Field Study 1 Midterm Handout PDF

FIELD STUDY 1 OBSERVATIONS OF TEACHING-LEARNING IN ACTUAL SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT MIDTERM HANDOUT LEARNERS’ DIVERSITY, CHARACTERISTICS, NEEDS AND INTERESTS Who are the Learners? A learner is an individual who is willing to learn a...

FIELD STUDY 1 OBSERVATIONS OF TEACHING-LEARNING IN ACTUAL SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT MIDTERM HANDOUT LEARNERS’ DIVERSITY, CHARACTERISTICS, NEEDS AND INTERESTS Who are the Learners? A learner is an individual who is willing to learn and understand new things. Learning is a process of understanding and acquiring knowledge of new things and concepts. An individual can be a learner at any point in time they want. Factors like age, gender, etc. do not come in between the learning of the learner. Learning depends on various measures like the need for paradigm shift skills required for a job, schooling requirements, or merely the curiosity or wishes of an individual. Basic Concepts Definition: Child and Adolescent Learners 1. Convention on the Rights of the Child: A child is any person under the age of 18. 2. According to UNICEF: a child means every human being below the age of eighteen years unless under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier. 3. According to UNICEF: Adolescence is a transitional period between childhood and adulthood that requires special attention and protection. Physically, emotionally, and cognitively children go through a number of important changes as they mature. Adolescence also represents a second window of opportunity for children to develop skills that are key to achieving their full potential and improving countries’ economic growth, social outcomes and poverty reduction. 4. WHO defines 'Adolescents' as individuals in the 10-19 years age group and 'Youth' as the 15-24 year age group. While 'Young People' covers the age range 10-24 years. 5. Action for the Rights of Children: There is no universal definition of children or of childhood. Childhood is a cultural and social construction, and not simply a universal stage in the human being’s physical and psychological development. Children and adolescents have needs and capacities that are significantly different from those of adults. Although certain general features of child development are predictable, there are significant cultural differences in the ways in which children and adolescents develop, and in the beliefs, goals and expectations and childrearing practices that shape development. 6. The Philippine Pediatric Society, Inc: “Adolescence” encompasses ages 10- 19 years. (per WHO and DOH). A “minor” is a person who has not reached the age of majority, Field Study 1 MIDTERM Handout by Elsie M. Zabalo  which by legal definition, is someone who is below18 years of age. (R.A. No.6809). “Child” refers to the newborn, infant, child and adolescent. 7. Philippine Law: As defined in R.A. No. 9344, “Child” is a person under the age of eighteen (18) years. While “Child at Risk” refers to a child who is vulnerable to and at the risk of committing criminal offences because of personal, family and social circumstances. 8. Philippine Law: RA 7610 Children” refers to person below eighteen (18) years of age or those over but are unable to fully take care of themselves or protect themselves from abuse, neglect, cruelty, exploitation or discrimination because of a physical or mental disability or condition. Growth and Development (Nature and Nurture) I. Development Skills and Milestones of Children. A. Children reach milestones in how they play, learn, speak, act and move. All children develop at their own pace, but these milestones give you a general idea of the changes to expect as your child grows. B. Developmental milestones can be categorized by the following: 1. Speech and Language 2. Dressing Skills 3. Fine Motor and Visual Motor Skills 4. Grooming Skills C. Growth charts along with a child’s overall well-being, environment and genetic background. Questions to consider: 1. Is the child meeting other developmental milestones? 2. Are there any other signs that a child is not healthy? 3. What height and weight are the child’s parents and siblings? 4. Was the child born prematurely? 5. Has the child started puberty earlier or later than average? D. Girls and boys are measured on different growth charts because they grow in different patterns and at different rates. One set of charts is used for babies, from birth to 36 months. Another set is used for kids and teens ages 2–20 years old. Also, special growth charts can be used for children with certain conditions, such as Down syndrome, or who were born early. E. What Could Signal a Problem? Keeping an eye on growth charts may help you spot any potential growth issues. Some patterns to look out for include: 1. When a child’s weight or height percentile changes from a pattern it’s been following. For example: If height and weight have both been on the 60th percentile line until a child is 5 years old, and then the height drops to the 30th percentile at age 6, that might suggest a growth problem because the child is not following his or her usual growth pattern. But changing percentiles doesn’t always mean there’s a problem. Many kids may show changes in growth percentiles at some points in development, Field Study 1 MIDTERM Handout by Elsie M. Zabalo  when it’s normal for growth rates to vary more from child to child. This is particularly common during infancy and puberty. 2. If a child’s height progression is very different from what is expected by his or her midparental height calculation. 3. If there is an abnormally low or high body mass index (BMI 85%). F. Newborn Developmental Milestones: What to expect at every age? 1. Newborn. From the moment babies are born, they respond to the world around them. Their reactions — being calmed by a parent’s embrace or startled by a loud sound — are examples of normal infant development. In the first month of life, babies usually catch up and surpass their birthweight, then steadily continue to gain weight. A weight loss up to about 10 percent of birthweight is normal in the first two to three days after birth. However, the baby should have gained this back and be at his or her birthweight by about two weeks. While all babies may grow at a different rate, the following indicates the average for boys and girls up to 1 month of age: Field Study 1 MIDTERM Handout by Elsie M. Zabalo  ✓ Weight: after the first two weeks, should gain about 1 ounce each day ✓ Average length at birth: 20 inches for boys, 19 3/4 inches for girls ✓ Average length at one month: 21 1/2 inches for boys, 21 inches for girls ✓ Head size: increases to slightly less than 1 inch more than birth measurement by the end of the first month 2. 1-3 Months Old Baby Development ✓ Some of the newborn protective reflexes begin to disappear ✓ Neck muscles become stronger, head bobs then is held erect ✓ Turns head from side to side when placed on abdomen ✓ Brings hands or objects to mouth ✓ Looks at hands ✓ Follows light, faces, objects ✓ Listens to sounds ✓ Opens and closes hands ✓ Holds, then drops a rattle or other object ✓ Active leg movements At the end of 3 months: ✓ Raises head and chest when placed on abdomen ✓ Beginning to reach hands to objects, may bat at hanging object with hands 3. Baby Development at 4-6 Months ✓ Weight: average gain of 1 to 1¼ pounds each month; by 4 to 5 months has doubled birthweight ✓ Height: average growth of ½ to 1 inch each month ✓ Head size: average growth of about ½ inch each month ✓ Grasp, Moro, root and tonic neck reflexes (reflexes normally present in young infants) disappear ✓ Balances head well ✓ Sits with support, back is rounded ✓ Begins to support body with legs when held in standing position ✓ Rolls from back to front and front to back by 6 months ✓ Moves object from one hand to other ✓ Grabs feet and toes when lying on back ✓ Makes “swimming” motions with arms and legs when placed on abdomen ✓ Begins drooling (not always a sign of teething) ✓ Naps two to three times a day, for one to three hours each (on average) ✓ Begins to sleep longer at night (six to eight hours consistently) ✓ Has full color vision, able to see at longer distances Field Study 1 MIDTERM Handout by Elsie M. Zabalo  4. 7-9 Month Old ✓ Weight: average gain of 0.5-1 pound each month; two times the birthweight by 4 to 5 months and three times the birthweight by 1 year ✓ Height: average growth of about ½ inch each month ✓ Head size: average growth of about ¼ inch each month ✓ Rolls over easily from front to back and back to front ✓ Sits leaning forward on hands at first, then unsupported ✓ Bounces when supported to stand ✓ Gets on hands and feet and rocks back and forth ✓ May creep, scoot, crawl – backward first, then forward (some babies skip crawling!) ✓ Begins to pull up to stand ✓ Reaches for and grasps objects using their whole hand ✓ Bangs toy on table ✓ Can hold an object in each hand ✓ May hold a bottle ✓ Plays peek-a-boo ✓ Grasps object with thumb and finger by 8 to 9 months ✓ Begins teething, usually starting with the two center front teeth in the lower jaw, then the two center front teeth in the upper jaw ✓ Learns to drink from cup ✓ Puts everything into mouth ✓ Naps are usually twice, sometimes three times a day, for one to two hours each (on average) ✓ May begin to awaken during the night and cry 5. 