HSC Core 1: Health Priorities in Australia PDF

HSC CORE 1: Health priorities in Australia Measuring health status: Role of epidemiology: Epidemiology is the study of patterns and causes of disease through the collection of data which is collected and analysed to provide a picture of Australia’s health status. Researchers, health department offi...

HSC CORE 1: Health priorities in Australia Measuring health status: Role of epidemiology: Epidemiology is the study of patterns and causes of disease through the collection of data which is collected and analysed to provide a picture of Australia’s health status. Researchers, health department officials and the government use epidemiological data to tell them about the basic health status of Australia in terms of quantifiable measures of health. It provides trends in disease incidence and prevalence along with info about ethnic, socioeconomic and gender groups. In this way they can help identify priority health issues and possible causes of disease or illness. Limitations of epidemiology: - Do not account for health determinants (socioeconomic, environmental and cultural). - Fail to explain why health inequities persist. - At a basic level, statistics and data like epidemiology can be manipulated by the interpreters and are open to bias. Measures of epidemiology- Mortality: - Is the number of deaths in a group or from a disease over a specific time period, usually one year. Infant mortality: - Refers to the number of infant deaths. This is the most important measure of epidemiology and can be used to predict adult life expectancy. Morbidity: - Refers to the rates for the prevalence and incidence of disease, illness, injury and disability. Life expectancy: - Refers to the number of years a person is expected to live. High life expectancy can be linked to low infant mortality. Developments and improvements to medical knowledge and technology can increase life expectancy, which contributes to Australia's ageing population. Identifying priority health issues: Identifying priority health issues allows the government to provide sufficient funding for the healthcare industry to develop and implement treatment and prevention strategies. Social justice principles: Recognition of social justice principle aims towards eliminating inequity, promoting inclusiveness and diversity, and creating supporting environments. Equity: Means the allocation of resources in accordance with the needs of a population with the desired goal of equality in outcomes. This means allocating more resources and funding to groups who suffer from poorer health outcomes and are identified as being priority groups compared to other Australians such as ATSI. Diversity: Refers to the variety of and differences between groups in Australian society. Australia is multicultural and requires a number of measures to ensure all population groups have equal access to health care and achieve better health outcomes. Being inclusive of diversity could be through providing brochures in multiple languages or interpreters in hospitals. Supportive environments: Are environments which protect people from threats to their health and encourage healthier life choices. It is a priority of governments to create supportive environments for all, but in particular for those whose environments might be reasons for poorer health. Priority population groups: Priority population groups are groups who experience the highest rates of or are at the greatest risk of a particular disease, illness and injury. Epidemiology provides some statistics on these population groups and allows the government to identify priority population groups that need extra resources in order to remove the gap in health outcomes. They receive more funding and health programs get developed to meet their needs. For example, the royal flying doctors service that functions in remote areas. Prevalence of condition: Is the number or proportion of cases in a population at a given time, it helps to determine the number of people affected by the health issue. The higher the prevalence, the greater the health issue, which may then be identified as a priority health issue in Australia. Potential for prevention & early intervention: As a priority issue is identified, it is vital that there is potential for prevention and early intervention that will make treatment more successful. The easier it is to prevent a disease the more likely a health promotion will have an impact on the burden of the disease and reduce its incidence, such as through educating individuals on healthier life choices. If prevention cannot occur, then early intervention is preferable, with higher rates of survival for those diagnosed and treated early for the condition. The more potential for prevention and early intervention, the more likely the health issue will be made a priority. Especially if it has both. Cost to the individual and community: Individual- Direct: The cost of medication and treatment, and loss of income. Indirect: The emotional stress, depression, burdens on others (i.e., family and friends), and a reduced quality of life. Community- Direct: The cost of hospitalisation, Medicare, prevention programs, pharmaceuticals, education, and screening. Indirect: The cost of forgone earning, retraining replacement workers, and absenteeism. Why is it important to prioritise? - It allows for fair allocation of resources and funding. This allows for the creation of supportive environments for priority groups, ensuring they take ownership over their individual health. - Ensure the optimal efficiency and effectiveness of limited money and resources, this is ensured by allocating funding to the most prevalent and costly health issues. - Through prioritising using the criteria, more equal health outcomes can be achieved. Groups experiencing health inequities: ATSI: The nature and extent of health inequities: - ATSI have significantly poorer health outcomes than other Australians. - They have lower life expectancy (usually 10 years less than other Australians). - Higher levels of cancer, diabetes, and CVD. - 7 times more likely to have kidney disease, 1.5 times more obesity and cancer death rates. Determinants: Sociocultural: (related to family, peer, media, religious and cultural influence) - Subjection to racism and discrimination results in many having low levels of self-esteem and poorer mental health. Making them more susceptible to emotional and behavioural issues such as risky behaviour including binge drinking and tobacco smoking. - These behaviours are then reflected in younger generations who adopt such risky behaviours from watching adults doing similar. Socioeconomic: (related to education, employment, and income) - Have low levels of education leading to poorer employment options, as a result lower income. This cycle continues as income affects the level of education they attain. - They also have lower levels of health education, making them unaware of how or when to receive medical assistance. It also makes them more susceptible to engaging in risk taking behaviours without realising. Environmental: (related to location, access to health services, and technology) - A large proportion of ATSI live in rural and remote areas, resulting in limited access to health care services and facilities, as a result fewer opportunities for individuals to get treatment and care. - Many employment opportunities in rural and remote areas are also very labour intensive, increasing risk of injury. - There is also poorer housing infrastructure, with issues such as overcrowding being the norm, inadequate water, waste disposal and electricity. Making it easier for disease to spread and harder to get medical aid. Role of individuals, communities, and governments in addressing health inequities: - Individuals have the responsibility to access information and practice in health promotion activities that are available to them. Using this information they should engage in healthy life choices, such as eating healthy and engaging in exercise. They should also pursue health care careers to create a strong network of health workers and medical staff in the population. - Communities must work together to promote healthier life choices. Community activities should:Educate the community. Encourage members to participate. Provide support for members. Create awareness for health issues (e.g., diseases, illnesses, injury, and risk factors). Cater for community needs focusing on specific issues affecting the community. Work closely with health professionals. - Governments are responsible for creating health policies, as well as health initiatives specifically designed to help ATSI people. For example, creating policies to create supportive and healthy environments via improving housing, water, electricity, and sewage infrastructure. Socio-economically disadvantaged people: (Low SE) The nature and extent of health inequities : - Experience higher levels of lifestyle diseases (e.g., CVD and diabetes). - They have reduced life expectancy. - More doctor visits but are less likely to access preventative health services such as breast screening. - Higher rates of premature mortality. - 6 times more likely to develop lung cancer. Determinants: Sociocultural: Higher rates of substance abuse, domestic violence, discrimination and conflict are present in low SE areas, which is detrimental to the physical and mental health of people, especially children and adolescents who are in their developmental years. Socioeconomic: Experience lower levels of education (including health literacy) resulting in poorer employment opportunities and as a result have lower incomes. Health literacy means one's ability to seek and understand when one requires medical assistance as well as knowing proper life choices. Low SE people have poorer health literacy contributing to their poorer health. Low income means they are more likely to save money wherever they can, including purchasing unhealthy and cheaper foods which can lead to lifestyle diseases such as CVD. Environmental: Low SE individuals may be forced by their situation to live in poor housing with poor infrastructure. This negatively impacts their health as they might not be able to get proper water and electricity. Low SE areas are also usually more overcrowded making them more susceptible to communicable diseases. Role of individuals, communities and governments in addressing health inequities: Individuals: - Low socioeconomic areas have the responsibility to access health information and participate in health promotion initiatives. This information should be implemented in their lives, such as making healthier life choices such as eating more fruits and veg. Communities: - Create programs such as free sporting competitions to encourage community members, especially children, to participate in physical activity and exercise. - Support programs to improve physical, mental and emotional health such as quitting smoking seminars. Governments should fund healthcare services and develop programs to aid Low Se individuals.High levels of preventable chronic disease, injury, and mental health. Mental health problems and illnesses: The nature of the problem: Mental health is an important part of holistic health as mental health compromises an individual’s overall wellbeing. When an individual suffers from a mental health problem most if not all aspects of their life are affected including work, education, and relationships. 