GE ELEC 2 Gender and Society PDF

GE ELEC 2 Gender and Society Module for Preliminary Term Pambayang Kolehiyo ng Mauban Mauban-Atimonan Bypass Rd., So. Loob Brgy. Polo, Mauban, Quezon Ms. Jonalyn M. Latorre Instructor Name:________________________________________ Ye...

GE ELEC 2 Gender and Society Module for Preliminary Term Pambayang Kolehiyo ng Mauban Mauban-Atimonan Bypass Rd., So. Loob Brgy. Polo, Mauban, Quezon Ms. Jonalyn M. Latorre Instructor Name:________________________________________ Year/Section: __________________________  FOREWORD This course focuses on gender as a social construction, its role and impact on different facets of societal life. This course aims to discuss the concepts, principles, and approaches in the understanding of genders in the Philippines towards an effective gender responsive society. This course will ignite the awareness to the student’s understanding of our country’s current problems in gender inequality, gender mainstreaming, gender preferences and the likes. It equips the students with a broader perspective on their gender roles as they discern stereotypes and discriminations as dictated by society. It prepares students to be more gender sensitive in words and in actions as they build a new society filled with gender responsive individuals. This module will serve as your effective learning tools in developing essential learning about the course. As a responsible student of Pambayang Kolehiyo ng Mauban you are expected to enhance your skills and be equipped with knowledge about the principles of social sciences and philosophy in general. It will also allow you to understand better the different genders as they are important part in our society. You are expected to participate in every task or activities, may it be individual or groupings to show your appreciation of the subject. The following are the expected learning outcome you should gain at the end of the course: 1. Discuss the context of society, sex, sexuality and gender following the Philippine social norms. 2. Identify current gender issues in our country. 3. Demonstrate an understanding of how women, men and members of LGBTQIA+ community are impacted differently in a wide variety of settings and issues and be able to discuss gender discrimination and contemporary gender issues in an informed manner. 4. Participate actively in classroom discussions and activities with regards to gender and society. 5. Discuss the importance of studying gender and society and familiarize with the local laws concerning gender issues. 6. Do a philosophical reflection on a concrete situation related to gender and society. 7. Appreciate and apply understanding in the interdisciplinary analysis of issues and problems of society in general and of the Philippines in particular. Just enjoy the ride while learning. You can do it!  JML GENDER AND SOCIETY 1 MODULE I THE SOCIAL PARADIGM 1. Introduction to Social Philosophy 1.1 General Concept of Social Philosophy 1.2 Human and Society 2. The Society: Its Constitution and Institutions 2.2 The Society 2.3 Social Institutions 3. Social Concepts 4. Understanding Culture and Society 5. Changes and Organization in Society GENDER AND SOCIETY 2  LESSON 1 INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY Desired Learning Outcomes: 1. Understand the general concept of the social dimension of human relations. 2. Illustrate concrete ways on how students demonstrate application of philosophical concepts in their daily lives. 3. Appreciate the importrance of philosophy in various disciplines as it continuously shapes society. “Only the examined life is worth living.” Socrates I. GENERAL CONCEPT OF SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY The notion of social philosophy applies to a critical approach in the understanding of social elements such as authority, justice, liberty, equality, institutions, ethics, morals and democracy that are inherent in determining our value as an integral component of society. Social philosophy is one of the main and important branches of philosophy. It is the thoughtful consideration of human society. It gives insights into the actual activities of human beings in the society. According to Mackenzie (n.d.), “Social philosophy seeks to explain the nature of society in the light of the principle of social solidarity.” Social philosophy aims at interpretation of society with reference to the norm of “social unity.” F. W Blackmar (n.d.) maintained that social philosophy is absed upo the general facts of society. It makes general observations on the nature of society. NATURE OF SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY Social philosophy deals with the concepts and principles regarding the society in relation to moral, spiritual and cultural standards. It tries to look into the various socio- political and cultural concepts, changes and development of other social processes in its various sectors. It is also the study of human existence, their being, destiny, nature, composition, attitudes, beliefs, activities and origin. Hence, it is also includes people’s relationship with God, with fellow human, and the universe. GENDER AND SOCIETY 3  No one can deny the fact that the emergence of rational inquiry about human relation is ushered by the existence of society. In society, man discovers for himself the extent to which man has to involve his life shared with others. Human beings went through life gradually and eventually discovering one’s self with others. This point out that human activities are peremeated through and through by our encounter with others (Dy, 2001). As a social being, their entire existence is sustained, nurtured, furthered and developed in all the aspects through the active cooperation of his fellow beings. Social philosophy tries to find out the basic laws which operate in the society and influence human relations. Its aim consists in discovering the meaning of the actual mode of existence. LEGAL BASIS The Education Act of 1982 stresses the formation of “moral and spiritual values” as a national development goal along with social-economic growth and defines ‘moral integrity” and “spiritual vigor” as aims of the general education program in the tertiary level. Our early Filipino thinkers valued the primacy of moral education and saw it as essential to social and political change (Buazon, 2002). This is an adamant call for the creation and inculcation of social philosophy as a tool for social development and for the attainment of the goal of the government towards an ideal Filipino society. This intent is exemplary stated in our constitution. The preamble reads: “We, the sovereign Filipino people, imploring the aid of Almighty God in order to build a just and humane society and establish a government that shall embody our ideals, promote the common good, conserve and develop patrimony, secure to ourselves and our posterity the blessings of independence and democracy – under the rule of law and a regime of truth, justice, freedom, love, equality and peace, do ordain and promulgate this Constitution” (Philippine Constitution, 1987). The creation, promotion, conservation, development, and security of this ideal society and its aspects, hence, are our primal concern. Social philosophy helps us to realign our vision and maintain this goal towards the attainment of an ideal Filipino society through instilling in us moral uprightness and social responsibility. GOAL OF SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY Social philosophy is focused on human relations within the society. It aims to create a better person, a better society and a better world for a better life. However, human being is the focus because of all beings in the world only human has the capacity to understand the world. Human intelligence and rationality are their tools to analyze the causes of things and happenings; and out of the same capacity only humans could design their own future. Social philosophy clarifies the integral but holistic relationship of society and the individual. Human is as what their society is. Humans are shaped by the society where they are in as much as they also shape it. Human draws norms from the society they created. In achieving human’s goals, social philosophy is their guide in order to attain it. It aids us to discover and arrive at functional tools for the formulation of principles that GENDER AND SOCIETY 4 could be used to evaluate the social progress. It also provides us the pictures of the existing scenario of the society to determine rightness or wrongness of societal orders, systems and functions. Social philosophy is truly the science of community relations. SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY AND SOCIAL SCIENCES Although both philosophy and science speing from experience, from the inherent desire of the human person to know reality, they differ in their approach and intent. Philosophy seeks to understand reality in its totality and ultimate value, while science attempts to investigate reality through control and manipulation. Social philosophy is distinct from social sciences, although they both inquire the same reality. Social philosophy penetrates into the social dimension of human existence with the immediacy of intuition, searching its meaning and values, conceptualizing them for the sake of integrative meaningful living. It attempts to understand his being-with- other-in-society in a total integrative way. On the other hand, the social sciences try to examine a segment of social reality (a group of people, their culture, their economics or politics, religion, race, gender and social stratification) as a fact and to explain it (Dy, 2001). Nevertheless, social philosophy and the social sciences, though distinct, complement each other. Social philosophy analyzes human social behaviors. While social sciences, on the other hand, are driven to probe in to social afcts through the insight of a social philosopher. Both pursue analysis of the social reality. In addition, social philosophy and social sciences are closely connected. According to Morris Ginsberg, social philosophy aims at the formulation of the general principles of human behavior through speculation on social phenomena. For Bertrand Russell, social philosophy seeks the conditions in which all the constructive tendencies of man (such as love and sympathy). Social philosophy studies the interactions and interrelations that exist among men and their groups. RELATIONS TO OTHER SOCIAL SCIENCES Social Philosophy and Sociology. For Aristotle, man is rational as well as a social animal. Man is completely dependent upon the society for the satisfaction of his bare needs. Man without society would be a savage beast leading to solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short life. The human cultures, customs, religions, beliefs, thoughts, the notions of right and wrong, good or evil, all are outcome of social life. Social philosophy determines the ideals of social life. It gives insight into the means that will be useful to bring out social welfare and the values that should be