10 to 12 Month Baby ✓ Weight: average gain of about 13 ounces each month, birthweight is doubled at approximately 4 to 5 months and tripled at one year ✓ Height: average growth of just over 1/2 inch each month with most infants growing 10 inches in the first year. ✓ Head size: average growth of about 1/2 inch each month ✓ Pulls up to a standing position ✓ Can sit back down from standing position ✓ Cruises or walks around holding onto furniture ✓ May stand next to furniture without holding on ✓ May walk holding on to your finger or hand ✓ May begin to take steps and walk on own ✓ Plays ball by receiving and returning a rolled ball ✓ Able to pick up food and small objects with fingers ✓ Can feed self finger foods ✓ Drinks from cup with spout ✓ Can turn pages in a book, often several at a time ✓ Bangs objects together Field Study 1 MIDTERM Handout by Elsie M. Zabalo  ✓ Imitates scribble ✓ New teeth continue to erupt; may have four to six teeth by one year old ✓ Takes two naps a day and is able to sleep up to 12 hours at night without a feeding ✓ Make wake up at night looking for parents 6. Development at 1 Year ✓ Walks alone by 15 months, then begins to run ✓ Can stop, squat then stand again ✓ Sits down on small stool or chair ✓ Climbs stairs while holding on ✓ Dances with music ✓ Plays with push and pull toys ✓ Can build towers out of blocks ✓ Throws a ball overhand ✓ Puts two- to three-piece puzzles together ✓ Scribbles with crayon or pencil and may imitate drawing a straight line or circle ✓ Mostly feeds self with fingers ✓ Begins to feed self with spoon ✓ Drinks well from cup ✓ Can help with dressing and may be able to undress simple clothes (i.e., clothes without buttons or zippers) ✓ First molar (back) teeth appear ✓ Takes one afternoon nap ✓ May sleep 10 to 12 hours at night ✓ Imitates animal sounds and noises ✓ At one year, says four to six simple words ✓ At 18 months, says 10 to 15 words ✓ By 18 to 24 months, uses simple phrases or two-word sentences (i.e., “Mommy up”) ✓ By 2 years, says 100 or more words ✓ Asks “What is … ?” ✓ Uses negative phrases such as “No want” ✓ Waves bye-bye and plays pat-a-cake ✓ By 18 months understands one-step questions and commands such as “Where is the ball?” ✓ By 24 months understands two-step questions and commands such as “Go to your room and get your shoes.” ✓ Understands object permanence (a hidden object is still there) ✓ Understands the cause-and-effect relationship better ✓ Likes to explore drawers and boxes to see what is inside ✓ Make-believe play increases (i.e., may imitate housework or feed a doll) ✓ Recognizes own face in mirror Field Study 1 MIDTERM Handout by Elsie M. Zabalo  ✓ Can point to body parts (i.e., nose, hair, eyes) when asked ✓ Begins to understand use of certain objects (i.e., the broom is for sweeping the floor) ✓ May ask for parent’s help by pointing 7. 2-Year-Old ✓ Walks and runs well ✓ May jump awkwardly ✓ Begins to throw, kick and catch balls ✓ Can stand momentarily on one foot ✓ Climbs on playground structures ✓ Turns doorknobs and lids ✓ Begins to ride a tricycle ✓ Builds towers of 10 blocks by 3 years old ✓ All 20 teeth appear by 3 years old ✓ Appetite decreases greatly ✓ Has developed right- or left-handedness by 3 years old ✓ Turns pages in a book, one at a time ✓ Has good thumb and finger control ✓ Can drink through a straw ✓ Begins to have bladder and bowel control ✓ May still take one afternoon nap ✓ May sleep 10 to 12 hours at night ✓ Says about 200 to 300 words ✓ Begins to put three words together (subject, verb, object), for example “Me want ball” ✓ Names pictures ✓ May name some body parts ✓ Understands possession, “Mine” ✓ Can tell his or her own age and name ✓ Knows if he or she is a boy or girl ✓ Counts up to three objects ✓ May begin to problem solve ✓ Shows independence from parents ✓ Continues to play alongside others without interacting, called parallel play ✓ Acts as if other children are objects or toys ✓ Does not understand sharing ✓ Is negative and says “no” frequently ✓ Temper tantrums may continue ✓ Helps to get himself or herself dressed and undressed Field Study 1 MIDTERM Handout by Elsie M. Zabalo Periods of Development A child's growth and development can be divided into four periods: I. Infancy II. Preschooler development 1. The normal social and physical development of children ages 3 to 6 years old includes many milestones. All children develop a little differently. If you are concerned about your child's development, talk to your child's health care provider. A. PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT The typical 3- to 6-year-old: ✓ Gains about 4 to 5 pounds (1.8 to 2.25 kilograms) per year ✓ Grows about 2 to 3 inches (5 to 7.5 centimeters) per year Field Study 1 MIDTERM Handout by Elsie M. Zabalo  ✓ Has all 20 primary teeth by age 3 ✓ Has 20/20 vision by age 4 ✓ Sleeps 11 to 13 hours at night, most often without a daytime nap Gross motor development in the 3- to 6-year-old should include: ✓ Becoming more skilled at running, jumping, early throwing, and kicking ✓ Catching a bounced ball ✓ Pedaling a tricycle (at 3 years); becoming able to steer well at around age 4 ✓ Hopping on one foot (at around 4 years), and later balancing on one foot for up to 5 seconds ✓ Doing a heel-to-toe walk (at around age 5) ✓ Fine motor development milestones at about age 3 should include: ✓ Drawing a circle ✓ Drawing a person with 3 parts ✓ Beginning to use children's blunt-tip scissors ✓ Self-dressing (with supervision) Fine motor development milestones at about age 4 should include: ✓ Drawing a square ✓ Using scissors, and eventually cutting a straight line ✓ Putting on clothes properly ✓ Managing a spoon and fork neatly while eating Fine motor development milestones at about age 5 should include: ✓ Spreading with a knife ✓ Drawing a triangle B. LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT The 3-year-old uses: ✓ Pronouns and prepositions appropriately ✓ Three-word sentences ✓ Plural words The 4-year-old begins to: ✓ Understand size relationships ✓ Follow a 3-step command ✓ Count to 4 ✓ Name 4 colors ✓ Enjoy rhymes and word play The 5-year-old: ✓ Shows early understanding of time concepts ✓ Counts to 10 ✓ Knows telephone number ✓ Responds to "why" questions ✓ Stuttering may occur in the normal language development of toddlers ages 3 to 4 years. It occurs because ideas come to mind faster than the child is able to express them, especially if the child is stressed or excited. Field Study 1 MIDTERM Handout by Elsie M. Zabalo  ✓ When the child is speaking, give your full, prompt attention. Do not comment on the stuttering. Consider having the child evaluated by a speech pathologist if: ✓ There are other signs with the stuttering, such as tics, grimacing, or extreme self-consciousness. ✓ The stuttering lasts longer than 6 months. C. BEHAVIOR ✓ The preschooler learns the social skills needed to play and work with other children. As time passes, the child is better able to cooperate with a larger number of peers. Although 4- to 5-year-olds may be able to start playing games that have rules, the rules are likely to change, often at the whim of the dominant child.It is common in a small group of preschoolers to see a dominant child emerge who tends to boss around the other children without much resistance from them. ✓ It is normal for preschoolers to test their physical, behavioral, and emotional limits. Having a safe, structured environment in which to explore and face new challenges is important. However, preschoolers need well-defined limits. ✓ The child should display initiative, curiosity, the desire to explore, and enjoyment without feeling guilty or inhibited. ✓ Early morality develops as children want to please their parents and others of importance. This is commonly known as the "good boy" or "good girl" stage. ✓ Elaborate storytelling may progress into lying. If this is not addressed during the preschool years, this behavior may continue into the adult years. Mouthing off or backtalk is most often a way for preschoolers to get attention and a reaction from an adult. D. SAFETY. Safety is very important for preschoolers. ✓ Preschoolers are highly mobile and able to quickly get into dangerous situations. Parental supervision at this age is essential, just as it was during the earlier years. ✓ Car safety is critical. The preschooler should ALWAYS be securely fastened in an appropriate car seat when riding in the car. At this age children may ride with other children's parents. It is important to review your rules for car safety with others who may be supervising your child. ✓ Falls are a major cause of injury in preschoolers. Climbing to new and adventurous heights, preschoolers may fall off playground equipment, bikes, down stairs, from trees, out of windows, and off roofs. Lock doors that give access to dangerous areas (such as roofs, attic windows, and steep staircases). Have strict rules for the preschooler about areas that are off-limits. ✓ Kitchens are a prime area for a preschooler to get burned, either while trying to help cook or coming in contact with appliances that are still hot. Encourage the child to help cook or learn cooking skills with recipes for Field Study 1 MIDTERM Handout by Elsie M. Zabalo  cold foods. Have other activities for the child to enjoy in a nearby room while you are cooking. Keep the child away from the stove, hot foods, and other appliances. ✓ Keep all household products and medicines safely locked out of the reach of preschoolers. Know the number for your local poison control center. III. Middle childhood years A. Middle childhood brings many changes in a child’s life. By this time, children can dress themselves, catch a ball more easily using only their hands, and tie their shoes. Having independence from family becomes more important now. Events such as starting school bring children this age into regular contact with the larger world. Friendships become more and more important. B. Physical, social, and mental skills develop quickly at this time. This is a critical time for children to develop confidence in all areas of life, such as through friends, schoolwork, and sports. C. Emotional/Social Changes ✓ Show more independence from parents and family. ✓ Start to think about the future. ✓ Understand more about his or her place in the world. ✓ Pay more attention to friendships and teamwork. ✓ Want to be liked and accepted by friends. ✓ Thinking and Learning ✓ Children in this age group might: D. Show rapid development of mental skills. ✓ Learn better ways to describe experiences and talk about thoughts and feelings. ✓ Have less focus on one’s self and more concern for others. IV. Adolescence A. This is a time of changes for how teenagers think, feel, and interact with others, and how their bodies grow. Most girls will be physically mature by now, and most will have completed puberty. Boys might still be maturing physically during this time. Your teen might have concerns about her body size, shape, or weight. Eating disorders also can be common, especially among girls. B. During this time, your teen is developing his unique personality and opinions. Relationships with friends are still important, yet your teen will have other interests as he develops a more clear sense of who he is. C. This is also an important time to prepare for more independence and responsibility; many teenagers start working, and many will be leaving home soon after high school. D. Emotional/Social Changes ✓ Have more interest in romantic relationships and sexuality. ✓ Go through less conflict with parents. ✓ Show more independence from parents. ✓ Have a deeper capacity for caring and sharing and for developing more intimate relationships. Field Study 1 MIDTERM Handout by Elsie M. Zabalo  ✓ Spend less time with parents and more time with friends. ✓ Feel a lot of sadness or depression, which can lead to poor grades at school, alcohol or drug use, unsafe sex, and other problems. E. Thinking and Learning ✓ Learn more defined work habits. ✓ Show more concern about future school and work plans. ✓ Be better able to give reasons for their own choices, including about what is right or wrong. Developmental Tasks and Education 1. Developmental Tasks: the broad “jobs” of childhood that need to be accomplished in each stage in order for children to learn life skills at the appropriate times. 