G-9 History Notes PDF

**1.1 Meaning of Prehistory and History** The term history, derived from the Greek word Istoria, means "inquiry" or "an account of one's inquiries." History is the story of humans in the past. It tells what they did and what happened to them. Historians are people who study and write about the huma...

**1.1 Meaning of Prehistory and History** The term history, derived from the Greek word Istoria, means "inquiry" or "an account of one's inquiries." History is the story of humans in the past. It tells what they did and what happened to them. Historians are people who study and write about the human past. They tell us that history began about 5,500 years ago when people first began to write. However, the story of people begins in prehistory. Prehistory is the study of the distant past. Prehistory was the time before people developed the art of writing. Archaeologists and Anthropologists have worked to find clues about early human life. Only a small part is studied of these events and deeds of the past. This small part, which is studied, is also called history. Unlike prehistory, however, the subject of history mainly deals with the past, beginning from when writing and recording started. Therefore, historians are people who study and write about the human past. However, the other disciplines do it in the present. Man interacts with the natural environment to produce his primary needs, such as food, shelter, and cloth. In the production process, human beings improved the production tools and the quality and quantity of the produce. History as a body of knowledge is an account of the past based on historical facts and evidence. Historical fact refers to information or statement about the past that is known or proven to be true. History is all about providing an interpretation of what happened, why it happened, and how it happened based on sources. Therefore, history is both the facts of the past and inquiry made into the past facts. Thus, history is not an opinion or novel writing. Identifying historical facts from opinion requires critical thinking. Distinguishing between fact and opinion is one of the most important skills you can learn from studying history. A fact is a statement that can be proved with supporting information. On the other hand, an opinion is what a writer believes based on his or her viewpoint. History writers can keep their opinions with facts, but an opinion is something that cannot be proved. **1.2 The Discipline of History** As a body of knowledge, History is a branch of social science that deals with what human beings did in the past. It studies changes in the development of past societies' political, economic, social, and cultural life. **1.2.1 The importance of History** History helps us know about the past, understand the present, and foresee future developments. It also allows us to understand national and international issues, including democratic principles and nationalism. History can also help us develop the necessary skill for collecting and analyzing information to reach conclusions. So, it helps us live our lives as conscious citizens actively participating in shaping our future. History teaches us critical skills. Studying History helps students to develop essential research skills. History helps us understand the present better and provides a sense of identity. **1.2.2 Historiography and Historical Interpretations** **A. Historiography** Historiography is studying how knowledge of the past is attained and transmitted. The world's oldest written History comes from China. Archaeologists have discovered records of Chinesee History written before 1000BC. Ancient Greek historians, notably Herodotus and Thucydides, introduced the organized study and narration of the past. The term's first use is attributed to Herodotus (c. 484-425BC), who is often the "father of history. " Thucydides wrote critically and accurately. History emerged as an academic discipline in the second half of the 19th century, first in Europe and then other parts of the world. Leopold Von Ranke (1795-1886), the German historian, established History as an independent discipline. Ranke is considered the "father of modern historiography" for his effort to the scientific study of the past. Ethiopia had an indigenous tradition of history writing. It made some changes from the chronicle tradition in the early 20th century. History emerged as an academic discipline in the 1960s. This decade is vital in the growth of Ethiopian historiography. **B. Historical Interpretation** What happened in the past is endless. Thus, historians select topics or problems they desire to study. History is a systematic and objective study of the past as a field of discipline. It is a systematic study because historical study follows established rules, procedures, and standards. Historians use specific basic methods in writing History. The study of History also refers to the objective pursuit of truth. In principle, historians are expected to avoid bias though it is difficult in practice. Historical interpretation is the process by which we describe, analyse, evaluate, and create an explanation of past events. We base our interpretation on primary or secondary, or both sources. **1.2.3 Sources of History** History is the study of the past supported by evidence arising from sources. Where there are no sources, there is no history. Sources are, therefore, key to the study and writing of History. Most commonly, historians divide sources into two broad groups. These are primary and secondary. Primary sources are those that are contemporary with the events under study. They are original materials that have direct relations to the events they describe. Examples of primary sources are Monuments, tools, ornaments, artefacts (coins, fossils, inscriptions, weapons, utensils, and ruins of buildings), written materials (manuscripts or handwritten materials, chronicles, diaries, letters, minutes, codes of laws, court records and administrative files, travel documents), photographs, maps, video and audiovisual materials. Secondary sources are sources that contain information that is derived from primary sources. In addition, they provide us with second-hand or indirect information. Examples of secondary sources are articles, books, textbooks, biographies, oral traditions and published stories or movies about historical events. Oral traditions are historical sources transmitted by word of mouth from one generation to the next. Oral data can qualify the position of primary or secondary sources based on the nature of informants. History can only be written based on data collected from the abovementioned sources. However, whatever the source of information, it should be subjected to critical evaluation before being used as evidence. Primary sources have to be verified for originality and authenticity to avoid forgery. Secondary sources have to be examined for the reliability of their reconstructions. Oral data should be cross-checked with other sources such as written documents to determine its truth; because it may lose its authenticity due to distortion through time. **1.2.4 Dating in History** In recording the past, historians try to determine the exact time when events occurred. That is what we call it dating. Dating is figures