sought for social prosperity. Sociology is the science of the web of social relationships. It is the science of the origin, structure and develooment of the society. The social groups and social institutions are formal expressions of social relationships in human beings. Sociology investigates into the basic social nature of man manifested in a variety of social behavior. Social philosophy is philosophical. GENDER AND SOCIETY 5  Social Philosophy and Politics. The relationship between social philosophy and politics is direct and intimate. The theoretical aspect of politics (political philosophy) and social philosophy are philosophical reflections on the nature of social systems. Politics is a positive discipline which is concerned with the state. It studies the various forms of authority and the political organizations. Social philosophy is a normative discipline that seeks the norms for ideal forms of government. Both politics and social philosophy are guided by the same ideal of social harmony and cooperation. Politics tried to reach the goal through the state. The state by demanding obedience of laws and by using its power tries to maintain social order. Social philosophy lays down the norms of common good. It gives proper tone and directions to all human pursuits and efforts. So, the domain of social philosophy is wider than the Summon Bonum domain of politics. Any deviation from the social ideals may lead the whole society into direct anarchy and confusion. Social Philosophy and Ethics. Social philosophy and ethics, both are said to be philosophy of practice. They give insight into the actual activities of human beings in the society. These branches of philosophy inquire into “what is right or good for man and society.” Social philosophy deals with the individual’s highest good in the society. Ethics deals with the (Supreme Good) of individual life. Social philosophy and ethics are complementary to each other. Social philosophy studies all social relationships including moral principles involved in these relationships. It is concerned with nature of relationships between individuals in society. Ethics studies the conduct of individual as an agent, interacting with other individuals. SIGNIFICANCE OF SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY Social philosophy aims to develop a cultured, well-defined and well-rounded individual. Much of what is learned in this can be applied effectively in any endeavor. This is so because social philosophy touches sensitive but relevant social issues and especially, because many of its contexts are applicable in any field. Social philosophy itself, primordially, is learning. The following lists are some of the notable and conventional significance of the course. 1. Critical Thinking and General Problem Solving. The study of the subject in any way enhances one’s problem-solving abilities in addressing social difficulties. It helps one to analyze specific societal problem and helps one to come up with responsive measure to resolve it. 2. Leadership Skills. Social philosophy also contributes uniquely to the development of one’s leadership skills. It provides some of the basic concepts on good leadership methods that can be applied not only when one is commissioned to public service but even as an ordinary citizen. 3. Persuasive Powers. Through the inputs and information acquired in the subject, it thereby helps one develop the ability to be convincing and defend one’s own views in fostering better society. These capacities can be developed not only GENDER AND SOCIETY 6  through reading concepts in social philosophy, but also through the philosophical dialogue, in and outside the classroom. 4. Probe into the meaning and value of social life. Socrates’ famous adage states: “the unexamined life is a life not worth living.” True to its sense, social philosophy provides practical messages on how we can lead social life to its fullest and to achieving its true meaning and value. In here, we learn to live mutually with others respecting differences and uniqueness but collectively working together in pursuit of our common goals in society. 5. Help pave the way towards self-development and self-discovery. Social philosophy paves the avenue for reflection, self-introspection, which is vital and effective tool for social relations. As a tool for self-discovery, it is so vital that it develops students their ability to cooperate and work together as an important part for the student’s contribution to social development. 6. Creation of our own philosophy in life. While the students are exposed to these philosophical thoughts, they too can develop their own philosophy in life which will provide them principles necessary in directing their lives. Social philosophy will also provide students with fundamental views in coping with the changing demands and problems in social life. Undoubtedly, social philosophy as an academic disicipline will always be an important aspect of human life and experience to develop a complete social being, strong and determined to face the ever-changing social realities. It provides the students and individual others a holistic view of life that may help one to come up with right decision, better understanding of his fellowmen and that of himself. II. HUMAN AND SOCIETY HUMAN AS A SOCIAL BEING Human beings are inherently designed to live with fellow beings. People recognize that they cannot live in a vacuum but to reach out to other groups and learn to live together within a social system with established relationship that they recognize and follow as a way of life. Manuel Dy (2001) has illustrated three important perspectives on the social dimensions of human relations: 1. Human existence is social. Our life is social in everything. “Everything” means all aspects of human existence where the human being can develop himself; that the human being under any circumstances is a fellow, a comrade, together with others. The people’s activities are social not only because they perform them with others but also because they learn and benefit from others as much as the others also benefit from them in terms of the generated income from the utilization of the GENDER AND SOCIETY 7  products. Even wanting to be alone is social because it is a productive activity wherein an individual utilizes it for personal discernment and self-realization in order to relate better to others later on. 2. Our existence is an existence through the others. The human being needs to work in order to survive. In work, he interacts with nature, the materials he needs to transform for his needs and that of others. With that people create, and in the coming generation from which other people will benefit from. Our world is always connected with what has already been achieved by others in the past and in the present. The bread that I eat, the coffee that I drink, and the newspaper that I read are products of other people that have essentially contributed to my enrichment as individual member of the society. Language as well exists because it is spoken by human beings. Education is such an encounter as well. Studying, working, playing would make sense to us because they are taken up by persons, because of the person’s presence to them. The human person of our time now depends upon this field for their activities, but the field in turn depends upon the human person for its activation. As the field is activated, we are brought to life within the living encounter with fellowmen. In fact, all meaning contains a long common history of influence of others in us. Practically and theoretically, the world would be meaningless without the human person, without the presence of the other. Thus, our existence is an existence through others. 3. Our existence is an existence for one another. The insight that togetherness is a value in itself brings home the point that our existence is not just a being-through-others but also a being-for-others. In the field of work, we exist through others by making use of products that are the fruit of the labor of others. But we also work for others. This is clearly manifested in service-oriented work life teaching. Yet in other types of work in modern society, the division of labor, specialized labor, attests to this fact in that we produce more than we ourselves could possibly use. We produce for other although this “other” need not be physically visible. The person in contemporary time indeed works for money, for money determines the possibilities of life open to him and his family. However, the contemporary person strives to go beyond this monetary motive – he strives to be indispensable, to be of significance to others, to be appreciated for his work, to belong to the company. When our work is appreciated by others, we gain self- confidence. Self-confidence is necessary for us to build our future. But self- confidence is not possible for us to attain without others having confidence in us. And for others to have confidence in us, we have to show them that we are capable of doing something meaningful for them. In fact, our existence is meaningful only when others accept it also as meaningful. We need our being- needed by others for ourselves. It may sound selfish, but not. It is reflexive. The authentic being for others is being at the service of others that promotes the existence of the other for his own sake. GENDER AND SOCIETY 8  THE SOCIETY: IT’S CONSTITUTION LESSON 2 AND INSTITUTIONS Desired Learning Outcomes: 1. Understand the significant roles in improving society and the importance of different social institutions. 2. Practice various concepts in practical lives as law-abiding citizens. 3. Realize the significant roles in improving society. 