2. Developmental tasks arise from three different sources (Havighurst, 1948, 1953). 3. Three sources of developmental tasks (Havighurst, 1972) ✓ First, some tasks are mainly based on physical maturation example, learning to walk, talk, and behave acceptably with the opposite sex during adolescence; adjusting to menopause during middle age. ✓ Another source of developmental tasks involves personal values and aspirations. These personal factors result from the interaction between ontogenetic and environmental factors, and play an active role in the emergence of specific developmental tasks (example, choosing a certain occupational pathway). ✓ The third source of developmental tasks relates to socio-structural and cultural forces. Such influences are based on, for instance, laws (example, minimum age for marriage) and culturally shared expectations of development 4. Havighurst overview of developmental tasks: Field Study 1 MIDTERM Handout by Elsie M. Zabalo  A. Infancy and Early Childhood: 1. Learning to walk. 2. Learning to take solid foods 3. Learning to talk 4. Learning to control the elimination of body wastes 5. Learning sex differences and sexual modesty 6. Forming concepts and learning language to describe social and physical reality. 7. Getting ready to read B. Middle Childhood: 1. Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games. 2. Building wholesome attitudes toward oneself as a growing organism 3. Learning to get along with age-mates 4. Learning an appropriate masculine or feminine social role 5. Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing, and calculating 6. Developing concepts necessary for everyday living. 7. Developing conscience, morality, and a scale of values 8. Achieving personal independence 9. Developing attitudes toward social groups and institutions C. Developmental Tasks of Adolescence: 1. Achieving new and more mature relations with age-mates of both sexes 2. Achieving a masculine or feminine social role 3. Accepting one's physique and using the body effectively 4. Achieving emotional independence of parents and other adults 5. Preparing for marriage and family life Preparing for an economic career 6. Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behavior; developing an ideology 7. Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior D. Early Adulthood(19-30) 1. Selecting a mate 2. Learning to live 3. with a partner 4. Starting a family 5. 4) Rearing children 6. Managing a home 7. Starting an occupation 8. Assuming civic responsibility E. Middle Adulthood(30-60) 1. Helping teenage children to become happy and responsible adults 2. Achieving adult social and civic responsibility 3. Satisfactory career achievement 4. Developing adult leisure time activities 5. Relating to one's spouse as a person Field Study 1 MIDTERM Handout by Elsie M. Zabalo  6. Accepting the physiological changes of middle age 7. Adjusting to aging parent F. Later Maturity (60 and above) 1. Adjusting to decreasing strength and health 2. Adjusting to retirement and reduced income 3. Adjusting to death of spouse 4. Establishing relations with one's own age group 5. Meeting social and civic obligations 6. Establishing satisfactory living quarters Domains of Development A. Physical domain-refers to elements related to gross motor, fine motor and bilateral coordination including spatial awareness, also includes body image, health and nutrition 1. movement around indoor and outdoor environments 2. hand–eye coordination 3. handedness clarification and consolidation 4. muscle strength in hands, fingers and wrists 5. left–right coordination in walking, skipping, marching, climbing, etc. 6. pincer, palmer and mature tripod grips 7. upper body coordination B. Language domain- refers to elements of expression and articulation in communication 1. clarity of articulation 2. grammar 3. vocabulary 4. speech 5. volume of voice 6. intonation 7. expression through language 8. oral language experiences C. Cognitive domain- refers to a range of elements related to thinking and making sense of the world 1. creative thinking 2. perspective taking 3. lateral thinking 4. reflective thinking 5. problem solving 6. risk taking 7. planning 8. predicting 9. investigating 10. processing information Field Study 1 MIDTERM Handout by Elsie M. Zabalo  11. deductive thinking 12. reasoning 13. cause and effect 14. questioning 15. relationships between 16. factors 17. concepts of time 18. positional language D. Social domain- refers to a range of elements of maturity centred around the individual in relation to others relates objectives within general stage of development expectations 1. awareness of others 2. acceptance of diversity 3. interest in others 4. relationship development 5. initiating peer interaction parallel, associative, collaborative and cooperative interactions 6. expressing thoughts and opinions with others 7. working alongside others 8. expressing needs to others 9. sharing views and opinions with others 10. recognising importance of interactions with others 11. developing empathy for others 12. developing respect for others 13. ability to share space, resources and people with 14. others as appropriate E. Emotional domain- refers to a range of elements of maturity centred around the individual relates intentions within general stages of development expectations 1. self-expression 2. expression of needs and/or wants 3. ability to describe or explain feelings or frustrations 4. assertion 5. speaking on behalf of oneself 6. recognising needs 7. verbalising opinions 8. ability to question 9. ability to reflect on self, 10. strengths and challenges 11. self-concept 12. self-esteem 13. self-competence 14. resilience 15. attachment, relationship 16. maintenance and sustenance 17. sense of identity Field Study 1 MIDTERM Handout by Elsie M. Zabalo  18. trust 19. autonomy 20. independence and 21. interdependence 22. sense of initiative and 23. industry 24. decision making Context and Development A. People are best understood in context. B. What is meant by the word “context”? It means that we are influenced by when and where we live and our actions, beliefs, and values are a response to circumstances surrounding us. C. Sternberg describes a type of intelligence known as “contextual” intelligence as the ability to understand what is called for in a situation (Sternberg, 1996). D. The key here is to understand that behaviors, motivations, emotions, and choices are all part of a bigger picture. Our concerns are such because of who we are socially, where we live, and when we live; they are part of a social climate and set of realities that surround us. E. Our social locations include cohort, social class, gender, ethnicity, and age. 1. One important context that is sometimes mistaken for age is the cohort effect. A cohort is a group of people who are born at roughly the same period in a particular society. Cohorts share histories and contexts for living. Members of a cohort have experienced the same historic events and cultural climates which have an impact on the values, priorities, and goals that may guide their lives. 2. Another context that influences our lives is our social standing, socioeconomic status, or social class. Socioeconomic status is a way to identify families and households based on their shared levels of education, income, and occupation. While there is certainly individual variation, members of a social class tend to share similar lifestyles, patterns of consumption, parenting/caregiver styles, stressors, and other aspects of daily life. We are generally born into a class system or are socially located and may move up or down depending on socially and/or individually created limits and opportunities. 3. Culture is often referred to as a blueprint or guideline shared by a group of people that specifies how to live. It includes ideas about what is "right and wrong", what to strive for, what to eat, how to speak, what is valued, as well as what kinds of emotions are called for in certain situations. Culture teaches us how to live in a society and allows us to advance because each new generation can benefit from the solutions found and passed down from previous generations. We tend to believe that our own culture’s practices and expectations are the "right" ones. (This belief that one's own culture is superior to others is called ethnocentrism and is a typical by-product of growing up in a culture. It becomes a roadblock, however, when it inhibits understanding of Field Study 1 MIDTERM Handout by Elsie M. Zabalo  cultural practices from other societies.) Cultural relativity is an appreciation for cultural differences and the understanding that cultural practices are best understood from the standpoint of that particular culture. Physical and Motor Development Physical development refers to biological changes that children undergo as they age. 1. Growth. Although children grow very rapidly over the first two years, growth slows during early childhood. 2. From ages 2 through 6, the average child grows 2 to 3 inches taller and gains nearly 5 pounds in weight each year. The average 6-year-old child weighs about 45 pounds and is about 46 inches tall. 3. Genetics plays a role in physical development (Han-Na et al., 2010). Children’s height and rate of growth is closely related to that of their parents’ (Malina & Bouchard,1991). Genes influence the rate of growth by stipulating the amount of hormones to be released. Hormones are chemicals that are produced and secreted into the bloodstream by glands. Hormones influence cells and are a way in which genetic instructions are transformed into physical development. Growth hormone is secreted from birth and influences growth of nearly all parts of the body. Children with growth hormone deficiencies show slowed growth (Mayer et al., 2010), but growth hormone supplements can stimulate growth when needed (Hardin, Kemp, & Allen, 2007). 