com/media/content/20220221/4234731.jpg  Age structure Age structure of Japan's population 1950, 2000 and 2050. Age structure is the relative number of individuals of each age. The ratio of each population Pre-reproductive stage Reproductive stage Post-reproductive stage Sex ratio Age structure diagrams can reveal a population’s growth trends and can point to future social conditions. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Thomas-Feldhoff/publication/304186655/figure/fig1/AS:375392608243712@1466511980551/Age-structure-of-Japans-population-1950-2000-and- 2050-Source-IPSS-2006a-12-own_W640.jpg Age structure diagram Prospects and Contexts of Demographic Transitions https://cdn.kastatic.org/ka-perseus-images/48892870bdfc7e7ae1e39b9238597b9b95744495.png Figure 6: Changing age structure of Thai population Male Female Changing age structure of Thai population (Prasertkul et al., 2019) Sources: Calculated from population census, 1970, 1990 and 2010 and population projection for Thailand, 2010- Social behavoir digWashing80 Eigeeid Intraspecific interaction. between two individuals or more. Aggression Cooperative Courting and mating Raising progeny Altruism https://images.nationalgeographic.org/image/upload/v1638889871/EducationHub/photos/meerkat- mob.jpg g 81521688 Hierarchies and Territoriality Lop Buri macaques needengag Dominance hierarchies are found among chickens, wolves, primates, etc. we Weeng Alpha: top hierarchy Territories are maintained in part as a means of reducing aggressive interactions Alarm calls Smell https://www.thaipbsworld.com/police-monkey-control-unit-to-deal-with- lop-buri-macaques/ Reproductive behavior Related to reproductive fitness Mating choice and sexual selection wesee wes Courtship behavior: facilitates attraction and mating with the opposite sex Lek: communal area in which two or more males of a species https://www.coffsgardenclub.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/satin-bowerbird-with-blue-objects.jpeg perform courtship displays. Satin Bowerbird  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nPhVOZiPokA&ab_channel=NatGeoWILD (Scholes & Laman, 2018) Y Vogelkop Superb Bird-of-Paradise Mating system Promiscuous: low likelihood of subsequent mating with the same individual ↳ge bee Monogamous: high likelihood of subsequent mating with one individual 1 https://live.staticflickr.com/65535/50905319456_ab730da669_b.jpg Elephant seal’s harem Polygamous: high likelihood of subsequent mating with more than one individual 688% Polygyny: one male mates with several females Polyandry: one female mates with several males https://i.pinimg.com/originals/10/57/d9/1057d9afe54761e90fc0165c7eb1927d.jpg Honey bee mating 6.4 Interaction with others of different groups Interactions between species Community interactions are classified by whether they help, harm, or have no effect on the species involved. Relationships between species = interspecific interaction Interspecific interaction can affect the fitness of each species, and the effects can be summarized as positive (+), negative (-), or no effect (0). Examples: competition, predation, herbivory, symbiosis (parasitism, mutualism, and commensalism), and facilitation  Competition Interspecific competition (-/- interaction) occurs when species compete for a resource in short supply. Competitive exclusion (Gause 1934) Strong competition can lead to competitive exclusion, and local elimination of a competing species. The competitive exclusion principle states that two species competing for the same limiting resource cannot coexist in the same place, https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/infogram-particles-700/1606590_1411558857950.jpg eneinnigliboine Ecological niche Ecological niche = the sum of a species’s use of biotic and abiotic resources. https://photos.demandstudios.com/getty/article/83/209/475414879.jpg Ecologically similar species can coexist in a community if there are one or more significant differences in their niches.  Fundamental niche: the nicheตัวอยpotentially occupied. าง การเจริญของเพรี ยง 2 ชนิด Realized niche: the niche actually occupied.  ↑ 1666996bnss การแบanswers งปนทรัพยากร Resource partitioning (Resource partitioning) Resource partitioning is the การแบงปนทรัพยากรหมายถึ ง การแบdifferentiation ofอมของสิ งปนทรัพยากรที่มีอยูในสิ่งแวดล ecological ่งมีชีวิตกลุมหนึniches, ่งๆ ที่อาศัย enabling similar species อยูในสิ่งแวดล อมนั้น to coexist in a community. ·280 6689 wasWe k beguigeelegenwenn.  