3 most prevalent mental health issues include: Depression: a condition where an individual has extreme feelings of sadness for long periods of time. Anxiety: a condition in which feelings of stress or worry are present in an individual even after the event has passed. Suicide: when an individual takes their own life due to mental health problems or other issues. Extent of problem: - On Avg, 1 in 7 people will experience depression at some point in their life and 1 in 4 will experience anxiety at some point in their life. - More than 8 people die by suicide each day in AUS. - 7 out of 9 suicides are male. Risk factors: - Poor social and emotional skills - Substance abuse - Family history of mental issues - Negative life events relating to loss, trauma and abuse - Family conflict including domestic abuse - Poor peer role models - Poor student-teacher relationships - Bullying or discrimination Protective factors: Aim to improve the mental health of individuals and communities. 1. School curriculums teach about mental health issues so that students can recognize them and know where to get help. It also helps students learn important skills such as stress and resilience management. 2. Many schools and workplaces have counsellors to help with individuals who suffer mental health issues. 3. Having strong social networks including family, friends, and teachers. Determinants: Socio-cultural: - People with family history are more at risk. - People who have relationship breakdowns, have been exposed to bullying are more at risk. - ATSI people ae more at risk of suicide and depression due to higher rates of substance abuse. Socio-economic: - People from a Low SES background or are unemployed have higher rates of mental health problems, as these groups tend to engage more in substance abuse. Environmental: - Rural, young males are at a higher risk of suicide and mental health issues then urban, young males due to the lack of support services and fewer job prospects. Groups at risk: - People who have recently experienced crisis or trauma - People under stress - People suffering chronic depression - Elderly people  - Males between ages of 16-24 - Low SES High levels of preventable chronic disease, injury, and mental health: CVD: Nature of problem: Coronary heart disease (Ischemic): caused by a reduced blood supply to the heart as coronary arteries narrow. Can be the result of atherosclerosis. Heart Attack: Lack of oxygenated blood supply to heart due to blocked coronary arteries leads to damage in heart muscle and eventually heart attack. Angina: Chest pain or tightness due to lack of oxygenated blood supply. Can be a result of coronary heart disease. Cerebrovascular disease (stroke): caused by lack of blood supplied to the brain. Heart failure: occurs when heart is unable to meet the demands placed on it, can be the result of heart attack or high blood pressure. Peripheral vascular disease: affects the blood vessels in the limbs, as the vessels become blocked or damaged. Atherosclerosis (blocked): occurs when blood vessels become blocked by fat or cholesterol, reducing or preventing blood flow. Arteriosclerosis (hard): occurs when blood vessels harden and lose their elasticity. The extent of the problem: - It was estimated that 1.2 million Australians were hospitalised due to CVD in 2017-18. - One in four deaths in 2018 is due to CVD. - Ischemic heart disease (aka coronary heart disease) was the leading cause of death in 2015- 16. - Stroke is the next leading cause of death, accounting for 7% of all deaths in 2015. Risk factors: Modifiable: - Smoking tobacco - High blood pressure - Low levels of physical activities - Obesity or overweight Non-Modifiable: - Gender: males are more likely to develop CVD than females.  - Age: as the older people get, the greater the risk of developing CVD. - Heredity: people with family history are at a greater risk of developing CVD. Protective factors: - Eating a healthy diet. - Participating in vigorous or moderate exercise. - Avoiding tobacco smoke and consuming alcohol - Regularly visiting a doctor. Determinants: Socio-cultural: - People with a family history of CVD are more at risk. - Asian people are less prone to getting CVD due to a generally low-fat diet. - Media exposure of the effects of smoking on health have led to a reduction in smoking rates and therefore a declining trend for CVD rates. Socio-economic: - People with low SES or who are unemployed have higher death rates because income can limit health choices, such as purchasing fruit and using exercise facilities. - People with low education levels are more at risk as poor education is linked to poor health choices and less knowledge about how to access and use health services. Environmental: - People living in rural or remote areas are more at risk due to the lack of health information and facilities. Groups at risk: - Low SES - ATSI - Males - People who smoke and drink Cancer: Nature of problem: Cancer is a condition in which the body’s cells divide uncontrollably. This random multiplication forms tumours and can interrupt the normal function of the organ where it is located (e.g., skin, breast, lung) and can spread to other parts of the body. Cancer can be caused by carcinogens such as radiation, alcohol, and tobacco smoke. 2 types of tumours: 1. Benign tumours: are non-cancerous and have no threat of spreading. 2. Malignant tumours: are cancerous and have the possibility to spread to other parts of the body. If untreated, malignant cancer cells can invade other parts of the body through the bloodstream and the lymphatic system. This process is called metastasis. Four classifications of cancer: - Carcinoma: where cancer affects epithelial cells. (e.g., skin, breast, and lungs) - Sarcoma: where cancer affects bone, muscle, and other connective tissue. - Leukaemia: cancer affects blood and bone marrow. - Lymphoma: cancer affects blood in the lymphatic system. Extent of problem: - Leading cause of death in Australia - One in two Australians will be diagnosed with cancer by the age of 85. - Prostate, breast, bowel, melanoma, and lung cancer are the most common types of cancer in Australia. Risk factors: 1. Lung cancer: - Tobacco smoking - Occupational exposure to cancer-causing agents (such as Asbestos) - Air pollution 2. Breast cancer: - High fat diet - Family history - Late menopause - Obesity 3. Skin cancer: - Fair skin - Prolonged exposure to sun and UV light Protective factors: 1. Skin cancer: - Sun protection (Sunscreen, wearing hats, sunglasses, and long-sleeved clothing) 2. Breast cancer: - Self-examination - Screening - Maintaining healthy weight - Avoid high-fat food and alcohol consumption. 3. Lung cancer:  - Avoid or quit smoking tobacco. - Healthy and balanced diet Determinants: Socio-cultural: - People with a family history of cancer are more at risk. - If your family practises health-promoting behaviours, such as adopting healthy eating habits, the risk of cancer is reduced. Socio-economic: - People in occupations involving repeated exposures to carcinogens increase risk of cancer. - People with low education levels are more at risk as poor education is linked to poor health choices and less knowledge about how to access and use health services. Environmental: - People living in rural and remote areas are more at risk, they tend to have less access to health info and services such as breast screening. Groups at risk: - Blue collar workers - Smokers and alcohol consumers A growing and ageing population: Australia’s population is growing and ageing, with people aged 70 years or older being about 13% of the population. Why is Australia’s population ageing? - Better healthcare, better treatments due to technological advancements - People are being educated to make better choices Healthy ageing: Healthy ageing refers to the participation in a healthy lifestyle that promotes health and increases the quality of life as one ages. This enhances one's physical, mental, and emotional health whilst reducing the risk of early onset of disability and developing non-infectious diseases such as CVD and cancer. A healthy population means that Australians can be more productive and contribute to the workforce for longer, resulting in greater economic growth. Various initiatives have been made by the government to reduce the burden a growing and ageing population has on the healthcare system and government funding. Such as increasing superannuation, allowing retirees to enjoy retirement without relying on the government. Increased population living with chronic disease and disability: An ageing population means more people living with chronic diseases or disabilities. This has occurred due to several factors: 1. Ageing population: as the number of older people grows, so will the incidence of people living with chronic disease and disability which are common in older ages such as cancer and dementia. 2. People's lifestyle: developments in technology have led to people becoming more sedentary, rather than engaging in physical exercise they are more occupied with tech. 3. Increased awareness and developments in medical tech: the combination of increased awareness and modern technology has led to the increase in the incidence of chronic diseases, such as cancer due to increased screening rates. However, mortality had decreased due to early detection and treatment. How can future levels of chronic disease be reduced? - Preventative approaches such as increasing health literacy. - Increasing work safety practices. Demand for health services and workforce shortages: Because of an increase in the Australian population living with chronic disease or disability, the demand for health and aged care services has risen. The government has implemented several initiatives to cater for older Australians, including: - The provision of more funding to cater for the demand in health departments and other high demand areas. - More incentives for nurses to join. - An increase in aged/health care, such as home help services and meals on wheels. - To reduce the burden on the healthcare and PBS scheme, the government has encouraged Australians to have a retirement plan. This includes the compulsory superannuation plan to allow retires to enjoy retirement without relying on the government. Institutional: - Psychiatric hospital - Public hospital - Private hospital - Nursing homes Non-Institutional: - Health-related services (such as dentistry, optometry, nursing, ambulance services & physiotherapy) - Pharmaceuticals - Medical services (such as doctors, specialists, and other health professionals) Responsibility for health facilities and services: Commonwealth/federal government: Forms national health policies and controls the health system through funding. Fund’s state/territory governments and influences their health policy making and delivery. Contributes major funds to: - High level residential care - Medical services - Health research and public health activities  - Pharmaceuticals State/territory government: Is responsible for funding healthcare facilities and services depending on the budget allocated by the federal government. This includes funding public hospitals, dental health services, mental health programs, home, and community care. Also involved in public health promotion and child, adolescent, and family health services. Local Government: Concerned with environmental care, and a range of personal, preventative and home care services. Monitor building standards, immunisation, antenatal clinics, and meals on wheels. In charge of implementing services such as immunizations on behalf of the state government. Private sector: Includes a wide range of services such as private hospitals, dentists, and alternative health services such as chiropractors. Privately owned by religious organisations, charity groups and NGOs. Approved by the department of health. Community groups: Are responsible for promoting and providing health promotion initiatives and programs such as night patrols that distribute food, clothing, and hygiene products for members of the community that may be homeless or in