4. Appreciate the importance of the different institutions in nation building. “All nature is connected; and the world itself consists of parts, which, like the stones of an arch, mutually support and are supported. This order of things consists of movements, which, in a state of counteraction and apparent disturbance, mutually regulate and balance one another.” Ferguson, 1973 I. THE SOCIETY Society is basically defined as a group of people living together in a particular territory sharing common culture and ethnic origin. Its existence is inherent in every defined associaltion of people. Society is practically everywhere postulating various cultures and practices that make one society unique from others. It is evident, therefore, that human beings are by nature social creatures because without force or intimidation, humans naturally associate with one another. It is indeed a natural inclination of humans to get in touch with others. Eventually, society is transposed to a certain community where people mutually live a social life, to fully develop possibilities and potentials. Human beings have complex needs which can only be addressed within the society. TYPES OF SOCIETY To begin with, society is a group of people who live in a certain domain and behave according to existing culture and morality. Culture and morality differ in terms of different parts of a society and different types of societies as well. The types have already been shaped by anthropologists and sociologists in history but there is not one certain classification. The classification starts with hunter-gatherer society and finishes with post-industrial society and in between there is the process of development of human ebings as a society. First four types, historically, are known as pre-industrial societies in terms of social structure, cultural accumulation and the level of their technologies, the last two types were shaped after the industrial revolution. GENDER AND SOCIETY 9 1. Foraging Societies When human beings did not know how to dominate land and domesticate the animals, they had to live together, share work, use fresh water carefully and also migrate gregariously if anything went wrong, for example, if rivers dried up or they ran out of animals. Usually, men were hunters and women were gatherers in those societies and this caused matriarchy because mean were always in danger during hunting and generally hunter members returned home with limited numbers. Labor in hunting and gathering societies was divided equally among the members because they were so small and mobile. Their decision-making body included every person who lived in the society and equally conducted it. Even their tribal leaders could not decide anything about tribe, everything in those societies was decided by all members. They learned cultivation and they did not need to relocate abymore and they were divided into two parts as animal domesticators and plant cultivators. Both of them started to live in a certain domain. 2. Pastoral Societies In this type of society, approximately 12,000 years ago, people lived in a certain place and started to pasture animals for transportation and permanent food. Those types of societies still exist in Somalia, Ethiopia and North Africa countries where horticulture and manufacturing are not possible. Hunter-gatherer society did domesticate animals because they realized that using animals’ wool, milk, and fertility was more beneficial than hunting and wasting them. Consequently, not only trade had started, but also non-survival class had aroused such as the spiritual leaders, healers, traders, craftspeople. This new information held society together in a certain domain and nomadic did not migrate so far, circulate around the pasture – primitive version of urban – and also difference of people came out for the first time; the nomadic and settled people. These are the first forms of people who live in rural and urban areas. Moreover, as they had to domesticate animals and use them, people needed some tools and they invented what they needed. By this means technology developed rapidly. Trade improved easily and differences between nomadic and settled people grew up, consequently conceot of social inequality started to appear compared to hunter-gatherer societies. 3. Horticultural Societies Similar to pastoral societies, horticultural societies first appeared 10,000 to 12,000 years ago but these societies cultivated vegetables, fruits and plants. Depletion of the land’s resources or dwindling water supplies, for instance, forced the people to leave. Since, they were mobile and small like hunter-gatherer societies; there was not a non-survival class and not trade as well. Division of labor continued, social structures did not develop and because of this, horticultural societies did not differ from foraging societies. They could not develop because agricultural materials were invented about 8,000 eyars ago and they could not relocate rivers and water sources, their plants dried up. It is easily realized that why development of technology is is important and how it affects to shape societies, at the same time in other parts of the world, people could invent and develop what they needed but for agriculture, technology was not enough. GENDER AND SOCIETY 10 4. Agricultural Societies What caused horticultural societies to extinguish were the late agricultural inventions introduced 8,000 years ago. With the new inventions, food supplies increased and people settled together. Population grew up rapidly, villages came up and farmers, land owners and also warriors who protected farm in exchange for against enemies arose. In these societies, social inequality solidly showed itself. A rigid caste system developed; slavery and ownership started to be too different concepts in those lives. Caste system developed the differentiation between the elite and agricultural laborers including slaves. Lands started to be so important, especially from ninth to fifteenth centuries, after the understanding of feudalism developed, all small land owners saw themselves as kings and owners of people whol lived for them as well. Concept of social classes spread through the Europe and not only land owners, but also religious leaders did not have to try to survive because workers had to give them everything that they had. Art, literature, and philosophy were in religious leaders’ hands because of this, time of feudalism is known as the dark ages. Due to existing monarchy, owners set up their own rules in their hands and each lord led the society with different rules amd all of them depended on the king. This stratification prevented slaves from rebellion, workers were sweated and classes and inequalities in Europe continued until the industrial revolution. 5. Industrial Societies With usage of the steam power, human beings started to use machines and advanced technologies to produce and distribute goods and services. Industrial revolution process began in Britain and then spread through Europe and to the rest of the world, industrial societies started to develop. The growth of technologies led to advances in farming techniques, so slavery lost its significance, economy developed quickly and understanding of social charity and governments’ aids grew up. Feudan social classes removed but then societies divided into two parts as workers and non-workers. Karl Marx explained that non-workers are composing of capitalist class and they hold all money and also set up rules. Considering this explanation, it is easily understood that non-workers are the same with non- survivors like lords and religious leaders in pre-industrial societies. Thus, the industrial revolution brought only the slavery extinction and there was only worker class. Learning from previous mistakes rulers gave more opportunities for social mobility and also gave more rights than they gave to the slaves. With changes in social inequalities people started to want their rights and freedom as citizens and then kingdoms and autocracy lost their power on citizens. Politically everyone seemed equal but, of course, inequalities between money owners and sellers of their own labors to survive unstoppably increased. Villages lost their significance and towns became places where occupation opportunities were supplied. 6. Post-industrial Societies The countries that the industrial revolution began – Britain, France, the USA and Japan – now became the post-industrial countries. These countries are users of advance technologies like developed computers, satellites, microchips. In GENDER AND SOCIETY 11  short, those societies are affected by the technologies at first hand. In comparison with horticultural societies, it can be easily understood that how technology is important to shape and characterize a society. Since they are trailblazers of technologies, they are now holding all world’s economy in their hands. There is no rural and urban areas in as well as in people who are economically at the top and middle. People won their own freedom by working hard, if there are any differences or discrimination, this is caused by capitalist and global world, not the governments’ mistakes. Society is being shaped by the human mind, aided by computer technology. Although factories will always exist, the key to wealth and power seems to lie in the ability to generate, store, manipulate, and sell information. Sociologists speculate about the characteristics of post-industrial society in the near future. They predict increased levels of education and training, consumerism, availability of goods, and social mobility. IMPORTANCE OF SOCIETY Social inequality, racial discrimination, economic disparity, poverty, and overpopulation are some of the major concerns of society today. As an organized social group, it is our duty to address these concerns and work towards the betterment of society. One of the reasons why society is important is that it gives us a framework to work together. It provides us with a platform to take collective efforts towards improving social conditions. Most importantly, a society serves as as strong support system in life. Specifically, society is so important in the following manners: 1) Foundation of the government 2) Building blocks of nations 3) Stepping stone of every human development 4) Standard of good and evil 5) Setter of roles and responsibilities 6) Preserver of cultural heritage 7) Bridge that connects the past, present and the future 8) Mother of generation 9) Judge of human success and failures 10) Measure of one’s individuality ASPECTS OF SOCIETY The study of social philosophy does not only entail the study of society in general but will also include the investigation on the different compositions of society of vital importance in grasping the subject meaningfully. Hence, these aspects of society are unique but are interrelated and interdependent. Meaning, one aspect cannot stand on its own without the other components. An aspect cannot contribute siginificantly without the aid of the other aspects. GENDER AND SOCIETY 12  Generally, these aspects are the following; family, political, economical, socio- cultural, educational, religious, and mass media. Family, being the fundamental unit of society, is which all the other aspects are derived from. The degree or extent to which a country has developed or has deteriorated can be determined by closely examining the family. The strength or weakness of a society depends on the kind of family that prevails. Political aspect is an invaluable activity of men which is also intertwined with other social systems and affects them, in turn affected by them. Thus, is is from which the government is established to provide control mechanisms necessary for a peaceful and progressive living. After all, man is really a political being in nature. Human, moreover, must work for survival to the generation next. People are both a consumer and a producer to sustain life. The economic aspect, therefore, is generated by human beings to provide means and ways to sustain basic material needs to live. Hence, the acceleration for production to replenish our needs is imperative to answer the increasing demand of people in society. For the socio-cultural aspect, it is the heart and soul of a civilized society; it reflects the identity of people in the community. It is also where the coping mechanism of the individual members in society is translated. Life’s meaning, refinement and development are