4. Nutrition. From ages 2 to 6, young children’s appetites tend to decline as compared with infants and toddlers. This decline is normal and occurs as growth slows. At around age 3, it is not uncommon for children to go through a fussy eating phase where previously Field Study 1 MIDTERM Handout by Elsie M. Zabalo  tolerated food is no longer accepted and it is hard to introduce new food (Fildes et al.,2014; Nicklaus, 2009) 5. Motor Development. The refinement of motor skills that use the large muscles of the body—as well as those that tap hand-eye coordination and require subtle movements— is an important developmental task of early childhood. A. Gross Motor Skills. Between the ages of 3 and 6, children make great advances in gross motor skills— those that use the large muscles—such as running and jumping. They become physically stronger, with increases in bone and muscle strength as well as lung capacity. Children make gains in coordination as the parts of the brain responsible for sensory and motor skills develop. Now they can play harder and engage in more complicated play activities that include running, jumping, and climbing. B. Fine Motor Skills. Fine motor skills like the ability to button a shirt, pour milk into a glass, put puzzles together, and draw pictures involve eye–hand and small muscle coordination. Gross and Fine Motor Skill Development in Early Childhood AGE GROSS MOTOR SKILL FINE MOTOR SKILL 2–3 years Walks more smoothly, runs but cannot turn or Unzips large zippers, puts on stop suddenly, jumps, throws a ball with a and removes some clothing, rigid body an catches by trapping ball against uses a spoon chest, rides push toys using feet 3–4 years Runs, ascends stairs alternating feet, jumps Serves food, can work large 15 to 24 inches, hops, pedals and steers a buttons, copies vertical line tricycle and circle, uses scissors 4–5 years Runs more smoothly with control over Uses scissors to cut along a stopping and turning, descends stairs line, uses fork effectively, alternating feet, jumps 24 to 33 inches, skips, copies simple shapes and throws ball by rotating the body and some letters transferring weight to one foot, catches ball with hands, rides tricycle and steers effectively 5–6 years Runs more quickly, skips more effectively, Ties shoes, uses knife to cut throws and catches a ball like older children, soft food, copies numbers makes a running jump of 28 to 36 inches, and simple words rides bicycle with training wheels. Characteristics of Learners Each learner is unique, and brings to the learning situation his or her own different learning style, knowledge set, pool of past experiences, and motivation. In learner-centered instruction, it is important for instructors to consider the level of knowledge and skill development attained by the learners prior to instruction (Dick, Carey, & Carey, 2004). Field Study 1 MIDTERM Handout by Elsie M. Zabalo Learners' needs can be classified into different domains of learning and these needs are never one-dimensional. The three domains that there is general agreement about are: ▪ the cognitive (thinking), ▪ the affective (social/emotional/feeling), and ▪ the psychomotor (physical/kinesthetic) domain Learning Theories Five widely accepted theories of learning 1. Behaviorism: Behaviorism is based largely on the work of John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner. Behaviorists were concerned with establishing psychology as a science and focused their studies on behaviors that could be empirically observed, such as actions that could be measured and tested, rather than on internal states such as emotions (McLeod, 2015). John Watson is often regarded as the father of behavioral psychology. According to the theory of behaviorism, learning occurs by linking stimuli and responses. Knowledge is independent, and it becomes cemented by way of punishments and rewards. These ideas of positive and negative reinforcement, which may be natural consequences or implemented by another, are effective tools for learning and behavior modification. Behaviorism focuses on observed actions, the conditions under which they are performed, and the reinforcement of desired behaviors. A change in performance is evident after the learning process, and the outcome is measured in terms of being able to demonstrate a specific new behavior. Learning is based on a system of routines that “drill” information into a student’s memory bank and elicit positive feedback from teachers and the educational institution itself. (Students who do an excellent job receive positive reinforcement and are signaled out for recognition.) Most teachers who use behaviorist principles focus on delivering prompt feedback to encourage student learning. They also implement reward systems that reinforce good behavior. Finally, many teachers establish consistency by starting their classes with routine activities, like problems on the board. Field Study 1 MIDTERM Handout by Elsie M. Zabalo  2. Cognitivism: Cognitivism, or cognitive psychology, was pioneered in the mid-twentieth century by scientists including George Miller, Ulric Neisser, and Noam Chomsky. Whereas behaviorists focus on the external environment and observable behavior, cognitive psychologists are interested in mental processes (Codington-Lacerte, 2018). They assert that behavior and learning entail more than just response to environmental stimuli and require rational thought and active participation in the learning process (Clark, 2018). To cognitivists, learning can be described as “acquiring knowledge and skills and having them readily available from memory so you can make sense of future problems and opportunities” (Brown et al., 2014, p. 2). Cognitive learning theory — or cognitivism — stems from the work of Jean Piaget (the founder of cognitive psychology) and focuses on the internal processes surrounding information and memory. Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development Stage Age Range Behaviors and Abilities React to environment with inherent Birth to 18- reflexes such as sucking, swallowing, Sensorimotor 24 months and crying Begin to develop language Start basic problem-solving through 18-24 trial and error Preoperational months to 7 Engage in imaginative play but years generally cannot understand perspectives other than their own Develop logical thinking Understand that appearance is not Concrete 7 to 12 always reality operational years Develop ability to understand other’s perspectives Engage in abstract thinking Formal 12 years Use deductive reasoning operational and up Think through consequences Field Study 1 MIDTERM Handout by Elsie M. Zabalo  This theory of learning states that learning occurs through the processing of information internally rather than merely responding to an external stimulus. Learning is a result of processing and reorganizing information within a matrix of previously acquired information. Cognitivism places the focus on the individual's thought processes and has the teacher emphasize reflecting on experiences with metacognition, thinking about their thinking. The behavioral change seen here is a result of learning which occurs after the inner workings of thinking based on the new information or knowledge received. The learning process encompasses both acquisition and reorganization of cognitive entities. Teachers who engage in cognitive learning might ask students about their experiences with the lesson and emphasize connections between past ideas and new ones. Incorporating student experiences, perspectives and knowledge can foster engagement with the material and help students feel respected. Vygotsky, on the other hand, describes a model that focuses more on the content being mastered rather than the age of the student. According to Vygotsky’s theory, known as Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), as learners acquire new knowledge or develop new skills, they pass through three stages, often illustrated as concentric circles, as in Figure 3.2. The center circle, or first zone, represents tasks that the learner can do on their own. The second zone, or the Zone of Proximal Development, represents an area of knowledge or set of tasks that the learner can accomplish with assistance. The tasks and knowledge in this zone require students to stretch their abilities somewhat beyond their current skill level but are not so challenging as to be completely frustrating. The outermost circle, or third zone, represents tasks that the learner cannot yet do. Vygotsky posits that by working within the ZPD, learners can continue to grow their skills and abilities and increase their knowledge (Flair, 2019). Field Study 1 MIDTERM Handout by Elsie M. Zabalo  The Zone of Proximal Development The Zone of Proximal Development is illustrated as three concentric circles. The innermost circle represents things learners can do on their own, and the outermost circle represents things the learner cannot yet do. The middle circle is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which represents things learners can do with assistance. Gagné (1985) proposed nine conditions for learning, referred to as the external conditions of learning, or the nine events of instruction: A. Gain attention. Engage students’ attention by tying learning to relevant events in their lives and asking stimulating questions. B. Inform the learner of the objective. Begin by sharing the learning goals with the students, thus setting expectations and providing a map of the learning. C. Stimulate recall of prior learning. Encourage students to remember previously learned relevant skills and knowledge before introducing new information. D. Present the stimulus. Share new information. This step depends on the content of the lesson. For instance, a lesson on Boolean operators might begin with a Venn diagram and examples of the uses of and, or, and not. E. Provide learner guidance. Facilitate learning by demonstration and explanation. F. Elicit performance. Allow time for students to practice skills and demonstrate their abilities. Ideally, students would be given low-stakes opportunities for practice, so they feel comfortable if they do not succeed immediately. G. Provide feedback. Offer students input on what they are doing well and where they can improve. H. Assess performance. Employ measures such as assignments, activities, and projects to gauge whether learning has occurred. Field Study 1 MIDTERM Handout by Elsie M. Zabalo  I. Enhance retention and transfer. Give students opportunities