or numerical statements that express the time of historical events or processes. The duration in time could be short or long. Therefore, historians describe the period of events by using certain subdivisions or units of time. Hence, the figurative expression expresses the exact dates on which events occurred. For example: the battle of Adwa took place on March 1, 1896 Ethiopian Renaissance Dam was initiated on April 2 2011 Dating in history is expressed in numerical statements such as a decade, century, and millennium. A decade refers to a period of ten years. A century is one hundred years, whereas a millennium refers to a thousand years. For example: The years from 1900 to 1909 is the first decade of the twentieth century The years from 1900 to 1999 is the twentieth century The years from 1000 to 1999 the is the second millennium The primary purpose of dating in history is to organize past events according to their sequence of occurrence by using calendars. This is what we call chronology. The two widely used calendars worldwide are the Gregorian and Islamic. According to the Gregorian calendar, time is counted forward and backwards from the time of the birth of Jesus Christ. The time before the birth of Christ is referred to as BC. (Before Christ), whereas the time after the birth of Jesus Christ is expressed in AD (anno Domini), a Latin term meaning "The Year of the Lord". Ethiopia uses its calendar, which began on September 11, of the Gregorian calendar. The Ethiopian Calendar is seven to eight years behind the Gregorian calendar. The Islamic Calendar follows the event called the Hijra to count time forwards and backwards. The Hijra was the flight of the prophet Mohammed and his early followers from the town of Mecca to Medina in 622AD. Hence, BH stands for the years before the Hijra, and AH refers to the years after the Hijra. Historians sometimes use a timeline. A timeline is a graphic representation of events in chronological order or periods of history. It is a horizontal or a vertical lineup of historical events. Historical timeline enables quick visualization and forms a clear idea of the passage of time about events. Because of the length of time, historians organize the human past into separate periods after identifying significant developments and giving a label to each period. This is what we call periodization in history. Accordingly, history is conventionally divided into ancient, medieval and modern history. **1.3 The Evolution of Human Beings** According to evolutionist theory, all human beings now living in the world belong to the species Homo sapiens, which descended from a common ancestor or a genus known as Homo. That is why it is said that humans belong to the Hominid family. Hominids are humans and other creatures that walk upright. Although hominids family no longer exist, we know that their representatives lived in the past. We know this from the discovery of many fossils that represent them. All hominids are characterised by what is known as bipedalism, i.e., walking on two feet with an upright position. The earliest hominid to be found in Ethiopia is named Ardipithecus ramidus. It was discovered at Aramis in the Middle Awash of the Afar Regional State. It is described by a team of Paleontologists led by Tim White, and it is dated to around 4.4 million years ago. This species was followed by another fossil called Australopithecus afarensis. Finally, in 1974, Donald Johanson found the oldest complete human skeleton in Ethiopia. He named his find 'Lucy' after a Beatles' song. The second stage in early human development occurred with the appearance of Homo erectus ("upright human being"), a species that emerged around 2 million years ago. Homo erectus made use of larger and more varied tools. These hominids were the first to leave Africa and move into Europe and Asia. They could do so because they learned to use fire to keep warm in colder areas. The three different species that - **Homo habilis**: Known as the "handy human," considered the oldest human species. Fossils found in the Omo Valley, Ethiopia. - **Homo erectus**: An upright walking human, appeared about 1 million years ago. Fossils found in the Omo Basin, Melka-Kunture, Konso-Gardula, and Middle Awash in Ethiopia. - **Homo sapiens**: Wise humans, very similar to modern humans. Fossils found in the Awash and Omo valleys and near Dire Dawa, Ethiopia. - **Modern humans (Homo sapiens sapiens)**: Appeared about 40,000 years ago. They have large brains, walk upright, use language, develop culture, invent tools, and transmit knowledge across generations. Ethiopia and the horn has illustrating all the three sup species of the homo families that appeared in succession. **1.4 Theories of Human Evolution** The two main opposing theories on human origins are the **creationist** and **evolutionist** views. The **creationist theory** holds that humans and all living things were created by God or a supernatural being. In contrast, The **evolutionist theory**, formulated by Charles Darwin, explains that humans and other living organisms evolved gradually over time through natural processes, a concept known as **evolution**. The evolutionist theory has gained widespread acceptance within the scientific community. While the theory of evolution dominates scientific thinking regarding human origins, a significant number of people worldwide still adhere to the creationist perspective. **1.5 Africa and Human Evolution** The oldest Australopithecines, including *Sahela tchadensis* discovered in Chad, dated 7-6 million years old, *Australopithecus ramidus* from Ethiopia, aged 4.4 million years, and *Australopithecus afarensis*, famously known as Lucy, from Ethiopia, dated 3.18 million years old. Lucy\'s fossils, discovered by Donald Johanson, are the most complete and suggest that *Australopithecus afarensis* was bipedal and possibly an ancestor of humans. **1.6 The Stone Age** The human ability to make tools is a key distinguishing feature, with early tools made of stone. Human development passed through several stages, including the Stone Age, which is divided into the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic periods. The **Paleolithic Age**, meaning \"Old Stone age\" the earliest and longest stone age, starting around 2.6 million years ago and lasting until about 300,000 years ago. Early humans developed crude stone tools, lived in caves, discovered fire, and began using language. The **Mesolithic Age, or Middle** **Stone Age**, was a transitional period from 300,000 to 45,000 years ago, during which stone tools became more refined and adaptable. The **Neolithic Age (New Stone Age),** lasting from about 8,000 BC to 4,000 BC, marked a revolutionary shift from hunting and gathering to systematic agriculture. This transformation, known as the Neolithic or Agricultural Revolution, led humans to produce food, settle in permanent communities, and develop complex social structures. Innovations such as stone houses, religious sites, granaries, and tools like the hoe, yoke, and wheel improved farming. The revolution laid the foundation for civilization. It occurred at different times across the world, with early evidence from the Middle East and major sites in regions such as Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, and China.