manifested as a result of their ability to transcend themselves to the fullest measures of his capabilities. It is the evolution towards human’s perfection and totality. Education aspect is more than just learning and training human to earn a living. Education is life itself. Education entails the “wholeness” of individual; the moral, the intellectual and the behavioral. Thus, education is the most effective among all the other aspects for it dramatically restructures all the other aspects of society. Meanwhile, mass media is the most influential aspect of society. Human beings are easily moved and affected by it. Presently, it can connect people efficiently and provides them with enormous information that no one can possibly imagine. The absence of media would make interaction among people difficult. Mass media open the window of communication and interaction between men. SOCIAL STRATIFICATION Social stratification is the hierarchical arrangement and establishment of social categories that may evolve in social groups together with their statuses and their corresponding roles. It may be viewed as a social structure, as a social process, or as a social problem. As a social structure, it may be considered as the differentiation of statuses and social roles into ranked orders or a system of layered hierarchy of social relations (Kerbo, 1991). Social diversity is a necessity to achieve diverse and unique goals in society. It provides opportunity for all social elements (components) to contribute their parts in the maintenance of the whole. Society needs drivers to transport GENDER AND SOCIETY 13 other people, others to construct buildings, farmers for basic Filipino provisions, government, business owners, among others; unequal yet integral and united. II. SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS Social institutions are sometimes confused with formal organizations but they are actually different from each other. A formal organization is a social group formed deliberately foe specific goals. The social institution is an abstraction which is an organized system of social norms, beliefs, values, and material objects formed around the social needs of people. All societies have institutions such as the family, economy, religion, and education to meet certain social needs. 1. Family The family is the most basic form of social institution, so as the foundation of all institutions; the most important unit of the state for there is no tribe, nation or state without a family (Tabotabo et al, 2011). Family in relation to social philosophy serves as the simplest reflection of society from which critical understanding of society can be drawn from. The family are the values and organization of the society. 2. Education The word education comes from the Latin word “educare, educates” meaning to bring up, to rear, to lead forth or bring out (Tabotabo & Corpuz, 2011). Education is an institution (within the formal condition) where students learn while under the supervision of teachers. That is the most specific concept of education. Since time immemorial, education in simple societies was given by the family, assisted by some elderly members of the community. Informal instruction is given to prepare the youth for adult roles that would enable them to cope with various demands of their environment. True indeed that education is learning to live a life to the fullest. People of different countries in different ages have their varied styles of educating the people. Socrates, the Greek philosopher, was known to be the first man who hinted humanity with the idea of putting up a school, a place where people congregate for the purpose of obtaining knowledge. He traveled from place to place and collected his students in a place anywhere in the city most frequently under the tree or garden. Plato, his disciple, established the first school, the Academia. And Aristotle followed by putting up the Lyceum. These schools alse became an avenue to critically analyze their social issues and concerns. 3. Religion Etymologically, religion comes from the Latin word religare, which means “to bind together.” GENDER AND SOCIETY 14  Durkheim (1961) defines religion as a unified system of beliefs and pratices relative to sacred things that set apart and forbidden practices and beliefs which unite into one single moral community called a church. Religion, therefore, belongs to sacred things, things that are protected and isolated by prohibitions and set apart from the mundane worldly objects and activities. Religion as an institution performs many functions for their society as well as for the individual. It gives people peace of mind, lightens their burdens, fears and anxieties, and provides them guidance. Likewise, religion serves as a means of social control, performs welfare and recreational functions, maintains and regulates the value system of the society and promotes group solidarity. 4. State The word state and its cognates in other European languages (stato in Italian, état in French, staat in German) ultimately derive from the Latin status, meaning “condition.” With the revival of the Roman law in the 14th century in Europe, this Latin term was used to refer to the legal standing of persons (such as the various “estates of the realm” – noble, common, and clerical), and in particular the special status of the king (Hay, 2001). For Hegel, the state is the social substance that has arrived at self-consciousness) it is rational of itself. For Max Weber, it is a structurally specific and historically unique organization of men over men. The concept of the state as distinct from society developed gradually. The need for the state arose when groups within the society realized that it was for their own welfare to centralize authority, set up rules for settling disputes, and apply force to maintain obedience and loyalty to the social norms and values of society. The origin of the state therefore, has its roots in man’s social being. It is the duty of the state to preserve and defend the rights and dignity of man and promote the common good of the people. The state fundamentally emerged in the family to ensure security and well-being of its member. Its very existence is a self-conscious effort by people trying to maintain stability and order in society. Man, being rational and social in nature, tends to form and create society for community life with his fellowmen in order to work cooperatively for their common welfare. The state is established to minister man’s temporal needs and well-being to be happy. Thus, the supreme end of the state, according to Plato, is to bring about unity and harmony among them. 5. Government A government is a body that has the power to make, and the authority to enforce rules and laws within the civil, corporate, religious, academic, or other organization or group. The government can be classified in various ways. The classical way of classification is according to the number of people who hold the power (one, a few, or a majority). The more ercent classification bases itself on the institutional organization (parliamentary or presidential systems) or the distribution and the degree of control exercised over the society. A government is not synonymous with the state; however, a state can be distinguished according to its form of government. Hence, government may differ GENDER AND SOCIETY 15  from one another due to their different organizational structures, political components and the extent of their power and responsibility. Major Forms of Government: Monarchy – is a form of government where the final authority is on the hand of one and supreme person or ruler regardless of how it is obtained. The ruler has an absolute and unlimited power who is usually coming from the royal blood like king or queen. Aristocracy – is a rule of relatively few people belonging to the elite social status of society. These are known to be rich, educated, and prominent people in society. Oligarchy – is a state controlled by few but corrupt individuals. Dictatorship – is a government ruled by one who exercises absolute power as dictator. It is one party system of government composed of despotic and tyrannical individual as the supreme head of the state. Democracy – is where the supreme authority is vested to the people. It upholds human rights and political equality. The authority of the state is derived from the mandate of the citizens. 6. Citizen Citizenship is membership in a political community (originally a city or town but now usually a country) and carries with it rights to political participation; a person having such membership is a citizen. It is largely coterminous with nationality, although it is possible to have a nationality without citizenship. GENDER AND SOCIETY 16  LESSON 3 SOCIAL CONCEPTS Desired Learning Outcomes: 1. Develop decision-making skills. 2. Be able to practice various concepts in their practical lives as law-abiding citizens. 3. Learn to live mutually while protecting and respecting others’ rights in their respective communities. A. SOCIAL CONCEPTS Social concepts are humanly created organization or system of interrelationships that connects individuals in a common culture, all of which are the products of human interaction, their experiences of living with others. In order to have a better grasp and understanding of any undertaking about the social and political philosophy that has been conceived, developed and expounded for many years by scholars which can now be applied in various activities and other human concerns and relations affecting the lives of men, it is important to understand these fundamental concepts related to the reasons for their existence. B. VALUES “Nunquam scelus sclere vincendum est.” A wrong does not right another wrong. A value is the object of human desire or striving or the subjective appraisal of an object as in some way good. Values are things everyone is ready to die for. Etymologically, the word comes from “valoir” which means to be strong, to be worthy. There is a broad array of values; there are as many value systems as there are individuals in any society that is pluralistic such as personal value, political value, and/or social value i.e., justice and love. Value is also a branch of philosophy called axiology. It is believed that human awareness of values happened too long ago. It is because values are intimately related to us in our drive to find meanings in our life. Values serve as the impetus that propels us to achieve our goals, our aspirations and ambitions in life. Thus, values help us find the reason, sense, purpose and direction of our existence. GENDER AND SOCIETY 17  For Agape (1991), values are the object of human desire and striving over those beliefs which one hold as true. Gualdo (2000) added that since values are our beliefs, these in turn affect our thoughts, decisions, and actions. 