to practice skills in new contexts, which improves retention and helps students see how the skills are applied to different areas. Andragogy Knowles proposed andragogy as “the art and science of helping adults learn” (1988, p. 43). Andragogy is based on a set of assumptions about the ways in which adult learners’ experience, motivations, and needs differ from those of younger students, and suggests that traditional classroom approaches developed with younger students in mind will not necessarily be successful with adult learners. Knowles (1988, p. 45) organized his approach around four assumptions of adult learners: A. Their self-concept moves from one of being a dependent personality toward a self-directed human being. B. They accumulate a growing reservoir of experience that becomes an increasingly rich resource for learning. C. Their readiness to learn becomes oriented increasingly to the developmental tasks of their social roles. D. Their time perspective changes from one of postponed application of knowledge to immediacy of application, and, accordingly, their orientation toward learning shifts from one of subject-centeredness to one of performance-centeredness. Later, he elaborated with two additional assumptions, summed up by Merriam et al. (2007): E. The most potent motivations are internal rather than external. F. Adults need to know why they need to learn something. Steps to set an appropriate environment for adult education (Bartle, 2019): A. Set a cooperative learning climate. B. Create mechanisms for input. C. Arrange for a diagnosis of learner needs and interests. D. Enable the formulation of learning objectives based on the diagnosed needs and interests. E. Design sequential activities for achieving the objectives. F. Execute the design by selecting methods, materials, and resources. G. Evaluate the quality of the learning experience while rediagnosing needs for further learning. 3. Constructivism: Field Study 1 MIDTERM Handout by Elsie M. Zabalo  It is based on the premise that individuals learn by constructing new ideas, and an understanding of the world is based on prior knowledge and experiences. Knowledge is built by adapting new information through the lens of previous experience. Constructivism focuses on the internal thinking of an individual, like cognitivism, but makes no assumptions on how concepts will be manipulated or what links will be made. Since the basis of learning is placed on making connections and creating ideas from prior knowledge, these mental representations are very subjective, and each individual will have a unique construction of knowledge. In constructivism, Roggeman says, students take an active approach to learning. Rather than being “filled up” with knowledge, they construct meaning by interacting with the world around them, as with experiments or studies. Some of the best ways teachers can use constructivism in the classroom include promoting student autonomy by encouraging students to be active in their learning. Hands-on experimentation with interactive materials can also empower them to learn better, especially in science classes, because it can promote engagement and connectiveness in student learning. Open-ended questions are another tool for constructivist learning, since they can help foster classroom conversation and dialogue, which encourages students to think critically and form questions and solutions in real time. 4. Connectivism: This newer educational learning theory is grounded in the notion that learning is through the formation of connections between each other as well as their roles, hobbies, and other aspects of life. Therefore learning is the ability to traverse and construct these networks. Connectivism builds on the ideas of cognitivism, but in this theory, learning does not reside only within an individual, but rather also within and across a network of individuals. A "community of practice" has connectivism as its theoretical underpinning. Knowledge can reside outside the individual, but learning focuses on organizing and locating specialized information that may be decentralized from an individual. In the classroom, students are likely to learn good digital literacy habits to help navigate online resources to answer their questions. They may also use digital tools to collaborate. 5. Humanism: Humanism recognizes the basic dignity and worth of each individual and believes people should be able to exercise some control over their environment. Although humanism as an educational philosophy has its roots in the Italian Renaissance, the more modern theorists associated with this approach include John Dewey, Carl Rogers, Field Study 1 MIDTERM Handout by Elsie M. Zabalo  Maria Montessori, Paolo Freire, and Abraham Maslow. Humanist learning theory is a whole-person approach to education that centers on the individual learners and their needs, and that considers affective as well as cognitive aspects of learning. This theory is closely related to constructivism and adult learning theory, and states that learning is a natural desire with the ultimate goal of achieving self- actualization. Individuals function under needs that begin from those basic physiological needs of survival and culminate at self-actualization, which rests at the pinnacle of this hierarchy. All humans strive for self-actualization, which refers to a state wherein one feels that all their emotional, physical, and cognitive needs have been fulfilled. Humanistic learning theory emphasizes the freedom and autonomy of learners. It connects the ability to learn with the fulfillment of other needs (building on Maslow's hierarchy) and the perceived utility of the knowledge by the learner. At its essence, “humanism in education traditionally has referred to a broad, diffuse outlook emphasizing human freedom, dignity, autonomy, and individualism” (Lucas, 1996). Within this broader context, humanism is also characterized by the following tenets (Madsen & Wilson, 2012; Sharp, 2012): 1. Students are whole people, and learning must attend to their emotional as well as their cognitive state. 2. Teachers should be empathetic. 3. Learners are self-directed and internally motivated. 4. The outcome of learning is self-actualization. With the understanding that people are inherently good, humanism focuses on creating an environment conducive to self-actualization. In doing so, learners’ needs are met and learners themselves are then free to determine their own goals while the teacher assists them in meeting those learning goals. In the classroom, a humanistic approach might look like a teacher providing students with choices about what to study in order to promote autonomy and intrinsic motivation. It also emphasizes positive teacher-student relationships, making it important for teachers to form connections with each student. Humanistic educators might use discussions, group work and self-evaluation to encourage critical thinking and this sort of connection. Other types of learning theories in education ▪ Transformative learning theory: One of the most prominent adult learning theories, transformative learning theory posits that new information can essentially change our worldviews when our life experience and knowledge are paired with critical reflection. Field Study 1 MIDTERM Handout by Elsie M. Zabalo  ▪ Social learning theory: This theory incorporates some of the tacit tenets of peer pressure. Specifically, students observe other students and model their behavior accordingly. Sometimes it’s to emulate peers; other times it’s to distinguish themselves from peers. Harnessing the power of social learning theory involves getting students’ attention, focusing on how students can retain information, identifying when it’s appropriate to reproduce a previous behavior, and determining students’ motivation. ▪ Experiential learning theory: There are plenty of clichés and parables about teaching someone something by doing it, although it wasn’t until the early 1980s that it became an official learning theory. This approach emphasizes learning about and experiencing something so that students can apply knowledge in real-world situations. Classroom Management Classroom management practices capture the variety of strategies teachers use on a daily basis to build a positive classroom environment that is structured, engaging, and productive, and encourages student learning and growth. These practices include establishing expectations, monitoring student behavior, and anticipating and reacting to student needs (Pas, Cash, O'Brennan, Debnam, & Bradshaw, 2015). Effective classroom management techniques have been associated with student achievement, productivity and accuracy in student work, decreases in off-task and disruptive behavior, higher levels of classroom engagement and attention, and more prosocial behavior and positive peer relationships among students (Simonsen, Fairbanks, Briesch, Myers, & Sugai, 2008). Effective classroom management and students' learning Research on effective teaching shows clearly that the actual time students spend learning and working on meaningful tasks is one of the key predictors of their learning gains (Walberg & Paik, 2000). Trivial as this may sound, in regular classrooms, lesson time is not always allocated solely to learning activities. Frequently, the available time is also spent on other, non-curricular activities, on organizational matters, or on dealing with disciplinary problems and other interruptions. Effective classroom management and students' motivation While there is empirical evidence for the benefits of effective classroom management as regards students' achievement, there is surprisingly little research on how classroom management influences other educational objectives. Researchers interested in various educational outcomes sometimes point out that, although classroom management strategies are beneficial to students' cognitive development, they may be detrimental to motivational development (McCaslin & Good, 1992). The role of students' experience of the learning environment Taken together, the possible effects of classroom management strategies on students' interest seem diverse. If implemented in a controlling way, these strategies leave little room for the experience of autonomy, and can be expected to undermine the development of interest. Field Study 1 MIDTERM Handout by Elsie M. Zabalo Teachers who engage in effective classroom management practices utilize a range of strategies to increase appropriate behavior and decrease inappropriate