Box 3. Observing ECD in Darwin’s finches Character displacement In a study of Darwin’s finches, Grant and Grant documented the evolution of ECD across one generational boundary. In 2004, depletion of seed resources during a major drought on Daphne Major with observational data alone (see Figure 2 in main text). island brought the medium ground finch, Geospiza fortis, into competition with the large ground finch, Geospiza magnirostris, for (A) large seeds. G. fortis altered its resource use towards smaller seeds Character displacement is a available in the seed bank and natural selection drove evolution towards smaller beaks that were more adept at using such seeds Small beaked phenotype adept at handling small seeds tendency for characteristics (Figure I). The change in phenotype matched the change in resource use to be more divergent in (criterion 4) because the shift to smaller seeds was matched by a shift to a functionally more efficient smaller beak size. This was an evolved Geospiza for!s sympatric populations of response (criterion 1; beak size has high heritability in this population sym-same and should respond to strong directional selection) that occurred in (B) patric two species than in situ (criterion 3). Three decades of data from the years prior to the homeland = 2004 drought served as a control, suggesting that there were no other Large beaked phenotype allopatric populations of the environmental factors that could have driven the beak size shift adept at handling large seeds allo = other(criterion 5). Three lines of evidence directly implicate resource same two species. competition for seeds (criterion 6): (i) during a 1977 drought, prior to the colonization of G. magnirostris, G. fortis relied on large seeds when small seeds were depleted, indicating that the two species can overlap evolutionary an in resource use; change(ii) that when 214) similar occurs observations behavioral suggested that G. magnirostris fed on a much higher fraction of species in 2004 (C) largeinhabit the same seeds than environment did G. fortis; and. (iii) during the 2004 drought, the G. fortis population declined to a level lower than during any past G. magnirostris drought. Of course, because this was a singular event, Grant and specialist on large seeds Grant could not rule out the possibility that the decrease in beak size by G. fortis during the drought in the presence of G. magnirostris was a coincidence (criterion 2) , although the wealth of long-term data in this study suggests that that possibility is unlikely. TRENDS in Ecology & Evolution What advantages did the evolution-in-action approach provide? (Stuart & Losos, 2013) First, the population was observed evolving in real time, leaving no Figure I. Large-beaked Geospiza fortis (B) were inferior competitors to Geospiza Predation Predation (+/- interaction) refers to an interaction in which one species, the predator, kills and eats the other, the prey. Some feeding adaptations of predators are claws, fangs, and poison. Prey displays various defensive adaptations. Behavioral defenses include hiding, Red 2998 fleeing, forming herds or schools, self- https://images.ctfassets.net/4yflszkpcwkt/4QdwNUHBhKbyuewl7F3aGr/3826298e6603687a007af7ca57c defense, and alarm calls. · a1b92/2351873.jpg ·go 10268 Mimicry 626688 Mimicry can also be used by predators to approach prey. Wasp Moth Müllerian mimicry Batesian mimicry Herbivory Herbivory (+/- interaction) refers to an interaction in which an herbivore eats parts of a plant or alga. It has led to the evolution of plant mechanical and chemical defense and adaptations by herbivores. https://bio.libretexts.org/@api/deki/files/26716/Koala.jpg?revision=1&size=bestfit&width=397&height=297  RES EARCH | R E P O R T Bumble bees damage plant leaves and accelerate adjacent to a patch of 36 flowerless plants owing to weather). Bumble bee workers we f (from six different species; see supplemen- damaged plants in our experimental patches Th tary materials for details). The colony and throughout this phase of the experiment fro flower producaon when pollen is scarce.verbbedi F plants were replaced every 3 weeks, and we (Fig. 4A); furthermore, as predicted, we ob- agi assessed plant damage and bee activity on served a strong decline in damage by the end abi weekdays (except when bees were inactive of April, at which point local floral resources at tio by im in T per thr sig in les ava ple sity far 4A dic da tio oth les ph thr flic Fig. 1. Bombus terrestris workers damaging Solanum melongena leaves. (A) Sequential images of a B. worker penetrating a leaf with its proboscis (taken over ~3 s). (B) A worker cutting into a leaf with its als mandibles. (C) Characteristic bee-inflicted damage. exc A S. lycopersicum B B. nigra (Pashalidou et al., 2020) 80 > 40 Fig. 2. Flower 75 nigra p damag (contro 70 35 confide respon 65 plant o  Parasitism Parasitism (+/- interaction): one organism (parasite) t derives nourishment from another organism (host), - which is harmed in the process. Endoparasites: parasites that live within the body of their host. Ectoparasites: parasites that live on the external surface of a host. Parasites can significantly affect the survival, reproduction, and the density pf their host population.  Mutualism Mutualistic symbiosis, or mutualism (+/+ interaction), is an interspecific interaction that benefits both species. Efficie A mutualism can be 8203bazi Obligate, where one =68gi species cannot survive without the other. donig Facultative, where both species can survive alone. Commensalism Egg Commensalism (+/0 interaction): one species benefits and the other is neither harmed nor helped. Commensal interactions are hard to document in nature because any close association likely affects both species. https://www.texomashomepage.