1. Types of Social Values Dominant Values – are those that the majority of people in a society support at a particular time. Example: Men and women are considered equal. Traditional Values – are those that a majority of people have believed over a long period of time. They may be dominant values or they may have declined in importance over time. Example: A woman’s place is in the home. Men are the breadwinners in a household. Emerging Values – are those that develop as a result of the failure or inadequacy of traditional or dominant social values because of the emergence of new ideas. They may, in time, replace the earlier values or may add a degree of sophistication or complexity to our understanding of them. Example: There should be same-sex marriage permitted. Oppositional Values – are those values held by a small group in society which are in opposition to those held by the majority of society. Example: The death penalty should be restored. Alternative Values – are those outside of dominant or traditional values, but not in opposition to them. Alternative social values may in time develop greater support and emerge as new dominant values, or they may remain as an alternative, held by a smaller or insignificant section of society. Example: Homeopathic medicine is an effective treatment for illness. 2. Kinds of Social Values Respect Justice/ Fairness Honesty Service/ Giving back/ Contribution Responsibility Family value system Community values C. COMMON GOOD “Salus Popoli Est Supreme Lex.” The Good of the people is the supreme law. Society is not merely an aggregation of persons but, rather, a community of individuals who are bound together by a common goal. It presupposes the union of wills GENDER AND SOCIETY 18 among men to unite them together. To surrender the individual will and give away for the common will of the people is to pave the way for the welfare of the society. As in primitive times, individual interests should be subordinate to the interests of the group. To attain this aim, man should be constantly aware of the good of all the members of society. This awareness is what is known as the common good. According to Pope John XXIII, the common good is “the sum total of conditions of social living, whereby persons are enabled more fully and readily to achieve their own perfection,” (Tiempo, 2005). Since the individual man is part of both the universe and society, the common good then is the good of the universe and of society as a whole (de Torre, 1980). Common good, therefore, provides the possibility that certain goods, such as security and justice, can be achieved only through citizenship, collective action, and active participation in politics and public service. In effect, the notion of the common good is a denial which has asserted that people can and should live their lives as citizens deeply embedded in social relationships. D. LAW Law (lex in Latin meang bond) in its broadest sense means a norm or rule. This is the law of reason and of conscience which admonishes one to do good, and avoid evil. Laws are made specifically for the purpose of securing and promoting the welfare of the people. Laws act as vanguards of the common good and indirectly, the keepers and promoters of values. 1. Definitions of Law St. Thomas Aquinas’ classicial definition of law states: “Law is an ordinance of reason made by him who has charge of society, for the common good and promulgated.” This definition is governed by four essential elements: Ordinance of reason. Law shall be just, fair, reasonable and attainable. Made by him who has charge of society. Laws are made by duly constituted authority to enact laws. For the common good. Laws are made for the well-being of all the people, not for privileged few. Promulgated. In order for that law to be binding, it must be made known to people. 2. When Does a Law Become Unjust Laws can be unjust in several reasons: When the law being imposed is burdensome and instead promoting the interest of the few rather than the common good. When the rulers enact law beyond their authority. When the laws are discriminatory where it is unequally applied to members of society. GENDER AND SOCIETY 19  3. Classification of Laws Eternal Law – is indeed the mind and the will of God commanding the natural order of the universe to be observed. This truth flows from the imperative that Gofd exists and He is the Creator of the universe. Natural Law – is a component of the eternal law as it applies to human. It means that every creature follows a law connatural to it. Positive Law – is a rule of action made and freely established by competent authority in society. E. RIGHTS “We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.” –Thomas Jefferson A right is the legal or moral power to do or refrain from doing something or to obtain or refrain from obtaining an action in relation to one’s own state of life (St. Augustine). Rights therefore are not physical nor material for it is a moral power. Rights are due to human because he/she is a person possessing worth and dignity. It is a thing to which one has just claim. Rights originate not from the person holding it. Man has right because law provides him it. Law provides man the power to do, to express, to act, to receive, etc. Without law man has no right. Law extends and limits the rights of man. Rights serve as rules of interaction between people, and, as such, they place constraints and obligations upon the actions of individual or groups (for example, if one has a right to life, this means that others do not have the liberty to muder him.) Right, is indeed, a power but it is only moral. This means that one cannot use physical force to enjoy a right. Right is reciprocal by nature. One has the right that others are bound to respect and obey. Rights are necessary in man’s life in order to facilitate his relationship with others. Corollary to rights are duties and responsibilities. 1. Essential Properties of Rights (Bauzon, 2002) a. Coaction – is the capacity of right to forcefully prevent its violation, and to exact redress for unjust violation. GENDER AND SOCIETY 20  b. Limitation – is the natural limit or boundary of right, beyond which it cannot be exercised without violating the right of another. c. Collision – is the apparent conflict of the rights. 2. Fundamental Rights of Man (Summa Theologica) a. The right to life – is the man’s highest right because without it, no other rights can be enjoyed. It is inalienable to him. Whenever that right is threatened, all other rights will have to give way. Hence, the right of the fetus to be born belongs to this right. The right to life has a corresponding duty. One must keep himself healthy and has to develop one’s capabilities like intellectual, moral and physical. b. The right to private property – is the acquisition and ownership of a certain good or properties. Man must own some property to live well. He needs an adequate amount of property to pursue his life fruitfully. Its corresponding duty is to take care of one’s property, and to come to the aid of those who do not have. c. Right to marry – posits that man may choose the kind of life one wants to pursue, especially in getting married and establishing a family. But it involves the duty to support one’s family and bring up the children. This right is guaranteed and protected by the state. d. The right to physical freedom – means the moral power of one to move freely. This connotes the duty to respect private boundaries. 3. Kinds of Rights (Babor, 2007) a. Natural Rights. These are rights acquired by birth, also called basic human rights. Examples: right to life, to freedom, to obtain properties, to education. b. Acquired Rights. Those rights obtained by individuals after fulfilling some requirements as prescribed by law. Example: acquisition of citizenship, right to suffrage. c. Public Rights. Those rights given to people by the ecclesiastical and civil laws. d. Private Rights. Those rights granted by private industries, institutions or organizations who have formulated laws in accordance with the civil law. e. Positive Rights. Those rights which confer upon a person the power to do certain things. Examples: right to marry, to possess wealth. f. Negative Rights. These are power of the person to refuse to perform negative acts. Examples: stealing, intoxication drinking, killing, etc. g. Alienable Rights. The rights that can be transferred or renounced. Examples: ownership rights, positive and negative rights h. Inalienable Rights. The rights that cannot be transferred or renounced. Examples: religious rights or right to life i. Perfect Rights. These are mandatory or enforceable by the law. Examples: right to collect payment from debt GENDER AND SOCIETY 21  j. Imperfect Rights. The rights which are not enforced by law or not juridicial. Examples: rights to give tips to ushers. 4. Extensions of Right to Human Life a. Man is not obliged to take extraordinary means to life. For example, undergoing major operations on account of grave reasons, only to prolong but not save life. b. It is not inordinate to subject life to ordeals called for by a higher order. Examples: extreme fasts, long vigils, flagellation or forms of asceticism. c. Besides goods of soul and body, man must strive for the full perfection of human life, example, the normal pursuance of an adequate livelihood, good name, good moral life and honor. F. DUTY “If I do not reveal my views on justice in words, I do so by my conduct.” – Socrates to Xenophon Duty refers to the behavior that is expected or required of the citizen. It means anything that ought to be done or omitted. Subjectively, duty means the moral obligation of a person to respect the rights of others. Rights and duties are correlative terms. Both originate from law. 1. Kinds of Duty (Babor, 2007) a. Natural Duty – is one which is imposed by the Natural Law. Example: the duty to worship God, or the duty to preserve one’s life. b. Positive Duty – is one which comes from positive law. Example: the duty to hear mass on holidays or on Sundays; the duty to pay tuition fees; or the duty to pay taxes. c. Affirmative Duty – refers to the moral obligation of a person to do an act. Example: “Do good, avoid evil.” d. Negative Duty – refers to the moral obligation of a person to avoid or omit something. Example: “Do not steal”; “Do not lie.”; Do not kill.” e. Perfect Duty – is one which obligates one under strict justice. It is also called Juridicial duty. Examples: the duty of the employer to pay just salaries or wages to the employees. GENDER AND SOCIETY 22  f. Imperfect Duty – is one which does not obligate a person from the standpoint of justice, but from the standpoint of charity or other virtues. Example: giving alms or donations. G. JUSTICE Jus Ars Boni Et Aequi If you want peace, seek justice. -Pope John Paul II Justice means to give what is due to the person. Equality is not justice. Justice does not mean everybody be equal in all opportunities, concerns, and undertakings in life. Human beings can never be equal in all respects. There is what they call distributive justice, where justice is determined based on the need of the person. Accordingly, justice means the habit that enables one to give every human person his due or his own right. Etymologically, the term is derived from