behavior which vary based on the complexity and severity of the behavior (Rusby, Crowley, Sprague, & Biglan, 2011; Simonsen et al., 2008). Such strategies include 1. maximizing structure, 2. establishing and reinforcing expectations, 3. engaging students, and 4. acknowledging appropriate and responding to inappropriate behaviors (Colvin, Flannery, Sugai, & Monegan, 2009; Emmer & Stough, 2001; Garwood, Harris, & Tomick, 2017; Moore Partin, Robertson, Maggin, Oliver, & Wehby, 2010). Although classroom management strategies differ from pedagogical techniques, classroom management and academic instruction are inherently linked. Effective instructional strategies facilitate classroom engagement and desirable student behavior; the need for reactive classroom management is reduced as instructional quality increases (Gay, 2006). Classroom management does not only include discouraging behavioral disruptions, but also preparing and facilitating active learning experiences that are engaging, comfortable, and inclusive for a wide variety of students (Gay, 2006). The importance of effective classroom management for mitigating behavioral problems in the classroom has been well established (Simonsen et al., 2008). Numerous experimental studies have demonstrated that interventions designed to improve teachers' use of effective classroom management practices have led to improvement in student behavior (see Korpershoek, Harms, de Boer, van Kuijk, & Doolaard, 2016 for a meta- analytic review). Culturally responsive classroom management focuses on: 1. how teachers establish and enforce expectations in an equitable manner, 2. communicate with students in culturally consistent ways, 3. accommodate and incorporate students' cultural and familial backgrounds, and 4. encourage engagement and participation through building close, caring, and personal relationships (Bal, 2018; Brown, 2004; Vincent et al., 2011; Weinstein et al., 2004; Weinstein, Curran, & Tomlinson-Clarke, 2003). Evidence-Based Classroom Management Strategies 1. Physical layout. Arrangement facilitates typical instructional activities, orderly, arranged for safe teacher and student movement. 2. Expectations. Teacher broadly describes and explicitly teaches how students should behave. Field Study 1 MIDTERM Handout by Elsie M. Zabalo  3. Routines. Teacher outlines and teaches steps for completing needed classroom procedures. 4. Behavior. Specific praise Teacher delivered verbal statement that explicitly identifies and affirms a student behavior. 5. Active supervision. Teacher monitors classroom by moving, scanning, and interacting frequently with students. 6. Opportunities to respond Teacher solicits student response with high frequency and using a variety of strategies (individual, group, written, or verbal, etc.) 7. Reminders about behavior. Before a behavior is expected, teacher makes a statement reminding students what to do. 8. Consistent responding. Teacher adheres to classroom expectations and routines and provides consistent error correction and additional instruction/ re-teaching when problem behavior does occur. Guskey’s logic model of teacher change (Guskey, 2002). This cyclical approach to improvement could be applied easily to enhance in-service or pre-service teacher behavior management practices. For example, teacher learning teams use student discipline data to identify areas or skills of greatest need. Teachers select evidence-based practices that have been documented to address the challenge, and then receive professional development and ongoing technical assistance about that practice. Professional development activities are tailored to teacher preferences but may include didactic training, role-plays, or online modules. Following the targeted professional development, teachers implement the practice within their own classrooms for a designated period of time, and subsequently reconvene in school teams to review student performance data (e.g., discipline incidents or teacher anecdotal notes about behavior). If behavioral improvements were evident, the practice that “worked” is then retained and repeated. If improvements are not noted, a series of steps as outlined above should be followed including insuring the practice was implemented with fidelity or creating adaptations that better match student need. Implementation of the effective practice, coupled with improved student outcomes, results in a change in teacher beliefs and attitudes about evidence-based classroom management strategies increasing the likelihood they will maintain the practice and be more open to the team-based problem-solving process. Field Study 1 MIDTERM Handout by Elsie M. Zabalo Classroom Management Techniques The Five R’s 5 rsPromoting a positive learning environment can be constructed around relationships, rights, rules, routines and responsibilities: the 5 R’s. 1. Relationships underpin a child’s behaviour (good or bad) at school and in the classroom, and therefore a child’s relationship with themselves, others and the curriculum play a pivotal role in their attitude towards their learning. 2. Responsibilities and rights are inextricably linked. Both concern both pupils and teacher and are the basis of a sound relationship. A teacher’s responsibilities are to: enable all pupils to learn, to seek out and celebrate improvements in learning, to treat pupils with respect and to create a positive classroom environment in which pupils feel safe and able to learn, whereas a child’s responsibilities in school are to: be willing to learn, to allow others to learn, to cooperate with teachers, other staff and peers and to do their best at all times (Trafford School). 3. A teacher’s rights are to: be able to teach without hindrance, to feel safe, to be supported by colleagues,to be listened to, and a pupils’ rights are to: be treated with respect, to be safe, to learn and to be listened to (Trafford School). These rights and responsibilities are inseparable as if a child enjoys their rights, they must understand that it is their responsibility to protect these (Hook, 2000). 4. A school’s and teacher’s rules establish the framework which enable everyone to work with their rights and responsibilities. It is suggested that rules be few in number (particularly for Key Stage One) and phrased in a positive way which is clear and easily understood (Hook, 2000). 5. The last ‘R’ is routine. Clear routines are essential to the smooth running of a classroom and the school day. A routine handles both daily occurrences (taking attendance, organisation of subjects) and minor interruptions (needing a drink, note from school office). Having a consistent routine serves to simplify a complex environmentand gives students the knowledge of what to expect, what is expected of them at any given time in the day, and what is acceptable behaviour (Burden, 2003). 3 Cs for a Well-Managed Classroom 1. Connection When we’re connected with our students, two things happen: they want to behave better and when they don’t, it’s easier to manage their behavior. This isn’t a surprise; however, there’s a lot more to using connection as a classroom management technique than just building relationships with students. The teachers who are most effective at using connection are deliberate in connecting with all stakeholders: parents, deans, athletic coaches, administrators, co-curricular sponsors, counselors, and other teachers. The old adage “it takes a village” rings true when thinking about classroom management. 2. Consistency. teachers need to be consistent when managing behavior; however, the depths to which this is true extend way beyond the obvious. When we think about Field Study 1 MIDTERM Handout by Elsie M. Zabalo  consistency with classroom management, for the most part, we gravitate toward thinking about being consistent when handing out consequences, and of course, that’s very important. But the consistency can’t stop there; we must also be sure to be consistent in other ways. We must be deliberate with factors like the tone of our voice to each student, how much time we spend building connections with each student, and more. 3. Compassion. If consistency is the most difficult of the Cs, compassion is the most important. When our students are at their “worst” we must be at our best — teaching and coaching even more. What is the ABC Model of Behaviour? The ABC model of behaviour is an approach to tracking and understanding the behaviour of children in the classroom. By tracking antecedents (A), behaviours (B) and consequences (C), the ABC model of behaviour can be used by teachers to improve their understanding of what triggers certain behaviours, and to develop effective responses and support plans. The Antecedent-Behaviour-Consequence (ABC) Model of behaviour helps to study behaviours which may present as challenging. This approach can assist teachers, carers and parents in understanding what children are trying to express, such as tiredness or frustration, and assess whether strategies such as use of a calm corner or provision of sensory items are proving effective. Models of Classroom Management There are several models that have been developed over the years. Allen (1996) in his research “Seven Models of Discipline” summarizes seven systematic models of classroom management borrowing from Charles’ book Building Classroom Discipline: From Models to Practice (1985). These models were a derivative of extensive classroom observations studying the student- teacher behavior in addition to considering the psychological aspects of humans (Allen, 1996, p. 1). They are: 1. The Kounin Model: Withitness, Alerting and Group Management. 2. The Neo-Skinnerian Model: Shaping Desired Behavior. 3. The Ginott Model: Addressing the Situation with Sane Messages. 4. The Glasser Model: Good Behavior comes from Good Choices. 5. The Dreikurs Model: Confronting Mistaken Goals. 