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/41/2023/05/gettyimages-1407011932-170667a.jpg?w=1280 6.5 Organisms in different levels interact with the environment as a whole Biogeochemical cycles Pathways of elements in the environment through 3 processes: Biological processes Geological processes Chemical processes Example: water, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and calcium. https://www.sciencefacts.net/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/Biochemical-Cycles.jpg Water cycle Water is essential to all organisms The main physical state of water is liquid. Oceans hold 97% of the planet's water, while 2% is found in glaciers and polar ice caps. Only 1% exists in lakes, rivers, and groundwater. Water cycles through various processes, including evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, and movement through both surface and groundwater. Carbon cycle Carbon-based organic molecules are crucial for all living organisms. Photosynthetic organisms transform CO2 into organic compounds that heterotrophs utilize. ·.gensenessrigs westa 80 Key carbon reservoirs include fossil fuels, soils and sediments, dissolved substances in oceans, biomass from plants and animals, the atmosphere, and sedimentary rocks. CO2 is absorbed and released through processes such as photosynthesis, respiration, volcanic activity, and the combustion of fossil fuels.  Nitrogen cycle Nitrogen is a component of amino acids, proteins, and nucleic acids. The main reservoir of nitrogen is the atmosphere (N2), though this nitrogen must be converted to ammonium (NH4+ ) or Nitrate (NO3– ) for uptake by plants, via nitrogen fixation by bacteria. 21589385682 Organic nitrogen is decomposed to NH4+ by ammonification, and NH4+ is decomposed to NO3– by nitrification. Denitrification converts NO3– back to N2. one 156sideidasdedenedezi Phosphorus Cycle Process Reservoir Phosphorus cycle Phosphorus is a major Pathway affected by humans constituent of nucleic acids, Natural pathway Phosphates Phosphates phospholipids, and ATP. in sewage in fertilizer Plate tectonics Phosphate (PO43−) is the most Phosphates in mining waste Runoff Runoff important inorganic form of Sea phosphorus. Runoff birds Phosphate in The largest reservoirs are Erosion rock (fossil bones, sedimentary rocks of marine guano) Ocean food webs origin, the oceans, and Animals (consumers) Phosphate Phosphate in organisms. dissolved in water shallow ocean sediments Phosphate Phosphate binds with soil Plants in deep ocean particles, and movement is (producers) sediments often localized. Bacteria 54 Fig. 3-21, p. 73 Eutrophication Nutrient over-enrichment (phosphorus/nitrogen) changes in biodiversity. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/River https://scienceinfo.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/Eutrophication-Causes-Classification-Impacts-Process.jpg _algae_Sichuan.jpg 6.6 Effects of human on ecosystems  Anthropocene “Anthropocene” = human ('anthropo’) + new ('cene’) (Crutzen and Stoermer, 2000) Paul J. Crutzen Eugene F. Stoermer (1933–2021) (1934–2012) https://n5a7d2f2.stackpathcdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/Anthropocene-Epoch-Editorial-760x475.jpg https://media.nature.com/lw767/magazine-assets/d41586-021-00479-0/d41586-021-00479-0_18864682.jpg?as=webp 76 https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-65xe4COXdUA/W5InHPSOO5I/AAAAAAAAAlg/0sM65JgSB0gwL_C3D_zQAiaPnTmyVgVRACLcBGAs/s1600/Stoermer_2007.jpg Global Climate Change Shifts in temperature and weather patterns. Change in the biotic elements of ecosystems leads to biotic change. Global boiling https://media.cnn.com/api/v1/images/stellar/prod/valencia-flood-lc9-20241030- 20241008-sbs-ml-v2.jpg?c=16x9&q=h_653,w_1160,c_fill/f_webp Valencia, Spain, 2024 “Era of global boiling has arrived” Antonio Guterres UN secretary general  Trends in Ecology & Evolution Ecological mismatch 2024 hZps://bbc.com/news/av/uk-england-london-68638854 Trends in Ecology & Evolution Figure 2. Examples of Hypothetical Ecosystem Responses to Phenological Mismatches, Focusing on Consequences for Plant Biomass an (Beard et al., 2019) Quality, Carbon (C) Source and Sink Strength, and Nitrogen (N) Uptake and Cycling. In (A), delayed herbivory increases the C sink strength in vegetat increases N demand by plants. Delayed herbivory also means longer periods without N returned to soils as feces, slowing N cycling, and potentially limiting N a When caribou (Rangifer tarandus) arrive, they find leaf tissue of lower quality because the tissue is older and the N pool is diluted across more biomass. (B) mirrors Habitat destruction It is important to protect habitat to protect biodiversity within it. Huge pressure from the World’s rapidly increasing population. Agricultural areas, urbanization Pollution Air pollution Chemical pollution Pesticide hMps://i.natgeofe.com/n/87d6217b-d811-4c1b-8296-8e59195388b2/16647.jpg https://cdn-prod.medicalnewstoday.com/content/images/articles/327/327414/a-man-spraying-pesticides-into-a-field-of-crops-that-will-be-used-for-food.jpg https://waterborne-env.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/death-by-a-thousand-cuts-874x1024.jpg Alien and Introduced species Introduced by humans to regions where there are no natural predators.  ปลาหมอคางดำ Sarotherodon melanotheron 83 Plas