the Latin word jus which means “right.” Justice also denotes a relation. One can give each human person his due only in the context of relation. Justice in society is based on the principle of equality, solidarity which basically understands human rights and it recognizes the dignity of every human being. H. LIBERTY “Liberty means responsibility. That is why most men dread it.” – George Bernard Shaw Liberty is one of the most politically disputed and dealt with concept whether in the field of philosophy, history or politics. Liberty is a prevailing idea in social philosophy that identifies the condition in which human beings are able to govern themselves, to exercise their own free will, and take responsibility for their actions. David hume, defines liberty as “a power of acting or of not acting, according to the determination of the will.” The conduct to do, to choose or even to refrain from the execution of an act which proceeds from one’s own volition is an affirmation of liberty. On other hand, free will is the ability to select a course of action as a means of fulfilling some desire. Rene Descartes identifies the faculty of will with freedom of choice, “the ability to do or not to do something” (Meditation IV). It is the capacity of rational agents to choose a course of action from among various alternatives. Acting with free will, on such views, is just to satisfy the metaphysical requirement on being responsible for one’s action. And on this account, some philosophers also argued to support its connection to the concept of moral responsibility. GENDER AND SOCIETY 23  UNDERSTANDING CULTURE LESSON 4 AND SOCIETY Desired Learning Outcomes: 1. Differentiate and appreciate the various meanings of culture and society. 2. Identify and explicate aspects of culture within society. 3. Compare and contrast ethnocentrism and cultural relativism. Culture mirrors the innermost workings of a specific society. For example, culture helps to describe social situations so people understand how to behave based on that society’s cultural norms. For example, being corrected or correcting another person in public is not considered acceptable behavior. Culture also defines values, influences personality development and influences career choices. If culture did not define values, or what is considered right and wrong within the society, then there would be social discord and the society would fail. Society could not function without cultural norms that assist in governing ebhavior and values, and culture could not exist without societal influences to create it. They must coexist in order for humans to exist in an organized manner. It is important to note that culture can, and does, change over time as societal norms change, but the members of the society govern that changes so the individual members of the society have a level of control over the culture. CULTURE AND SOCIETY Most people confuse society with state. Society and state are intertwined. They depend on each other; they need one another and the growth of one affects the growth and livelihood of the other. For example, the state can only be conscious of all its problems if various societies in it raise an issue, like in the Philippines, the climate change by “Bantay Kalikasan,” human trafficking by the “Commission on Human Rights,” graft and corruption by “Concerned Citizens of Abra for Good Government.” A state and a society are both made of people. People belonging to one society may belong to the state, and the people of the state consist of people from different societies. They complement each other and are dependent on each other. The social customs, traditions, philosophies, and actions of society totally influences as state and its morality. For example, the group called “Grabriella” fight for equal treatment of all genders in a workplace, this reminds us that whatever gender you have must be treated with respect because we are all human beings with dignity. GENDER AND SOCIETY 24  On the other hand, sociologists as well as anthropologists define society as “the people who inter-relate in such a way as to share a common culture. The cultural bond or link may be ethnic or racial, based on gender, or due to shared belief-system or worldwide view, values, and activities, such as political or economic, destructive or constructive” (Henslin, 2005). For example, the NPA is a society of armed men in the Philippines that embrace communistic ideology and believe that bloody revolution is the only way to attain peace; and the environmentalists is a group of people whose advocacy is to protect the environment; the “pro-gun” society, people who like guns. The term society can also have a geographic connotation and speak of people who share a common culture in a particular place. For example, people living in an agricultural country developed different cultures from those living in an industrial country. In time, a large variety of human cultures arose around the world. The term culture is a very complicated and intricate term, it has numerous meanings. In the past is refers to an understanding of good literature, music, art and food; it refers also to a civilized man or a cultured person, that is anyone who is highly educated or the “socialities,” however, for anthropologists and sociologists today, “culture is the full range of learned human behaviro patterns” (Boyd & Richerson, 1985). Different societies have different cultures; however, it is important not to confuse the idea of culture with society. A culture represents the beliefs and practices of a group, such as the practice of using chopsticks by Chinese, by being hospitable by the Filipinos, by being liberated by the Americans, while society represents the people who share those beliefes and practices. For example, a group of people who solely used chopstick, a group of people who are hospitable to foreigners, or a group of people who are liberated on the idea of premarital sex. Neither society nor culture could exist without the other. Culture is what makes us what we are. It differentiates one group of society from the other groups or societies; it makes us unique from the others and thus, different societies have different cultures. A culture often contains numerous subcultures. A subculture is a culture shared and actively participated in by a minority of people within the broader culture. In simple words, subculture is a mingling of two different cultures, a small culture and bigger culture through human interaction. Some subcultures achieve a status that they acquire a name of their own. For example, the existence of hackers is perturbing in most societies today. Subcultures bring together like-minded individuals who feel ignored by societal standards and allow them to change a sense of identity. It has values and norms that are distinct from those believed by the majority. It can be unique because of the age, ethnicity, class, location, and/or gender of the members. The qualities that determine a subculture as uncommon may be linguistic, aesthetic, religious, political, sexual, geographical or a combination of factors. Members of a subculture often signal their membership through a unique and symbolic use of style, which includes fashions, mannerisms, and terminology. For example, the LGBTcommunity as a subculture invented their own lingo and dictionary called ‘badingtionary.’ A culture also contains a counterculture. It is subculture with the addition that some of its beliefs, values, or norms challenge or even contradict those of the main GENDER AND SOCIETY 25 culture of which it is part. Examples of countercultures in the Philippines are: the HUKBALAHAP movement of the 1950’s and Davao Death Squad are culture of violence, polygamists; feminists’ groups, such as Gabriella and LGBTQ communities. This kind of culture opposes the main culture. ASPECT OF HUMAN CULTURE 1. MATERIAL CULTURE – refers to the physical objects, resources, and spaces that people use to define their culture. These include homes, neighborhoods, cities, schools, churches, synagogues, temples, mosques, offices, factories and plants, tools, means of production, goods and products, stores, and so forth. All of these physical aspects of a culture help to define its members’ behaviors and perceptions. For example, technology is a vital aspect of material culture in Manila today. 2. NON-MATERIAL CULTURE – refers to the non-physical ideas that people have about their culture, including beliefs, values, rules, norms, morals, language, organizations, and institutions. For instance, the non-material cultural concept of religion consists of a set of ideas and beliefs about God, worship, morals, and ethics. These beliefs determine how the culture responds to its religious topics, issues, and events. When considering non-material culture, sociologists refer to several processes that a culture uses to shape its members’ thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Five of the most important elements are symbols, language, values, norms and artifacts. a. Symbols – are anything used to represent, express and stand for an event, situation or ideas. Some symbols are actually types of non-verbal communication, such as covering mouth with the hand, moving away or leaning back, turning feet away or toward the door, shaking hands with other person, dancing, smiling, bowing of head and many more. They commonly convey friendship, a greeting and departure, an expression of joy, an enthusiasm, a respect, a rejection. All societies have non-verbal symbols we call gestures. However, the same gesture can mean one thing in one society and something quite different in another society. Other symbols are material objects, for instance, the flag, traffic lights, jewelry, cars, clothing, and they stand for something else more than itself. b. Language – is the second element present in every culture. It is a system of words and symbols used to communicate with other people. This includes full languages as we usually think of them, such as Tagalog, English, Spanish, Nihongo, French, etc. But it also includes body language, slang, and common phrases that are unique to certain groups of people. Another example of how cultural languages differ beyond vocabulary is the fact that eye contact represents different meanings in different cultures. c. Values – is another cultural element, which are culturally defined standards for what is good or bad, appropriate or inappropriate, suitable or unsuitable, correct or wrong. Members of the culture use the shared system of values to GENDER AND SOCIETY 26  decide what is good and what is bad. For example, Filipinos are very hospitable when it comes to their fellowmen or visitors. d. Norms – are culturally defined expectations of behavior. They are guidelines we use to determine how we should behave in any given situation and what would be considered inappropriate behavior. Sociologists describe norms as informal understandings that govern individuals’ behavior in society (Oxford Dictionary of Sociology, 1994). For example, we know that we should stand in line to use the