6. The Canter Model: Assertively taking charge 7. The Jones Model: Body language, Incentive Systems, and providing Efficient help. (see Allen, 1996, p. 2-9 for detailed description of each model) The Kounin Model: Withitness, Alerting and Group Management. Kounin's model focuses on preventive discipline -- techniques and strategies designed to prevent the occurrence of discipline problems in the first place. According to Kounin, good classroom management depends on effective lesson management. Kounin's key ideas include Field Study 1 MIDTERM Handout by Elsie M. Zabalo the "ripple effect," "withitness," "overlapping," effective transitions, class management, and satiation. Ripple Effect. The "ripple effect" occurs when the teacher corrects a misbehavior in one student, and this positively influences the behavior of other nearby students. The ripple effect is influenced by the clarity and firmness of the correction. The effect is greater when the teacher clearly names the unacceptable behavior and gives the reasons for the desist. Firmness, that is, conveying an "I mean it" attitude, enhances the ripple effect. The ripple effect is greatest at the beginning of the year and diminishes as the year progresses. At the high school level, Kounin found that respect for the teacher along with high motivation to learn leads to the greatest student involvement and minimum misbehavior by students. Withitness. "Withitness" is a term created by Kounin to describe the teacher's awareness of what is going on in all parts of the classroom at all times. We commonly refer to this as "having eyes in the back of the head." To be effective, the students must perceive that the teacher really knows what is going on in the gymnasium. If students are off-task and fooling around, the teacher needs to send a clear message that communicates to the students that the teacher sees that they are not working and they need to get started. Withitness can be improved with practice, such as learning how to effectively use systematic techniques to scan the class. Keeping your "back to the wall" as you move throughout the class helps you see the broader picture and be more aware of what is going on. The effectiveness of withitness is increased when the teacher can correctly identify the student who is the instigator of the incident. Teachers who target the wrong student for a desist or a reprimand are perceived by the students are not knowing what is really going on (i.e., not "withit"). When several incidences of misbehavior occur at the same time, it is important that teachers deal with the most serious incidence first. Timing is another aspect of withitness. Teachers should intervene early and quickly in dealing with misbehavior. Failure to do so allows the misbehavior to spread. Overlapping. Overlapping is attending to two or more events at the same time. For example, the teacher can give a student individual feedback at one station and, at the same time, offer a quick word of encouragement to students who are working at another station. Or, a teacher can deal effectively with an interruption while keeping an eye on the happenings across the gym. Kounin found that teachers who are skilled at overlapping also were also more aware of what is going on in the classroom or demonstrated withitness. Students are more likely to stay on-task if they know that the teacher is aware of what they are doing and can help them when needed. Transitions. Student behavior is influenced by the smoothness and effectiveness of transitions between tasks in a lesson. Failure to gain the students attention, unclear and confusing directions, using lengthy explanations, dwelling too much on the details rather than focusing on key points, and allowing students to take too much time moving from one task to the next contribute to student misbehavior. Well-established routines, a consistent signal for gaining the class attention, clear directions, preparing students to shift their attention from one task to another, and concise explanations that highlight the main points of the task help reduce student misbehavior. Kounin found that smooth and effective transitions are one of the most important techniques in maintaining student involvement and class control. Group Focus. The ability to keep members of the class or group paying attention to the task is essential in maintaining an efficient classroom and reducing student misbehavior. Effective grouping maximizes active participation and keeps students engaged in learning. Accountability Field Study 1 MIDTERM Handout by Elsie M. Zabalo is a powerful force in keeping students on-task. Accountability measures can include record- keeping -- both teacher - and student-maintained (checklists, task cards, etc.), public recognition, skill testing, and written work. When students know that they will be held accountable for their learning and behavior and teachers know how each student is progressing, student misbehavior decreases. Another important technique is alerting -- focusing the attention of the group. Directing students attention to the critical cues in the demonstration, using questions to check for students understanding, and varying the student who is called upon to give an answer are some ways to focus the class attention. Student involvement is increased and misbehavior reduced when teachers hold the attention of the class. Maintaining Interest and Involvement. Satiation, which means being satisfied or having enough, is used by Kounin to describe students progressive loss of interest in the task. When students experience satiation or boredom, other behaviors emerge. Students may introduce variations into the task, work mechanically on the task without giving it much thought, or try to create some excitement through fooling around with a classmate or engaging in other forms of misbehavior. Kounin suggests reducing satiation by providing students with a feeling of progress, offering students challenges throughout the lesson, and being enthusiastic. Variety reduces satiation and alleviates boredom. Changing the level of challenges, restructuring groups, extending the task, and using different teaching styles add variety to the lesson. The Neo-Skinnerian Model: Shaping Desired Behavior. Charles states that Skinner's main focus was that "Human behavior can be shaped along desired lines of means of the systematic application of reinforcement" (1992, p. 34). These ideas make up a Neo-Skinnerian model: 1. The consequences of what follows a behavior will shape the behavior. 2. Reinforcement can be positive in shaping a behavior in the desired direction. 3. Reinforcement will keep a behavior from getting weaker. 4. Punishment weakens behavior. 5. Consistent reinforcement produces best results in the early stages of learning. Haim Ginott’s Theory of Congruent Communication (Charles, 1999; Manning & Bucher, 2003; Taylor, 2004) Haim Ginott believes that effective classroom management depends a lot on the way in which the teacher interacts with students. It is believed that the teacher is a decisive element in the classroom, who can shape students in anyway depending on the teacher’s behaviour. Ginott promotes the use of congruent messages and to respect students as they are for effective classroom management. Basic Assumptions/Philosophies 1. Communication can foster desirable relationship between teachers and the students. 2. Teacher is very influential and sets the stage for students’ positive behaviour, a teacher’s personal approach creates the atmosphere that contributes to students’ behaviour, both Field Study 1 MIDTERM Handout by Elsie M. Zabalo positive and negative. Therefore, it is a teacher’s responsibility to create conditions that contribute to student’s proper behaviour. 3. The essence of discipline lies in finding effective alternatives to punishment. Key Concepts 1. Use congruent communication a) a style of speaking that does not attack others, but remained harmonious with the feelings being experienced b) addresses the situations rather than the student’s character or personality 2. Send sane messages to students a) sanity depends on people’s ability to trust their own perceptions of reality b) to guide students to move away from self-defeating behavior towards appropriate and lasting behaviors 3. Promote self-discipline 4. Accept and acknowledge students and comment on the situation/behavior without belittling the students 5. Emphasizes the strong linkage between the exchange of interactions between teachers and students The Glasser Model: Good Behavior comes from Good Choices. Choice Theory was developed by William Glasser, a renowned American psychologist and psychiatrist. He theorized that behavior is a choice made by an individual, based on his or her feelings and needs, and is therefore not determined or controlled by external circumstances.3 In other words, the power lies within each person to determine how he or she will respond to the demands of the social and physical environment. Humans thus should not be perceived as victims or slaves of circumstances, but as self-determining beings who take responsibility for the consequences of their choices Choice Theory holds that five core concepts are foundational to classroom management and discipline: 1. Basic Needs, such as survival, love and belonging, power, freedom, and fun. 2. Quality World, which includes people, activities, values, and beliefs that are most important to each human being. 3. Reality and Perception, which suggest that people act based upon what they perceive to be real. 4. Comparing Place, which builds on the notion that the purpose of all behavior is to create a match between what people perceive and what they want; and 5. Total Behavior, which has four components: acting, thinking, feeling, and physiology. Changing any of the five components will affect the others as well. Field Study 1 MIDTERM Handout by Elsie M. Zabalo The Dreikurs Model: Confronting Mistaken Goals. Understanding Child Behavior and Misbehavior By Kent G. Hamdorf, Ph.D. 1. Behavior is best understood in terms of its unity or pattern. A child responds as a total being with thoughts, feelings and actions. A parent often responds to a child as if the child were isolated, when in fact the child's action is really part of a set pattern. It is important that a parent become acquainted with the child's beliefs and assumptions about life, self ·concept and about others. It is from these beliefs that a child forms a basis for behavior, interactions with others and willingness to accept responsibility. 