financial difficulty. They are formed largely on a local needs basis and established to address problems specific to an area or region. Individuals: Are responsible for accessing and utilising health services, such as GPs, that are available to them to ensure they maintain their health. They should also access health info to ensure they are more aware of risk factors and protective factors of certain diseases such as CVD. This empowers them to change their lifestyle to reduce the risk of developing such illnesses/diseases. Equity of access to health facilities and services: The governments have recognized that the healthcare system needs to have equity of access, to ensure it is easily accessible. However, many factors make equitable distribution of health facilities and services difficult, examples include: People living in low SES areas may not be able to afford quality healthcare, this is something Medicare and PBS aim to address. However, not all services are covered such as physiotherapists which results in inequitable access to these services. Low SES areas also have lower education levels, making people unaware of health services and facilities available to them. This limits their option of health care and means they cannot access adequate treatment, severely affecting their health in the long term. People that speak little English may experience great difficulty in accessing and utilising healthcare services and facilities if they do not have a translator. They may not understand their health and how to maintain or improve it. People living in remote and rural areas may experience shortages of health professionals, often needing to travel long distances to metropolitan areas to gain healthcare. To help reduce this inequity services such as royal flying doctors have been implemented for people living in rural areas to get emergency care. Health care expenditure versus expenditure on early intervention and prevention: Health expenditure refers to money spent on curative services for people that are already ill (e.g., medication). By contrast, expenditure on early intervention and prevention refers to money spent on intervention during early stages of a disease or preventing it from occurring in the first place, usually through health promotion. Most government funds in the health sector are put towards curative services rather than early intervention and prevention, even though prevention is better. Curative services are more expensive. An increased focus on early intervention and prevention will reduce expenditure in Australia. More cost efficient and save on the ongoing expenses. For example, rather than spending millions in researching cures for diseases and distributing said cures, governments will be more benefited by spending a few hundred thousand in health promotion. Increased quality of life allowing to live longer and healthier, reducing burden on the healthcare system as less people will visit government funded healthcare. This also increases healthy ageing, which means even more money saved as less money will be spent on providing healthcare for elderly as they can look after themselves. Impact of emerging treatments and technologies on healthcare: High technology medicine is usually associated with better healthcare. Advances in technology have led to the development of faster and more effective cures, better screening, and greater prevention of disease. Examples include: - Keyhole surgery: surgery which involves the use of machinery to create small cuts allowing surgeons to perform. It is less invasive and has shorter recovery times, hence, shorter stays. - PET scans: has allowed for better and more accurate diagnosis and enables the ability to have early intervention and ultimately leading to reduced mortality. However, such treatments are expensive due to the high costs of maintenance and production, therefore, cannot be covered by Medicare making it unaffordable for Low SES individuals and hence inequitable. Furthermore, due to these technologies people are living longer and as a result are developing diseases such as cancer, which they may not have previously lived long enough to contract. Health insurance: Medicare Vs Private: Medicare: Is Australia’s universal health care system, established to provide all Australians with affordable and accessible healthcare. Operates from taxes, which are paid according to income level and individual circumstances. Advantages:  - Can be accessed by all Australians and provides Low SES access to healthcare. - Free x-rays and pathology tests - Free treatment in hospitals - Free or subsidised treatment by medical practitioners such as GPs. Disadvantages: - Does not cover all services such as dental, meaning patients still need to pay full amount. - Patients do not get to choose their doctor. - Long waiting lists of elective surgeries Private: This is an insurance that covers costs for private hospitals and ancillary expenses such as dental and physio. Advantages: - Shorter waiting times - Doctor or institution of choice - Ancillary benefits such as dental cover - Insurance cover whilst overseas. Disadvantages: - Cannot be accessed by all people and is expensive. - Must pay premiums even if not using any health service. Complementary and alternative health care approaches: Complementary approaches are those that work in conjunction with western medicine, whilst alternative approaches are those that are used instead of conventional medicine. Reasons for growth of C&A approaches: There has been a rapid increase in the popularity of CVA mainly due to the opportunity for individuals to have greater choice and control over health, through empowerment. Additional reasons, include: - WHO’s acceptance and recognition of CVA(s) usefulness and effectiveness in treating patients. - The increase in movement away from synthetically produced products to more nature-based products. - An increase in migration with an increase in acceptance of values influenced by multiculturalism by Australians. Range of products and services available: Acupuncture: traditional Chinese medicine that involves the insertion of fine needles into the skin at specific points; it is used to restore balance and promote the body’s self-healing. Chiropractic service: specialise in treating spinal, neck, and lower back pain, by realigning the spine. How to make informed consumer choices: Before choosing a CVA such as acupuncture, consumers should put the credibility of the practitioner in question. When investigating, specific questions about the service should be asked, including but not limited to; How effective is the service being offered? What are the qualifications and experience of the practitioner?. This helps to ensure safety of the treatment and increases reliability of service. Asking friends and community members about their experience can also be helpful. Health promotion based on the 5 action area of the ottawa charter: Health promotion based on the five action areas of the Ottawa Charter (build healthy public policy, create supportive environments for health, strengthen community action for health, develop personal skills, and reorient health services) is vital to the success of health promotion in Australia. Its Charter promotes social justice and improves the health outcomes of Australians. Health promotion based on the five action areas of the Ottawa Charter ensures promotion is done in partnership as the relevant sectors support each other in achieving better health outcomes. It recognises the various determinants of health and the spread of responsibility between individuals, communities and governments. HSC CORE 2: Factors affecting performance Energy systems: Alactacid system (ATP/PC): Source of fuel: An ATP molecule loses a phosphate molecule releasing energy which can be used by the body. CP releasing phosphate to attach to ADP, to resynthesise ATP. Excess creatine released. Duration: Up to 10 seconds Cause of fatigue: The inability of the system to continually resynthesise ATP from ADP. (i.e., The depletion of CP stores) By-products: Heat produced from muscular contraction. Rate of recovery: 2-5 mins Sports: 100m sprinting, shot put & javelin Lactic acid system: Source of fuel: Glycogen is broken down, producing ATP and energy for muscular contraction. Duration: 10 secs to 2 mins Cause of fatigue: Accumulation of lactic acid in muscles causing a burning feeling. By-products: Lactic acid Rate of recovery: 30-60 mins Sports: 200m run Aerobic system: Source of fuel: Carbohydrates, fats & even proteins are converted into ATP. Duration: 2-6 hrs depending on intensity Cause of fatigue: Depletion of glycogen. Exhaustion and thus a subsequent reliance on the secondary fuel, fat. By-products: Carbon dioxide and water. Rate of recovery: short periods of time = recovers quickly, hours = take days Sports: Marathon Types of training and training methods: Aerobic, e.g., Continuous, Fartlek, Aerobic interval & Circuit Continuous: For training to be continuous, it must be greater than 20 mins. Heart rate must rise above aerobic threshold and stay within the zone for the entire time of training. The two types of continuous training are: - Long, slow distance training. 60-80% MHR, focus on distance rather than speed. - High intensity work for moderate duration. Fartlek: - Varying speed and terrain. - Both continuous and interval, it involves variation in both speed and intensity. - Beneficial for Rugby Circuit: - Develops aerobic capacity and has the potential to make substantial improvements in strength, endurance, flexibility, skill, and coordination. - Participants move from one activity to the next after completing the required repetitions (or performing for the specified time) for that exercise. - Progressive overload needs to be applied to see results: increasing the number of stations, increasing the time at each station, increasing reps at each station, decreasing time allowed for each station. Aerobic interval: - Alternating sessions of work and recovery. Recovery is short, 20 secs, does not allow enough time for full recovery and thus maintains stress on the aerobic system. - Sustained effort of moderate intensity ensures that the aerobic system is stressed but not completely fatigued. - The level of intensity can be adjusted to achieve the desired level of aerobic capacity. Anaerobic, e.g., Anaerobic interval Anaerobic training is short-lasting, high-intensity activity, where your body’s demand for oxygen exceeds the oxygen supply available. Anaerobic lasts for less than 2 mins and relies on energy sources that are stored in the muscles and not oxygen. Anaerobic interval: - Sprint training over short distances using maximal effort. - An interval is done by increasing your pace for a short period (up to 2 mins) then having a slow recovery period that is at least 3 times as long as the interval. - Participants usually aim to complete the circuit in the shortest period with decreasing times indicating improving fitness levels. - Helps to develop speed while focusing on technique. The rest period needs to be slightly extended to allow lactate to disperse, the build-up of lactate inhibits the development of quality with the sprinting action. Flexibility, e.g., Static, Ballistic, PNF & Dynamic Flexibility refers to the range of motion around joints. Flexibility training aims to increase the length of muscles allowing for greater range of movement which maximises performance potential. This aids in preventing energy, improving coordination, muscular relaxation, and muscular recovery. Static: - During static stretching, the muscle is stretched to a position (limit) and held in that position for 30 seconds. The stretch is performed smoothly and slowly, avoiding discomfort. - Example, sitting down with legs extended, gently