restroom without even thinking about informal behavior. Norms can be divided into three: Mores – is the Latin word and plural of Mos which means customs or belies accordance with a group customary expectation. It is gthe “must” behavior of a person. It refers to “what ought to be and what ought not to be.” Mores later on become laws. For example: traffic laws, criminal or penal codes, student behavior codes. Folkways and customs – are the simple customary ways of the people. It is the normal and habitual action of the people within a culture. These are the recognized or accepted ways of behavior. Table manners are common example, how we interact with a cashier and how we ride in an elevator. Rituals – are significant portions of norms. Different cultures also have different rituals, or established procedures and ceremonies that often mark transitions in the life course. As such, rituals both reflect and transmit a culture’s norms and other elements from one generation to the next. Initiation and commencement ceremonies in colleges and universities are familiar examples of time-honored rituals. In many societies, rituals help signify one’s gender identity, for instance, pagtutuli or circumcision is a pre-adolescent rite of passage in the rural Philippines. e. Artifacts – the last element of culture that constitute a society’s material culture. In the simplest societies, artifacts are largely limited to a few tools, the huts people live in, and the clothing they wear. In an industrial world today wireless artifacts help reinforce our own commitment to wireless technology as a way of life. BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE All cultures shared these basic features: 1. Culture is learned. We do not inherit it. Much of learning culture is unconscious. We learn culture from families, peers, institutions, and media. The process of learning culture is known as enculturation, another term in sociology is socialization. While all humans have basic biological needs such as food, sleep, GENDER AND SOCIETY 27  and sex, the way we fulfill those needs varies cross-culturally. For instance, in food, we are not aware that our food is a concoction of recipes from other nations, mostly Chinese and Spanish dishes. 2. Culture is shared. Because we share culture with other members of our group, we are able to act in socially suitable ways and predict how others will act. Despite the shared nature of culture, that does not mean that culture is the same. For instance, in food, even one of our dishes like ‘chicken curry’ is similar to a specific Indian dish, it does not mean that they are fully the same dish. They can have similarity in some of its ingredients, but not everything, in a way, there is something Filipino in it, we call ‘a Filipino touch.’ 3. Culture is based on symbols. A symbol is something that represents for something else which is not of itself. Symbols vary cross-culturally and are neutral. They only have meaning when people in a culture agree on their use. Language, money and art are all symbols. Language is the most important symbolic component of culture. For example, Filipinos and Chinese agree that only fishing boats carrying a white flag will be allowed to fish in the West Philippine Sea. 4. Culture is integrated or holistic. All aspects of culture are related to one another and to truly understand a culture, one must learn everything about it. Actually, cultural integration typically refers to cultural globalization. Globalization is a process that includes the interaction and integration of people, companies and governments of different nations. It is driven by an increased interconnection among countries in areas of economics, politics and culture, as well as international trade and investment. 5. Culture is dynamic. The fluidity of culture. This simply means that cultures interact and change, even overnight. Because most cultures are in contact with other cultures, they exchange ideas and symbols. All cultures change, otherwise, they would have problems adapting to changing environments. And because cultures are integrated, if one component in the system changes, it is likely that the entire system must adjust. Like the OFW in the Middle East, they easily adapt to the culture of the people there. They learn the language and eat Arabian dishes but when they return home, they shift to Filipino dish and language. SOCIAL STRATIFICATION Social stratification is a society’s manner of categorizing or classifying people into socio-economic layers, based upon their occupation and income, wealth and social condition, or derived power (social, economic, and political). 1. Class – is a social group based on people’s economic position in society. Not all societies exhibit class differences, if a society does not have class-system then we may call it egalitatrian system (i.e., asserting, resulting from, or characterized by belief in the equality of all people, especially in political, economic, or social life- dictionary – Dictionary.com). Class societies are hierarchical, with one class having GENDER AND SOCIETY 28  more access to resources than others. Class is a recent trait of culture, as all early humans lived in egalitarian bands or tribes. 2. Race (in a cultural sense) – is the differences between people based on physical traits, like color of the skin. These differences we give to other people are culturally determined and not biologically created. These physical attributes do not define a person’s actions or explain their behavior. However, there are places on earth where we can experience racial discrimination. 3. Ethnic Group – refers to people who identify themselves as a unique group based on cultural mark such as common origins, language, customs and beliefs. Ethnic groups can eb historically organized or they can be more recently asserted, like the African-Americans. Just because people choose to see themselves as members of that group are the same or share beliefs and values, like the Filipino-Chinese in the Philippines, some are Christians, others are Catholics and a good number of them are unbelievers. Ethnicity can also be used to discriminate others. 4. Indigenous People – are people who long-established themselves in some territory ahead of colonial or outside societies existing in the territory. They are groups that were in a territory before Europeans or colonists arrived, thus they are an indigenous group. They are frequently called First Peoples, and often suffer from discrimination. Here in the Philippines, the Lumad is a good example of indigenous people, the Aetas in Zambales and Quezon Province, and the Ati in Panay Island. 5. Gender – refers to the state of being a male of female or intersex. Most societies only have masculine or feminine cultural roles, but some have a third, or even a blended gender. Gender roles vary widely cross-culturally. Closely tied to gender roles are issues relating to homosexuality. In many cultures around the world, there is discrimination based on gender and sexual orientation. 6. Age – is both a natural fact and culturally made. While we can calculate how old an individual is (natural age), what that is says concerning the rights and responsibilities in an institution where the person is in. Most societies have obligations and responsibilities that are assigned based on individuals reaching specific ages. Think of driving, drinking, and voting. GENDER AND SOCIETY 29 MODULE II BECOMING A MEMBER OF SOCIETY 1. Enculturation or Socialization and Identity Formation 2. Values, Norms, Statuses and Roles 3. Human Dignity, Human Rights and the Common Good 4. Family as a Social Institutions GENDER AND SOCIETY 30  ENCULTURATION OR SOCIALIZATION LESSON 1 AND IDENTITY FORMATION Desired Learning Outcomes: 1. Define and explain the process of socialization or enculturation. 2. Discuss and evaluates us means of social control in socialization or enculturation. 3. Familiarize with different theories of identity formation. I. ENCULTURATION OR SOCIALIZATION If we observe ourselves and compare us with other people inhabiting other places, we always think about the differences in the cultures, behavior, appearances, and physique of people from different countries, or cities, or even different areas in the same city. This difference is due to a process called enculturation or socialization. It is what we adopt from our surroundings to build ourselves to be a part of it, blending in perfectly. Enculturation or socialization does not always come from deliberate learning, but also by seeing and observing. As we observe our elders doing a specific thing, like eating, talking, or walking, we do it also, sometimes without even thinking why we do a particular thing that way. There may be a reason behind it, but as we learn, we don’t necessarily object our elders, but just do things how they ask us to do them. This comes from having a sense of trust and respect for them, that they definitely know more than us. Thus, in wider sense, enculturation or socialization refers to the lifelong process of inheriting and disseminating norms, customs and ideologies, providing an individual with the skills and habits necessary for participating within his or her own society. Enculturation or socialization is therefore “the means by which social and cultural continuity are attained.” Questions and objections come at a later stage in life, when we are aware to know how and why things work the way they do. We tend to learn this in schools as we grow. Now, every culture has a different impression, a different way of learning, the language, the food we eat, the way we speak and our appearance, all differ from place to place. So, every child learns hos own culture as he grows in it. In a way, our whole life is a process of enculturation or socialization. We learn these little things that make us a member of our culture by repetitively seeing, observing and then doing them. This is how we don’t even realize the siginificance of being civilized or being a part of what we are because all of this just becomes a part of our daily lives. However, another phenomenon in a multicultural world is acculturation. The combination of two cultural elements can be defined as the process of acculturation. The difference between enculturation and acculturation is that enculturation, which is GENDER AND SOCIETY 31 socialization in sociology, is the acquisition of one’s own culture while acculturation is the integration of two cultures. There are three objectives of enculturation or socialization (Panopio and Roldan, 2000): 1) First, enculturation or socialization teaches impulse control and helps individuals develop a conscience. As people grow up within a particular society, they pick up on the expectations of those around them and internalize these expectations to moderate their impulses and develop a conscience. 2) Second, enculturation or socialization teaches individuals how to prepare for and perform certain social roles – occupational roles, gender roles, and the roles of institutions such as marriage and parenthood. 