2. Behavior is goal-directed and purposive. According to psychologist Alfred Adler, every psychological action has a god! and it is this goal that becomes the fmal cause or final explanation of a child's action. The decision for the action of the child is revealed in the child's transactions with others. This dec1s1on reveals the child's purpose, and the consequences of the child's actions become the cause for the Behavior Rudolf Dreikurs, a leading psychiatrist in the field of democratic approaches to parenting, has identified four goals or attention-getting mechanisms (AGM) of a child's misbehavior. A. Attention Getting. A child concerned with getting attention usually prefers to get it positively, but, if all else fails, will accept negative attention rather than be ignored. As is true in either case, the behavior requires people to pay attention to the child. To modify this behavior, it is necessary for the parent to ignore negative attempts to involve the parent. At the same time, the parent must find ways to give the child positive attention and recognition. B. Power-seeking. Control is the central focus of a child who wants to demonstrate power. Whenever the child's goal is power-seeking in the parent-child relationship, the parent must learn to avoid reacting to the child's behavior C. Revenge. The child who fails to gain attention through positive and/ or negative attention or power will often want to get even with the parent for what the child believes the parent has done to the child. The child has numerous ways to punish the parent and get revenge. To be called by the parent "the worst" or "the most horrible" is often the child's goal. D. Inadequacy. The child who displays inadequacy or discouragement has developed an attention-getting mechanism that keeps others from expecting anything from the child. In most cases apparent total inadequacy or discouragement is only partial. However, it is very important for the parent to determine whether the child is refusing involvement in order to gain attention, to defy authority, to punish and hurt or just because there is nothing hoped for in the situation. In the latter case a child Will hide behind a screen of inadequacy. Field Study 1 MIDTERM Handout by Elsie M. Zabalo  3. A child's self-image is revealed by the way the child seeks to be known. Each child has a unique place in the family, among siblings, among peers and in the community. The reputation that a child tries to develop comes from the child's personal perception of what will be recognized by family, peer group and society. 4. The child's total behavior has social meaning. In most social transactions with peers or parents a child is aware of how the other person will act and react, so the child will act accordingly. Psychological position and perception of the meaning of behavior will influence the child's action. If, for example, the child is the oldest of three children and believes that the oldest must be ruler of the family, when the father is absent, the child will behave accordingly. 5. A child has the creative capacity to take a biased interpretatiop based on self- perception of the ~ Achild is constantly interpreting. evaluatlng and makisi9ns about bow to relate to, any given situation. 6. Each child has the basic need to actualize human potential. To allow a child to develop an inner peace, a parent should recognize that each child has the following psychological needs: -To be loved and accepted -To be secure and relatively free of threat and harm -To belong, to be a part of a group -To be approved of and recognized as an individual who functions in a unique way -To move continually toward independence, responsibility and decision-making The Canter Model: Assertively taking charge According to Canter, teachers fall into one of three response style categories (how the teacher responds to the misbehavior of their students). The three response style categories are non- assertive, hostile and assertive. A Non-Assertive Teacher is passive, often inconsistent and unwilling to impose demands on student behavior. He fails to let the students clearly know what he wants and what he will not accept (Gurcan and Tekin). Non-Assertive teachers often plead with students to enforce classroom rules. A Hostile Teacher addresses students in an abusive way. She often loses her temper and uses behaviors that hurt student feelings, provoke disrespect and a desire to take revenge (Gurcan and Tekin). Hostile teachers often take everything personally and take the "me vs them" approach. An Assertive Teacher protects the rights of both the teacher and the student. With this style, he makes his expectations known to students in a calm and businesslike manner. He backs up his words with actions when necessary (Gurcan and Tekin). Assertive teachers act in a calm, confident and professional way. They let their discipline plan do all of the work and they clearly communicated the expectations. Field Study 1 MIDTERM Handout by Elsie M. Zabalo The Jones Model Jones created a program that is based on five clusters of teacher skills that keep students productively on-task, which in turn, work to prevent misbehavior or allow teachers to deal with it efficiently. The five skill clusters deal with: classroom structure to discourage misbehavior, limit-setting through body language, using say, see, do teaching, responsibility training through incentive systems, and providing efficient help to individual students. (Charles, 2002) Skill Cluster 1: Classroom Structure to Discourage Misbehavior: Jones believes teachers should create a classroom structure that works to prevent behavior problems. It is important to set up the classroom structure in the first weeks of school. Two methods are: Room Arrangement - Teachers must minimize the physical distance between themselves and their students. Jones believes that teachers should be constantly moving among their students. He suggests creating an "interior loop" so teachers can move easily among the classroom. Opening Routines - Teachers must open each class with bell work that does not require active instruction from the teacher. Jones suggests that students should start working the moment they enter the classroom. The bell work should consume about the first five minutes of class, which helps to eliminate the problem of students settling in. (Source) Others include: o Classroom Chores o Classroom Rules Skill Cluster 2: Limit-Setting through Body Language: Jones says that teachers must discipline through the use of body language rather than with words, which use up teaching time. “The ultimate goal of limit setting is to prompt students to get back to work.” (Source) Jones also stresses the importance of a teacher's body language as a factor in determining students’ good behavior in class. It is important for teachers to remain calm and use body language to set limits. One method is: Physical Proximity - By moving closer to a misbehaving student, teachers can stop the misbehavior, avoid verbal confrontation and can continue with instruction. Others include: o Proper breathing o Eye contact o Body carriage Skill Cluster 3: Using Say, See, Do Teaching: "Say, See, Do Teaching is another essential tool for teachers. It structures the lesson into a series of "Say, See, Do Cycles" which cause students to continually learn by doing. It becomes the students' job to actively engage in learning activities while the teacher checks for understanding." (Source) Field Study 1 MIDTERM Handout by Elsie M. Zabalo  Say, See, Do Teaching - During a lesson, teachers must tell students what to do, show them what to do, and then have them do it before having time to forget it. Throughout the lesson, this process is repeated as teachers provide information to the students in short intervals. Teachers must have students learn by doing, one step at a time. Jones states that it is important to focus on students’ correct performance rather than remembering what was said. (Source) ▪ The process looks like: teacher input -> student output -> teacher input - > student output -> teacher input -> student output Skill Cluster 4: Responsibility Training through Incentive Systems: Jones suggests establishing an effective incentive system into the classroom. Group rewards or incentives are structured to help build student cooperation and also help to motivate responsibility, good behavior and productive work. They encourage students to be on task and prevent wasted time in the classroom. (Source) Two methods are: Preferred Activity Time (PAT) - Jones came up with the acronym, PAT. He states that incorporating PAT into the classroom, on a daily basis, helps to encourage the students to become responsible for their actions. Students can earn PAT for positive behavior or lose it for negative behavior. Teachers use PAT as time for learning games and enrichment activities, ones that students enjoy and also have educational value. (Source) Backup Systems - Jones suggests having a backup system set up as a last option for misbehaving students. Teachers must implement a three-tiered arrangement of negative sanctions: ▪ Speak privately or semi-privately with the student ▪ Public within the classroom (any student in the classroom can see) ▪ Public with two professionals (Charles, 2002) Others include: o Grandma's Rule o Student Responsibility o Genuine Incentives o Omission Training Skill Cluster 5: Providing Efficient Help to Individual Students: Jones states that students need to learn to work on their own. He calls students that are reliant on their teacher's presence "helpless-handraisers." Teachers can prevent helpless handraising by efficiently helping students during independent work. One method is: Reducing time used when giving students individual help - When working with students individually, teachers must praise, prompt and leave. Jones states that teachers must praise the student quickly for something done correctly, give a prompt to help the student get going and leave quickly. That way, every student who needs help is able to receive it and misbehavior is less likely as students waste little time waiting for the teacher. Field Study 1 MIDTERM Handout by Elsie M. Zabalo  Others include: o Classroom seating o Graphic reminders References: https://sites.google.com/c2ken.net/teacherprofessionallearning-ea/learning-menu/understanding-the-needs-of-learners Mareike Kunter, Jürgen Baumert, Olaf Köller,Effective classroom management and the development of subject-related interest, Learning and Instruction,Volume 17, Issue 5,2007,Pages 494-509,ISSN 0959-4752,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2007.09.002. (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S095947520700093X) Larissa M. Gaias, Sarah Lindstrom Johnson, Jessika H. Bottiani, Katrina J. Debnam, Catherine P. Bradshaw,Examining teachers' classroom management profiles: Incorporating a focus on culturally responsive practice,Journal of School Psychology,Volume 76,2019,Pages 124-139, ISSN 0022-4405,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2019.07.017. (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022440519300627) Field Study 1 MIDTERM Handout by Elsie M. Zabalo