reaching forward and holding the position for 30 seconds. Ballistic: - Repeated movements such as swinging and bouncing to gain stretch. - It is beneficial when sports involve movement which causes movement to be stretched, such as gymnastics. - Example, touching toes using a bouncing motion. PNF: - Is stretching which involves lengthening a muscle against a resistance usually provided by a partner. - It involves a static stretch (30 sec) followed by a contraction of the stretched muscle until the stretch is no longer felt (usually 5-10 sec), then a further lengthening of the muscle to hold a static stretch (10 sec). Dynamic: - Dynamic stretching is popular for warm-ups and pre-training routines as it attempts to imitate many of the movements experienced in the game. - Dynamic stretching uses movement speed together with momentum to gradually warm up muscle fibres and extend them through the degree of stretch required in the game. Strength training, e.g., Free/fixed weights. Elastic & Hydraulic Free/Fixed Weights - Involves lifting certain weight against gravity to train specific muscles/muscle groups - Dominant form of resistance training when large gains in strength/large resistance are required/desired - Suited to sports that need large amounts of strength. (Rugby, wrestling, shot-put, AFL) Free weights: Dumbbells. Arbells. Weight plates - Allows development of major muscles but also develops smaller muscles used to stabilise movements - Wide range of exercises, good technique, mimics sporting movements - greater specificity Fixed weights: - Utilise machines to lift weight & often have pulley system - Helps to learn correct technique & experience equal resistance throughout full ROM - Isolate specific muscles Elastic - Uses various forms of elastic to provide resistance to develop strength - Intensity limited & resistance increases & elastic is stretched - Highly portable training method: useful in-home gyms or for personal trainers & cheaper - Very affordable - Trigger activation of stabiliser muscles to keep body correctly aligned - Often used in rehab - Used for sport specific movements, facilitating rehab/recovery for athletes - E.g., Stretching band to ankle of AFL player & having them perform kicking motion can develop strength in leg & stabiliser muscle groups Hydraulic - Uses machines which use water/air compression to provide resistance throughout movement - Allows tension to be applied to pushing & pulling phase of movement - Constant resistance for agonist & antagonist - Expensive & isolates muscles - Increases resistance the faster the movement is executed - Slow movements = small resistance - Fast movements = large resistance - Enables to work both agonist & antagonists in same workout → targets one area at a time - Good for sports incl. rugby league, swimming, boxing, martial arts - Well suited to circuit training - To not be used at gym - E.g., Quad/Hamstring machine allows to extend leg on way out & applies tension when squeezing hamstring back to beginning Principles of training: Progressive overload Progressive overload involves gradually increasing the athlete’s training load so that improvements can occur. It is important to increase the load just enough for adaptation/improvements to occur without causing fatigue and demotivating the athlete. Once an athlete can perform comfortably at a certain level, they are said to have adapted. Once adaptations have been made, training loads can be increased again. - In aerobic training, progressive overload can be achieved by increasing the intensity, frequency, or duration of training. - In strength training, the resistance, sets and repetitions can be increased, or the rest time can be decreased. Specificity Specificity is exercise aimed at specific or designated components of fitness, muscle groups and/or energy systems used in the activity being trained for. Specificity should also be used to closely as possible the movements in the activity being trained for. - In aerobic training, an athlete training for a marathon should target the aerobic energy system. The athlete must choose activities in training that recruit slow-twitch muscle fibres so that the aerobic enzymes in muscles become more efficient in utilising oxygen. - In strength training, if increased leg power is required to improve a person’s ability to sprint, the training program must correctly address the speed and number of repetitions, load, and time between sets correctly. For example, if the load is too high and the repetitions too low, the program causes bigger improvements to muscle bulk than muscle power. Reversibility: If training is stopped, gains made by the athlete decline at approximately one-third of the rate of acquisition. Athletes should maintain strength, conditioning, and flexibility throughout the competitive season, but at a lesser intensity and volume. This is also called detraining as the training is going in reverse. Variety: Variety is important to maintain motivation and reduce the athletes boredom during training- doing the same drills each week does little to promote variety. It is important to continually strive to develop the required attributes using different techniques to ensure that athletes are challenged not only by the activity, but also by initiative and implementation. - In aerobic training, athletes can train the aerobic system by using a variety of activities such as swimming, running, cycling and circuit training. - In strength training, Isometric and isotonic methods increase strength, but do so using different equipment such as free weights, elastic bands, and hydraulic devices. Training thresholds:  - The aerobic threshold is the intensity needed to produce an adaptation that will improve someone’s aerobic capacity or VO2 max. The aerobic training threshold is normally between 65% and 70% MHR. - The anaerobic threshold is the intensity needed to produce an adaptation that will improve someone’s anaerobic capacity, normally increasing the speed of lactate removal. The anaerobic training threshold is normally between 80% and 85% MHR. Warm-up & Cool-down: - Warmups redistribute blood flow and raise muscle temperature as the body moves from a rest state to an active one which requires oxygen and nutrients in blood to reach skeletal muscles to enable muscle contraction. Higher muscle temperatures increase the ability of the muscle to stretch without tearing. - Stretching is the most common form of warm-up, for example, a sprinter would engage in static stretching followed by PNF stretches to increase elasticity and increase muscle extensibility, reducing the risk of injuries such as muscle tears. - The cool-down is the period following physical activity where body temperature, circulation and respiratory rates return to their pre-exercise state. The cool-down is essential to maintain the stretch of muscle groups, dispersing lactic acid that has built up during exercise and preventing blood pooling, and hence reducing risk of injury occurring to athletes. Physiological adaptations in response to training: Resting heart rate: Trained athletes have a lower RHR than untrained athletes, due to the efficiency of the cardiovascular system and stroke volume. Stroke volume: It is the amount of blood ejected by the left ventricle during a contraction. This is because training causes the left ventricle to fill more completely during the relaxation phase than it does in an untrained heart. There is also more blood in circulation following training because of an increase in blood plasma levels. This means more blood can enter the ventricle, resulting in more powerful contractions. Cardiac output: The volume of blood pumped by the heart per min. In trained athletes it can rise to 40 L/min. Oxygen uptake: The ability of the working muscles to use the oxygen being delivered. VO2 max is the maximal amount of oxygen that muscles can absorb and use at that level of work. Lung capacity: Is the amount of air that the lungs can hold. Training leads to too little change in lung capacity. Haemoglobin level: The substance in blood that binds to oxygen and transports it around the body. Increase in haemoglobin means more oxygen can be transported to muscles. Muscle hypertrophy: Training stimulates muscle fibres and results in muscle hypertrophy. This refers to the growth in muscle cells and mass, although there is no change in the length of the muscle. Effect on fast and slow twitch muscle fibres: Fast twitch muscle fibres benefit most by anaerobic training. The following adaptations occur in fast twitch muscle fibres due to anaerobic training: - ATP/PC supply and efficiency with which fuel is used increases. - Enzymes increase improving the functioning within cells. - Increased tolerance to lactic acid in muscles Slow twitch muscle fibres benefit most by endurance training. Aerobic training results in the following adaptations in slow-twitch fibres: - Increase in No. of capillaries surround fibres, improving diffusion of oxygen into muscles and removal of wastes out through blood. - Mitochondria are the ‘powerhouses’ of the cells, where ATP is synthesised and used to provide energy. There is an increase in mitochondria, as well as an increase in their size and efficiency, in response to aerobic training. - The level of activity of oxidative enzymes increases, making the production of energy more efficient. Motivation: Motivation refers to an athlete's will to achieve a specific goal or participate in training programs and develop their skills and technique, it pushes athletes to improve their performance. Positive: Occurs when an individual’s performance is driven by previous reinforcing behaviour. For example, crowd appreciation and an inspirational talk from the coach are forms of motivation for players. Negative: Is characterised by an improvement in performance out of fear of the consequences of not performing to expectations. For example, frightening an athlete into performing well in negative motivation. Intrinsic: Motivation that comes from within the athlete. It is most useful when trying to achieve long term goals. An example of intrinsic motivation is an athlete who wants to do well for the satisfaction found in achieving a personal best. Intrinsic motivation produces better performances over longer periods of time than extrinsic. Extrinsic: Comes from an external source, such as coaches, fans, or money. Anxiety and arousal Anxiety: Is an emotional response to a perceived threat generating a fight or flight response. Anxiety inhibits performance by lowering an individual’s concentration and affecting their muscular control. It can be managed through psychological strategies. Trait & state: Trait anxiety is dependent on the individual and refers to an individual’s level of stress regardless of the situation, it varies between individuals. State anxiety is an increase in the level of stress in response to a specific situation. It brings about fear, nervousness, and sweating. Sources of stress: Stress is a non-specific response to the demands placed upon an individual. It can be either good or bad, but both result in the production of adrenaline resulting in increased blood supply to muscles, higher oxygen levels, glucose production and seating. Things that cause stress are called stressors; these include: - Level of competition  - Pressure (e.g., from coach, family, etc) - Expectations - The environment (e.g., climate or audience) Arousal & optimum arousal: Arousal is a person’s heightened state of emotion. It differs from anxiety in that a certain amount of arousal is necessary for optimal performance to be achieved. Low arousal results in low performance, in this state, they are characterised as being bored, lazy, uncooperative, careless, and uninterested. Optimal arousal is where the athlete has neither high nor low arousal. It is where the best performance an athlete can achieve is outputted. In this state the athlete is at their highest level of concentration and has low anxiety and stress. When athletes have high levels of arousal it can also result in poor performance. In this state the athlete is overhyped, has uncontrollable muscle contractions, and concentrates on everything except the task at hand. Sports using small groups of muscles (e.g., golf) benefit from low levels of arousal, whilst sports that require large groups of muscles, such as rugby players, benefit from high levels of arousal. Optimum arousal varies between individual and can be affected by factors such as: - Self-expectations, how athletes expect themselves to perform. - Expectations from others, how a person perceives others, such as coach or family, expect them to perform. - Financial pressures, whether a person’s livelihood depends on their performance. - The level of competition. Psychological strategies to enhance motivation and manage anxiety: Concentration and attention skills: - This skill refers to the athlete’s ability to focus on the task at hand. - Focuses on the process rather than the outcome. - Blocks out distracting forces such as screaming crowds. - Different sports require different levels of concentration: intense concentration (e.g., gymnastics, archery) - Intervals of high concentration (e.g., netball, softball) Sustained concentration (e.g., marathon) Mental rehearsal and visualisation: - Involves imagining and going through one’s performance in their head.  - It helps an athlete become more familiar with their performance and increases concentration through avoiding distractions. - Visualising a successful performance makes an athlete more likely to execute it. - Mental rehearsal is particularly useful when athletes are unable to physically train due to poor weather, illness, or injury. Relaxation techniques: - Relaxation techniques are used to reduce anxiety and manage arousal levels. There are many techniques available to the athlete, but the more common techniques are: centred breathing, progressive muscular relaxation, listening to music, and mental relaxation. - Centred breathing is the process where an athlete focuses on lengthening their breathing to reduce their respiratory and heart rate. - Progressive muscular relaxation is the process where the athlete moves from one end of their body to the others progressively contract and then relax their muscles. - Music has often been used to control athlete’s levels of arousal and anxiety. Music can be used to relax and calm the athlete; as well as to psych them up. Music can increase the athlete’s arousal levels if they are too low for performance or can increase them, depending on the type of music listened to. - Mental relaxation is the process where an athlete focuses on reducing their respiratory rate and emptying their mind of thoughts and distractions in order to focus on the task at hand. Goal setting: - Goal setting helps improve an athlete’s motivation and enables them to measure progress. Goals can be either performance or behaviour oriented and can be both long and/or short term. - Setting long-term goals is important as they give the major purpose to training and performance. - Short-term goals should be used to help monitor progress and provide benchmarks as the athlete progresses towards the long-term goals. - Goal setting needs the goals to be specific, measurable, attainable, relevant, and time specific. An example of this is running 100m in less that 10 sec within the next 6 months is specific, can be measured, is attainable if you are already running 100m in the low 10s, relevant if you are in a sport that requires running 100m quickly, such as a sprinter and time specific. Supplementation Supplementation is routine for many competitors because it is believed to improve performance. However in most cases, the concern, effort + money is wasted because a well balanced diet can supply all the necessary nutrients for optimal performance. Vitamins/minerals Vitamins are organic compounds essential to maintaining bodily functions and only required in small amounts. They assist in energy release, metabolic regulation + tissue building. However vitamin supplementation isn’t necessary to improve performance because all necessary vitamins can be provided by a well balanced diet. The main vitamins needed by an athlete would be: - A, D, E, K (fat soluble + toxic in high levels)  - B group, vitamin C (water soluble + need to be taken regularly as lost easily lost from body through water) Vitamin supplementation isn’t needed if athlete has balanced diet + is serious about health maintenance, training + improved performance - Minerals are inorganic substances found in the body that are necessary for it to function properly. - They don’t provide energy but are necessary for the body to function properly e.g. iron, calcium + potassium. Which are important for cellular functions such as muscular contraction, fluid balance + energy systems. - Inadequate supplies of minerals contribute to health problems + affect performance, therefore mineral supplementation may be necessary for some athletes suffering mineral deficiencies such as female athletes and iron deficiencies. Protein supplementation Studies into protein supplementation show that it’s not necessary to take to improve performance, as a well balanced diet (rich in fish + red meat) can provide adequate protein levels. Although protein does facilitate growth + repair of body tissues, excess protein can have negative effects on health + hinder performance. It leads to an increase of calcium excreted, possibly contributing to osteoporosis later in life. On the whole research supports the idea that most athletes don’t need/benefit from protein supplementation. Used in sports like bodybuilding, weight-lifting, gymnastics, strength athletes etc. For protein supplementation Against protein supplementation Growth and repair for body tissues especially Excess protein can have negative health muscles, i.e muscular hypertrophy effects on the body → increased calcium exerted + possibly contribute to osteoporosis. Beneficial for sports such as body builders, Many protein supplements contain additives that weight lifters + strength. Also good for injury have no health benefits and may increase risk of rehabilitation. certain cancers Caffeine Supplementation - Caffeine does improve alertness + studies have reported ‘clear headedness’ improved + memory. Evidence related to caffeine + performance is inconclusive but agreement on areas like cognitive function + anaerobic performance. - It doesn’t help short intense activities such as sprinting, long-jump etc. - It causes dehydration due to its diuretic properties - It helps mobilise fat stores assisting aerobic performance, therefore it can be used to improve aerobic performance. - The mobilisation of fat stores helps as it allows aerobic performance to be continued for longer periods of time (glycogen sparing). Thus endurance athletes would use this but it is banned in many sports. Recovery strategies: Recovery strategies aim to ensure that the athlete is able to resume full training and competition in the shortest possible time. Active rest is regarded as the most beneficial form of recovery. There are 4 main areas of recovery strategies: - Physiological Strategies: cool down + nutritional plan (food + fluid) - Neural Strategies: hydrotherapy + massage - Tissue Damage Strategies: cryotherapy - Psychological Strategies: relaxation methods Physiological Strategies e.g. cool down, hydration: Focuses on two elements→ - Removal of metabolic by-products via an effective cool-down - A nutritional plan to replace lost fluids and energy Cool Down To gradually reduce HR, metabolism to a pre-exercise state. Cooling down effectively removes waste products, decreases blood pooling and assists in preventing muscle soreness and spasms. Cool down should be active and gradual. A warm down should consist of 1-10 minutes of walking/jogging/swimming aim to return the body to a pre-exercise state. Nutrition Plan: addresses both fluid and food intake. Effective measures to address and prevent dehydration need to be included in pre, during and post event plans. The body loses considerable fluid in endurance events, threatening dehydration. Amount of fluid replacement depends on temp, exercise intensity/duration, and sweating. Thirst isn't a reliable indicator of hydration, the colour of urine is. If it’s dark in colour your dehydration and fluid need to be consumed. If it's pale/clear your hydrated + need to maintain hydration. Drink roughly 600ml for every 1⁄2 kilo of body weight lost. Severe dehydration may require 24-48 hours to totally replace fluids. For e.g. drink water, electrolyte drink, juices etc. The need to replenish depleted glycogen + blood sugar in the first 30 mins-2 hours after exercise is essential for fuel recovery. If not replenished within 2 hours a decrease in glycogen absorption will occur (during 30 mins-2 hours after the event muscles are most receptive to glycogen enrichment). A high carb diet (50-100g after exercise) that is balanced (in terms of carbs, protein, and fat) is recommended for exercise recovery. Carb-protein ratio is 4:1. Neural Strategies e.g. hydrotherapy and massage: Such as massage and hydrotherapy aim to relax muscles that have been fatigued/damaged from high intensity exercise. Hydrotherapy: involves the use of water to relax, soothe and assist metabolic recovery. It involves steam rooms, spas, underwater massage (spa jets) and heated swimming pools. Active rest is included in hydrotherapy through using gravity assisted movements in swimming pools e.g. running, jumping, combat exercises + flotation exercises can be performed in this gravity assisted environment, lessening risk of injury. Used in conjunction with cryotherapy techniques to accelerate blood flow e.g. hot and cold method. Massage: can be performed prior/following an event. This is a specialised massage focusing on recovery. Following eventàsports massage focuses on body + mental relaxation and injury prevention. Post event massage aims to help relieve swelling, reduce muscle tension, assists in eliminating toxic by-products and promotes flexibility, preparing athletes for the next training session. Rehab massage focuses on injury treatment i.e. muscle damage, ligament repair etc. Properly used massage shortens recovery time between workouts. Massage needs to address the needs of the athletes demands from the sport (i.e. specific muscle groups). The most popular are: compression massage, cross-fibre massage, Swedish massage etc. Tissue Damage Strategies: Cryotherapy: involves the use of cooling of the tissue damage. Ice is the most common form of cryotherapy, because of its ability to slow down the tissue inflammatory response preventing build-up of waste that, if not removed, creates muscle soreness/stiffness. RICER: is used in rehab of soft tissue injury. This technique involves Rest, Ice, Compression, Elevation and Recuperation to enhance recovery. Ice baths are also popular in contact sports like football (NRL) and endurance training recovery programs. Cold baths work on the principle that decreased temp contracts the blood vessels, slowing down the blood flow to the injury site. As the body emerges or is put into hot bath, blood vessels dilate allowing oxygen rich blood flow stimulating recovery. Short periods of 1 minute in each temp bath are recommended + build on top of that as the body adapts. Psychological Strategies e.g. relaxation: After intense exercise athletes may experience low concentration +motivation and high anxiety. The following strategies will help recover the emotional, spiritual + mental state: - Relaxation Methods: like performance evaluations, debriefing sessions, reading, music and movies. Some athletes participate in leisure activities like golf, swimming + surfing can help. Visualisation and positive self talk are other methods of psychological strategies to recover.  - Adequate Sleep: a body harbouring mental/physical tension is not able to sleep + experience full recovery. Adequate sleep is considered the most important recovery strategy. Not enough and too much sleep can be detrimental to performance, so roughly 8-9 hours is adequate. Stages of skills acquisition: There are 3 stages of skills acquisition each athlete must go through in order to succeed at a certain skill. Cognitive: characterised by frequent errors and is the stage when the learner has to think a lot about the skill and how to execute it - Requires frequent feedback from the coach Associative: the largest and longest stage - Characterised by a lot of practice - As the athlete progresses through to the next stage, errors become smaller and less frequent Autonomous: characterised by few, if any errors that are minor - An athlete at this stage of acquisition can think about other aspects of the game and not think about the skill at all. Cognitive skill acquisition: - Characterised by the mental process and the athlete thinking about the skill - The athlete must think about: their body position, which muscles they’re contracting, what the movement should look like. - The athlete is thinking about what they are doing at each section of skill execution, resulting in a non fluid movement. Athletes at this stage have frequent and large errors, have robotic and jerky movements, might miss the ball when they attempt to kick completely, or kick the ball backwards instead of forwards. For example; try and visualise a toddler learning to walk, or a 3 year old trying to kick a ball. They watch lots, try and mimic movements, and get frustrated at their errors. A coach needs to provide heaps of feedback and demonstrations during this stage of skill acquisition. They may use videos or other visualisations to help show the athlete what the skill should look like when done well. A coach will often break down the skill into the different components to be put together as the athlete progresses in their learning. When learning a new skill, frequent short periods of exposure are best for development. 20-40 min 3-5 times a week is a great amount of practice for learning a new skill. During a training session. Break this new skill up by including skills the athlete does well. Ensure they are getting positive results as well as they learn the new skill. This makes distributed part practice the best practice method for the athlete at the cognitive stage of skill acquisition. Associative skill acquisition: - The athlete has progressed from thinking about what they’re doing to thinking about how they do the skill. - They no longer think about body position, but where they’re passing the ball, or hitting the ball.  - Begin to think about end results rather than just on whether they manage to kick the ball. - The movement becomes more fluid and smooth. - There are still some errors though these are not large enough or as frequent as the cognitive stage of skill acquisition The athlete can begin to provide feedback of their own and self reflection. They can also still benefit from immediate feedback concerning their technique provided by a coach as well as knowledge of results. They can adjust their technique and begin to increase the complexity of the context in which the skill is executed. For example: hitting or kicking a moving ball rather than a stationary one. During the associative stage the athlete needs a lot of practice that is whole and normally massed, though if they get bored, distribution should be used. This stage usually lasts a long time, with many athletes not progressing to the final autonomous stage of skills acquisition. Autonomous skill acquisition: - When the athlete no longer thinks about the skill - The skill comes naturally and the athlete can think about other aspects of the game, such as; who to pass the ball to, how to beat the defensive player, or where to hit the forehand. - The athlete knows what the movement feels like and can provide their own feedback. - External feedback on the skill can also still be beneficial - Coaching an autonomous athlete usually focuses on the execution of the skill under pressure and with various cognitive processes being completed at the same time. This is usually done through small-sided games or competition simulations, such as sparing. This stage is where the athlete has finally mastered the skill and exhibit characteristics of skilled performers. These characteristics include: kinaesthetic sense, good anticipation, consistency of performance, and sound technique. Such athletes can correct their own movements midway through the movement to adjust to oppositional movements of environmental interference. They consistently perform the skill well with minor errors occurring rarely. This final stage of skill acquisition is not reached by many athletes. Many remain in the associative stage throughout their sporting career. Athlete’s who become elite, have usually reached the autonomous stage of skill acquisition. Characteristics of the learner: Personality traits: - Personality is the way someone behaves, thinks and feels - These characteristic aspects of the person influence their work efforts and mentality towards skill development, which greatly influences skill acquisition. - Someone who has a good work ethic and punctuality will develop a skill better and faster than someone who is not. - Acquiring a skill requires hard work and dedication. If an athlete does not do this, they will not develop a skill as well or as quickly as someone who does. - Frequent negative thoughts about skill development and personal ability will diminish the ability to acquire skills. - However, positive self-talk and self-confidence will positively influence skill acquisition. - How an athlete feels will also impact skill acquisition. - If an athlete feels energetic and focused then they are more likely to succeed in acquiring a new skill.  - In contrast, an athlete who is often sad or sluggish will develop the skill much slower and to a lower level. - Traits within a personality that help in the acquisition of skills include: determination, enthusiasm, dedication, positive attitude, cooperation, patience, willingness to try something new. - These help the athlete to accept and respond to coaches feedback, try new ways of completing the skill, or try new skills Heredity factors: - An athlete's heredity characteristics are those genetically inherited from their parents, including: gender, race, muscle type, and somatotype (body type). Gender: - Gender is heredity and affects levels of hormones, particularly testosterone, responsible for muscle growth and development. - Males tend to be more muscular, stronger and more powerful than females. - This difference has caused the labelling of some sports as “male” or “female”, though these labels are not justified. - Gender tends to have little effect on competition as sports are normally gender specific, but it does affect performance, with males performing better in sports requiring speed, power and strength such as swimming and rugby league. Race: - Race is also heredity and particular races can have specific genes that make them more suited to particular sports. - Often dark ethnic groups have higher percentages of fast twitch muscle fibres and are taller than other lighter races (though this is not always the case). - For example- the domination of dark people in the 100m finals, and basketball. - Though obviously darker ethnic groups can also be suited to other sports such as long distance running. - In comparison, white Caucasian ethnic groups tend to be more suited for sports such as swimming and hockey. - Though this can also be a product of social upbringing, like South America and soccer. Muscle type: - Muscle type is hereditary and cannot be changed. - The relative balance or percentage of each type of muscle fibre will suit athletes to particular sports. - Athletes with high levels of type II, fast twitch fibres are more suited to: Fast, powerful sports such as: 100m sprint, rugby league or shot-put. - Athletes with high levels of type I, slow twitch fibres on the other hand, are more suited to: longer, more enduring sports such as: marathon running or cross-country skiing.  - There are other sports that require a balance of both and suit athletes who have a good number of both types of fibres, these include: Soccer and Australian Rules Football. Somatotype: - Somatotype can help determine an athlete’s suitability for particular sports. - Endomorphs: carry more weight and tend to hold the weight lower have advantages in sports such as rugby union or blocking in American Football. - Mesomorphs: very muscular and have low body fat and are best suited to sports such as Australian Rules Football, bodybuilding and rowing. - Ectomorphs: skinny and are best suited for sports such as long distance running, high-jump and horse racing. Differences in height will also affect which sports the athlete is best suited to. Tall athletes tend to suit sports such as netball, basketball or volleyball. Shorter athletes are better suited to sports like horse racing, gymnastics and bike riding. People can acquire skills quickly and perform them well, while not being suited for the sport, such as a short high-jumper who performs the skill well, but does not jump as high as a taller person, more suited to the sport. Confidence: - Confidence is a belief in one’s own ability and positively influences skill acquisition. - Grows with success, so successful skill execution will in turn increase confidence making the athlete learn new skills faster. - Important for coaches to provide opportunities for success early on in order to grow the athletes belief in their ability to do the skill well. - Previous experience will affect an athlete’s belief in themselves. - If the athlete has completed similar skills well before, they will have a greater belief that they will master the new skill as well. This means that the coach should progress skill learning moving from easy to harder skills. Faster success in the easier skill will increase confidence and result in faster acquisition of the new harder skill. - If skills are not learnt and frequent failure occurs, belief levels will decrease and the rate and level of skill acquisition will decrease. - Over confidence results in poor skill acquisition, as the athlete believes that they are better than they are and begin to try new harder skills before they are ready to do so. - Can lead to the skill never being perfected and so the athlete never moves into the mastery autonomous stage of skill acquisition. Prior experience: - Is the transfer of skills from one context to another allowing the athlete to learn new similar skills faster than people who have no prior experience. - Skill transfer can be lateral or vertical. - Lateral transfer is easy and is the transfer of a similar skill from one context to another: such as tackling in rugby union after learning to tackle in rugby league, or learning to surf after learning to skateboard.  - Vertical transfer is the transfer of a skill from a lower order skill to a higher order skill: such as shooting in basketball to doing a layup, or learning to throw before learning to shoot in netball. - If prior experience was positive and had successful performances, then the new skill will be acquired more easily. Natural ability: - An athlete’s ability refers to the ease of performing movements and performances. - It is often known as talent and is characterised by fluid movements and accurate execution of the skill. - It refers to the athlete’s competency in a particular skill, a particular sport, or even exercise in general. - Power or capacity to do well in a particular area. - Ability is used to describe people who are skilled in various areas, from sports, to the arts, to mathematics. A person can have great ability in many things. Most often the term is used to refer to the person’s natural talent. - Athlete’s with greater abilities learn and process new skills faster than athlete’s with lower abilities. - They often will reach the higher levels of skill acquisition faster and for a wide variety of skills that are related to each other. - Ability is often a combination of characteristics in the athlete, this includes: perception or the capacity to read the game, sport or competition, reaction time, intelligence- smarter athlete’s will often learn a skill faster as they process information provided from the coach and adapt accordingly. Athlete’s with a sense of acuity or sharpness also have greater ability as they refine the skill more thoroughly than those without this characteristic. The learning environment: - Nature of the skill: open, closed, gross, fine, discrete, serial, continuous, self paced, externally paced. - The performance elements: decision making, strategic and tactical development. - Practice method: massed, distributed, whole, part. - Feedback: external, internal, concurrent, delayed, knowledge of results, knowledge of performance. - The learning environment affects the acquisition of the skill. - Refers to the variables around skill acquisition, many of which can be managed or adapted by the coach to ensure the skill is acquired quickly and to a high degree. - The learning environment refers to the nature of the skill and whether it is: - An open or closed skill - Gross or fine skill - Discrete, serial or continuous skill - If it is self-paced or externally paced. - The nature of the skill affects how the skill should be taught and which practice method is best suited to the skill. - The performance elements will also influence skill acquisition and are part of the environment in which skills are learnt. These performance elements are essentially skills themselves, but are more skills of the mind then of the physical sense. Finally, the nature of feedback, including the speed at which it is given are part of this learning environment. Nature of the skill: - A skill can be: open or closed, gross or fine, discrete, serial or continuous, self or externally paced - Each classification sits along a continuum, with skills varying in their degree of any selection - Skills are classified by selecting one from each choice. - Open: is performed in a constantly changing environment (weather, opposition, surface), such as kicking a goal in Australian Rules Football. - Closed: is performed in the same conditions every time, such as weightlifting. Open skills take longer to learn compared to closed skills. - Gross: requires large muscle groups (legs, back, chest). - Fine: uses small or isolated muscle groups (wrist flexors, biceps), such as shooting. Fine skills are easier to learn than gross skills. - Discrete: has a clear beginning and end, such as a flip in gymnastics. - Serial: combines a number of separate, smaller skills to perform the larger more complex skill, such as a layup in basketball, which combines dribbling, catching, jumping and shooting. - Continuous: repeats a specific movement over and over again, such as running. Serial skills are harder to learn than discrete skills, which are often harder than continuous skills because continuous skills are repeated all the time. - Self paced: has its timing and speed determined by the performer, such as a tennis serve. - Externally paced: has its timing and speed determined by external factors such as opposing players or music, such as rhythmic gymnastics or batting in baseball. Externally paced skills are harder to learn than self paced skills. The performance elements: It is vital for performance that an athlete can perform their skills under pressure and respond to their environment. Performance elements that enhance an athlete's ability to perform are: - Decision making - Strategic development - Tactical development Decision making: - Refers to the various decisions made by any athlete during a performance. These include: - where to hit the ball - who to pass to and when - where to kick the ball - where to stand defensively. This can be improved by demonstrations or good decision making. Prompting questions like: “how do we create space here?”. Practising in a game-like situation, allowing players to explore various scenarios by changing oppositional tactics or strategies, and encouraging creativity in the athlete. The more opportunity players have in a game to make decisions, the better they will get at it. Strategic development: - Strategy is the overall method used to achieve the goal, normally winning the competition. - Includes where an athlete should be at a particular time and what they should do. Tactical development: - Tactics are about gaining an advantage over the opposing player normally connected with game sense and decision making. Includes things like: moving into space, marking a particular player, using a cut out pass. - Strategic and tactical development comes through technical efficiency, understanding the game, and good execution. Players who have good technical skills are more likely to make a successful pass or shot while under pressure and making decisions. Players who understand how the game works and which strategies or tactics are better in various situations, are more successful in executing the strategy or tactic and selecting the right one for success. The strategy or tactic must then be practised to ensure timing is correct and execution is smooth and successful. Requires: - The strategy to be clear - Each individual player to know their role within the strategy - Then learning to execute the strategy using various tactics through practice in various situations, which will also develop good decision-making. Practice methods: Practice methods can either be: - Massed or distributed - Whole or part Massed practice: - Is a continuous practice session, with smaller rest periods than practice intervals and works well with or skilled and motivated athletes. - Suits skills that are exciting or frequently used in performance, such as uneven bar transitions or passing in football. Distributed practice: - Has short practice periods with longer breaks from the skill rehearsal, which can be rehearsal of another skill or a break for feedback. - Often used for less skilled and less motivated athletes and is helpful in teaching boring skills, such as passing a basketball. - Can be used for more difficult skills that need to be broken up, or when lots of feedback is necessary. Whole practice:  - Is when the skill is practised in its entirety and is often used for discrete or continuous skills - Good for teaching swimming or running. Part practice: - Is when the skill is broken up into its smaller parts and each part is practised in isolation before being joined together. - Often used for teaching serial skills that have smaller skills that make up the larger skill, such as a lay up in basketball. Feedback: - Feedback is important for the acquisition of a skill by the athlete - Provides direction, goals and helps the athlete to adjust their performance and skill execution as they progress through the stages of skills acquisition. - Feedback can be: internal or external, concurrent or delayed, knowledge of results of performance. Internal feedback: - Comes from the performer and how the movement felt, and relies on proprioception. - For example: a soccer player feeling that they did not connect with the ball correctly is internal. External feedback: - Comes from outside the body and includes sounds, videos, or a coach. - For example: an AFL player scoring a goal from 40 m out. Concurrent feedback: - Occurs during the execution of a skill, such as a coach stopping a golfer midswing to correct their grip on the handle. Delayed feedback: - Is received after the skill has been completed, such as video analysis of a baseball pitcher's performance. Knowledge of results: - Feedback that provides information about the outcome of the skill execution. - Such as: scoring a goal or hitting a six. Knowledge of performance: - Is information provided about the process of movement normally provided externally after its completion. - Such as a coach giving technical advice on a tennis serve, telling the player to drop their shoulder later. Assessment of skill and performance: - Characteristics of skilled performers: kinaesthetic sense, anticipation, consistency, technique. - Objective and subjective performance measures - Validity and reliability of tests - Personal versus prescribed judging criteria Characteristics of skills performers: - Skilled performers are autonomous performers, and have a particular look to their movement. - These observable features include: kinaesthetic sense, anticipation, consistency and good technique. Kinaesthetic sense: - Refers to the skilled performers proprioception (perception or awareness of the position and movement of the body). - Relies in information from various sensors in the muscles and other organs that provide information about the body position and movement without the need to see it. - Skilled performers can feel the movement and even correct the movement mid-performance. - Kinaesthetics develops as a direct result of practice, as it develops ‘muscle memory’. - For example: a basketballer adjusting their shot after being fouled to make sure the shot is still successful. Anticipation: - Is the performer's ability to read the play, or his opponent and respond accordingly. - Ability to predict their opponents next move. - Good anticipation comes by learning an opponent’s body positioning and being familiar with their preference of style or shot. - This is particularly important in externally paced skills. - For example: when a tennis player anticipates a backhand down the line after reading the body positioning of their opponent. This gives the skilled performer more time to cover the court, cover the shot and decide which return they will select. Consistency: - Refers to the performer repeating good performances. - This is easily observed in sports such as basketball and tennis, where a skilled athlete continually gets the shot in or hits the shot over the net and near the lines. - For example: Roger Federer and Lebron James are skilled performers who are consistent in their performances. Technique: - Refers to the technical aspect of skill execution; the result is efficient and consistent movement.  - Skilled performers have good technical execution of a skill which: saves energy, produces better and more consistent results, holds up better under pressure, provides less chance of injury, and is a large determinant of elite success. - Correct technique is particularly vital in sports such as swimming and running. - Correct technique helps generate more power and slimline and saves energy for later in the performance, particularly vital for long distance endurance events. Objective and Subjective performance measures: - Objective and subjective performance measures are used to classify various different types of performance measures. Objective: - Objective performance measures are independent of the observer. - This means the measurement is done using something other than the person observing. - This can include: a stopwatch, measuring tape or record of goals - The objectivity of the performance measure is increased through measures such as: time, checklists, and established criteria. Subjective: - Subjective performance measures are dependent on the observer and based on opinions, feelings, and general impressions. - Subjective measures rely on the person observing rather than independent measures. - Sports such as dance and gymnastics are more subjective than objective in their measures. - Sports such as high jump use completely objective performance measures of metres and centimetres - Diving tends to use more subject performance measures. - Skills are often measured using both, such as a soccer player’s performance. It was good because it looked good, felt smooth, but also he covered 12Km in the game, made 30 tackles, had 98% success in passing and 85% success in shots, and scored 3 goals in the game. Validity and reliability of tests: - Validity and reliability of tests is important in the assessment of skill and performance. - Tests are often done to check performance improvements. - These can include various fitness tests such as: t-run agility test, the beep test. - The validity and reliability of tests varies considerably, and should influence the weight of influence the test has on athletic performance. Validity: - Refers to the tests ability to measure what it's supposed to measure - A beep test is used to test an athlete's cardiovascular endurance. - It is valid because it gives an accurate prediction of an athlete's VO2 max, though a VO2 max test done in a laboratory would be a more valid test. - Test validity is enhanced if: known good performers perform better than known bad performers, if it is reliable predicting future performances, and if the component being tested is included in the test. Reliability: - Refers to the test’s consistency, the ability of the scorer to produce the same result each time for the same performance. - A shuttle run is a reliable agility test if the same tester produces the same results with the same athletes under the same conditions in succession. - The use of similar equipment, checklists, procedures and conditions improves the reliability of the test. - Tests that are both valid and reliable tend to be more objective and are the best tests used to measure performance. Personal versus prescribed judging criteria: - Personal versus prescribed judging criteria seeks to contrast the personal likes or dislikes of performance, compared to more formal judging through the use of criteria. - It is prescribed judging criteria that refers to the use of criteria to make subjective performance measures more objective. Personal judging criteria: - Are the presuppositions brought to the performance by the judge and are very subjective. - These include the judge’s expectations and preconceived ideas about the performance. - Spectators and coaches often use personal judging criteria when judging a performance. - Spectators are especially personal because their judgments rely on feelings and impressions, not prescribed judging criteria. - There is often bias in personal judging criteria and so are more suited to appreciation rather than judgments of performance quality. - Example of personal judging criteria is a person who walks out of a ballet performance thrilled by what they saw, because it was exactly what was expected, compared to the person who leaves disappointed because they were hoping for something in particular that was not provided. Prescribed judging criteria: - Are established criteria created by the sporting body, which are then used to appraise performance. - This often comes in the form of a checklist or rating system and helps to objectify subjective measurements. - The more detailed the judging criteria and stringent the judge the better the objectivity and reliability of the judging criteria. - An example would be the check lists and other prescribed judging criteria used in gymnastics to provide a score for each routine. Subjective performance measures: - Subjectivity is reliant upon the observer and includes personal judging criteria and other presuppositions, such as: - I hope to see lots of flips and some cool balance moves in this floor routine. - He better use up beat music. - I really like the gymnast from China; he’s such a nice guy. - That skill is difficult These are very subjective and should not be used for judging performance. You are required to develop your own subjective performance measures for the appraisal of performance. Objective performance measures: - Objective performance measures include prescribed judging criteria, which could include checklists and ratings such as the one below: - Criteria: number of flips performed, rate the tightness of the body during the flips, rate the matching of movement to the music chosen - Performance includes one: Handstand (held for 5 sec), Jumping spin - The criteria above help reduce the subjectivity of judgements by improving the objectivity and reducing the room for personal criteria. You should now develop and evaluate objective and subjective performance measures to appraise performance on your own. As well as measurements of time, distance and speed. individual performance in team sports are often evaluated using a combination of objective measures such as goals scores, passes made, and time in possession and subjective opinions on the fluidity of movement or execution of particular skills. HSC Option: Improving Performance: How do athletes train for improved performance?: - Resistance training (elastic and hydraulic) - Weight training (plates and dumbbells) - Isometric training Strength training: - The main goal of strength training is to increase the maximum force that a particular muscle group can generate. - When strength training, you are required to work against some form of resistance and exercise the muscles regularly. - Strength training can take many different forms: resistance training using hydraulic and elastic resistance, weight training using plates and dumbbells, isometric training applying a static force. During strength training, elements of isotonic, isometric and isokinetic contractions can be used. People begin strength training programs for a variety of reasons which include: - To develop muscular strength or endurance - Develop power - Weight loss - Gain muscle definition=muscular hypertrophy Strength training programs can be tailored to the specific needs of the individual. Fitness centres will typically devise a training program that will cater for the needs of the client. Strength training merchandise is also available on the market (books, magazines etc) to assist people. Types of strength training: Maximum or absolute strength: - The maximum amount of weight that can be lifted just once (one repetition). Elastic strength: - The ability to exert maximum force in a short period of time; the product of strength and speed; common in explosive sports involving sprinting, jumping or throwing. Endurance strength: - The capacity to exert a force repeatedly over an extended period of time. Required in activities such as rowing. There are three different types of muscular contractions:  - Isotonic: a force against an external load that remains constant throughout the movement. - Isometric: a force performed at a constant angle against an immovable load. - Isokinetic: a force generated during movement at a pre-set, fixed speed throughout the range of motion around the joint. A muscle will only strengthen and hypertrophise if it has been forced to work beyond its customary intensity - that is, if it has been overloaded (progressive overload). Muscles can be overloaded by progressively increasing the following variables: - Intensity (decreasing the number and length of rest periods) - Resistance (lifting more weight) - Number of sets - Speed of muscular actions SPECIFICITY must also be adopted, strength training must target the specific muscle groups involved in the sport. RESISTANCE TRAINING- ELASTIC & HYDRAULIC: - Resistance training can be achieved through the use of hydraulic or elastic resistance. - Elastic resistance gives the greatest resistance towards the end of the movement. - Elastic resistance bands are also practical and inexpensive. - Smaller muscle groups that are hard to train with traditional free-weight exercises can be targeted with resistance bands. - Resistance bands come in a range of colours that represent the stiffness or resistance of the band. - Hydraulic resistance equipment utilises isokinetic contractions allowing for a fixed amount of resistance throughout the movement. - It also makes it possible for the athlete to perform strength training and cardiovascular training at the same time. - Hydraulic resistance training can also be carried out using a swimming pool where each effort is opposed by the density of the water (effort is opposed by viscosity). - Hydraulic machines are very expensive, making them limited as many gyms cannot afford them. WEIGHT TRAINING: - Weight training is the most common form of strength training for athletes and involves isotonic training. - Weight training involves the manipulation of rep, sets, tempo, exercise types and weight used to help increase the desired strength, endurance, size and shape. - Exercise completed during weight training involve equipment such as barbells, dumbbells, weight stacks and plates to increase the force of gravity. - Exercises that are isotonic in nature also involve both concentric and eccentric contractions. ISOMETRIC TRAINING:  - Isometric training or exercises are those in which the joint angle remains constant and there is no lengthening of the muscle. An example is holding a half-squat position for a period of time. - Studies have shown that isometric training increases maximum strength by 5% per week by isometrically contracting a muscle group for 6 seconds once per day over 5 days per week. Repeating the contraction 5-10 times per day produced greater strength gains. - Isometric exercises can be performed anywhere as equipment is not required. Isometric strength training may incorporate the use of free-weights and pin-loaded weights by holding a squat at the concentric phase of the movement. - Because static contractions rarely occur in sporting events, this type of strength training is unsuitable. - BUT isometric training is a very useful rehabilitation tool. AEROBIC TRAINING: How do athletes train for improved performance?: - Continuous training/uniform - Fartlek - Long interval AEROBIC TRAINING: - Aerobic capacity will be improved by a training program that is designed to progressively overload the cardiovascular and respiratory systems - The program should be specific to the sport or event, that is, runners run, swimmers swim. - Types of aerobic training include: continuous/uniform training, fartlek training and long interval training CONTINUOUS/UNIFORM: - Continuous/ uniform training is long, slow distance training (running, swimming or cycling). - It involves sustained, low intensity exercise at a steady rate, without the use of rest breaks. - This type of training develops the endurance of the respiratory and cardiovascular sysetms rather than speed. - When completing this type of training, the athlete is required to work in the ‘steady state’ zone, which is approximately 70-75% of MHR. - High intensity continuous training has been shown to improve lactate tolerance and VO2Max. This intensity level varies from athlete to athlete, but is approximately working at 90%+ of MHR. Work rates equal to or slightly above the lactate threshold (LT2) produce the best results. - The duration of the training session depends on the fitness of the athlete, but should be for approximately 20-25 minutes for best results> - Continuous training involves working for longer than is the case in the performance or competition, and at a uniform intensity. - Remember, when traini