3) Third, enculturation or socialization cultivates shared sources of meaning and value. Through socialization, people learn to identify what is important and valued within a particular culture. Examples of enculturation or socialization: 1) Christian parents who are teaching their kids to say the rosary, are enculturating or socializing the kids. 2) A mother teaching her child to read the book about Jose Rizal and write the ABAKADA. 3) A child learning a good habit of not stealing anything from anyone in school. 4) A teacher demonstrates good example to her students by being honest, trustworthy and responsible in her study. 5) A mayor who exemplifies good governance in his office. II. IDENTITY FORMATION There is a time in our life when we cannot decide to to define ourselves. We hear questions like: Am I a homosexual? Do I act my age? Will I get marry? There are young people today, who are experiencing this situation. In Psychology, it is called “identity crisis.” It is an episode in our life wherein our sense of identity becomes ambiguous or apprehensive due to a change in our expected role in society. “Identity crisis” is coined by a psychologist named Erik Erikson. He thinks that the formation of identity is one of the most important parts of a person’s life in order to interact effectively, responsibly, healthily and positively in a society. Although developing a sense of self-identity is a vital chunk of the teenage years, Erikson does not think or insinuate that the formation and growth of identity is just limited to adolescence. Instead, identity is something that moves and grows throughout life as people confront new challenges and tackle different experiences in the family, circle of friends, community and society. GENDER AND SOCIETY 32 FAMOUS THEORIES OF IDENTITY FORMATION 1. Erik Erikson’s “Identity vs. Role Confusion” Stage Erikson (1970) believes that throughout each person’s lifetime, and nobody is exempted here, the person experiences various crises or conflicts. Each of the conflict emerges at a specific point in life and it needs to be effectively resolved, prudently without procrastination or delay, for advancement to the next of the eight stages. The specific stage related to identity formation happens during adolescence, called “identity vs. role confusion.” This stage consists of adolescents trying to understand who they are, and everybody is lookinh forward to it, to come up with a fundamental identity that they will form on throughout their life, especially concerning social and occupational identities. They meet complexities of knowing one’s own identity. Erikson said this stage is fixed with identity achievement, the pointb at which an individual has comprehensively considered or even acknowledged various goals and values, accepting some and rejecting others, and understands and knows who they are as a unique person. 2. James Marcia’s Four Statuses of Identity James Marica made a structural interview intended to categorize adolescents into one of four statuses of identity. The identity statuses are used to define and locate the development of an adolescent’s identity formation process. In his theory, the working definition of identity si whether a person has examined various options and created strong commitments to following concerns like occupation, religion, sexual orientation, and set of political values. The four identity statuses in his theory are: a. Identity Diffusion (also known as Role Confusion) “When a boy in his teens begins thinking about what he would like to pursue as a career, he realizes that it is a question he has not given much thought, and one that does not really interest him. He decides not to commit himself to a particular career choice at the moment since he really does not know what he wants to be.” This identity status is very critical in an early stage of human development. This is in fact, the opposite of identity achievement. The individual has not yet resolved their identity crisis, failing to commit to any goals or values and establish future life direction. In adolescents, this stage is characterized by disordered thinking, postponement, and evasion of issues and action. b. Identity Foreclosure “My parents are certified public accountants and always wanted me to be a CPA likewise. I am enrolled in accounting course in college.” This occurs when teenagers accept traditional values and cultural norms, rather than determining their own values. In other words, the person follows to GENDER AND SOCIETY 33  an identity without consideration as to what really goes well with him or her best. For instance, teenagers might follow the values and roles of their parents or cultural norms. They might also foreclose on a negative identity, the direct opposite of their parent’s values or cultural norms. c. Identity Moratorium “I have been spending lots of time analyzing my occupational interest inventories that I took at school. There are so many opportunities and I have so many questions. One day I want to be an attorney the next day a chef. I guess I will have to continue talking to people and doing research to figure out what I want to do.” This specific situation is characterizing exploration – either in breadth or in depth and progress towards identity achievement. The individual is currently experiencing an identity crisis and is looking for answers of the questions that have been raised. These questions are usually occupational, relational or socia and cultural and the individuals place within these domains. Besides, this postpones identity achievement by providing temporary shelter, like “going to college or stop from studying and work as factory worker” or “priesthood or married life.” d. Identity Achievement “I don’t know before anything about engineering, specifically civil or industrial engineering courses, these are my choices when I embark to college. After I ask my uncle who is a civil engineer and my cousin who is an industrial engineer, make research from the internet and explore pros and cons of these two engineering courses and consult my teachers and friends. I found out that I am fitting for an industrial engineering course. I will go for it and be serious with my chosen course whatever challenges will come my way.” Identity achievement is not a difficult theory to understand. It merely talks about “discovering one’s true sense of self.” It is the main point of personality development and the process that arises in childhood, this is very common to pre-teens and teenagers, and ceases in adult stage. This level is achieved when the individual has resolved the identity issues by making commitments to goals, beliefs and values after extensive exploration of different areas. In truth this is all about commitment to something or somebody, such as commiting oneself to priesthood, business, specific advocacy, particular political party or religious group. GENDER AND SOCIETY 34 3. Other theories related to Identity Formation Theory Major Figure (s) Major Assumption Children gain an impression of how people perceive them as the children interact with them. In effect, children “see” themselves when they interact with other Looking-Glass Charles Horton people, as if they are looking in a mirror. Self Cooley Individuals use the perceptions that others have of them to develop judgements and feelings about themselves. Children pretend to be other people in their play and in so doing learn what these other people expect of them. Younger children take the role of significant others, or the people, most Taking the Role George Herbert typically parents and siblings, who have of the Other Mead the most contact with them; older children when they play sports and other games take on the roles of other people and internalize the expectations of the generalized other, or society itself. The personality consists of the id, ego and superego. If a child does not develop normally and the superego does not Psychoanalytic Sigmund Freud become strong enough to overcome the id, antisocial behavior may result. Cognitive development occurs through four stages. The final stage is the formal Cognitive operational stage, which begins at age 12 Jean Piaget as children begin to use gerenral Development principles to resolve various problems. Children develop their ability to think and act morally through several stages. If they fail to reach the conventional stage, in which adolescents realize that their Lawrence parents and society have rules that Moral should be followed, they might well Kohlberg, Carol Development engage in harmful behavior. Whereas Gilligan boys tend to use formal rules to decide what is right or wrong, girls tend to take personal relationships into account. GENDER AND SOCIETY 35 Diferent Forms of Socialization from the Point of View of a Sociologist 1. Group Socialization “A twin brothers, Jose and Pedro, whose genetic makeup are identical, will differ in personality because they have different group of friends, not necessarily because their parents raised them differently. If Jose one of their brothers is raised by goons and criminals and Jose becomes like them it is because of his association with these types of people. While Pedro is raised by cops and alw abiding citizens and become a cop it is because of his associations with these group of people too in society.” Group socialization is the theory that our friends, partners, co-workers, etc., influences our personality and behavior as adults rather than our parents. Adolescents spend more time with peers than with parents, for example, the students have more time in school than in their homes so their personality and behaviors are more affected by their classmates. Therefore, peer groups have stronger correlations with personality development than parental figures do. 2. Gender Socialization “Tito, a porter at the market in his barrio, one day he went to the market wearing earring on his left ear and pink shirt. Because of this event, Tito becomes the laughing stock in the market with his friends and acquaintances. The next day he removed his earring and wear a blue shirt.” Gender socialization refers to the learning of behavior and attitudes considered appropriate for a given sex. Boys learn to be boys, and girls learn to be girls. This learning happens by way of many different agents of socialization. The family is certainly important in reinforcing gender roles – from diaper days to adolescent stage, such as the type of clothes to wear – blue for boys and pink for girls; but so are one’s friends, school, work, and the mass media. Today it is largely believed that most gender differences are attributed to differences in socialization, rather than genetic and biological factors. Gender stereotypes can be a result of gender socialization. Girls and boys are expected to act in certain ways, and these ways are socialized from birth by many parents. Boys and girls who do not conform to gender stereotypes are usually ostracized by same-age peers for being different. This can lead to negative effects, such as lower self-esteem. 3. Cultural Socialization “John is a Cebuano and his pare