Ancient Education PDF

**CHAPTER 1** ANCIENT, ORIENTAL, SUMERIAN, EARLY EGYPTIAN, AND JEWISH EDUCATION Education has always been a social process by means of which a community, society or nation has sought to transmit to the emergent question, those traditional aspects of its culture which were considered fundamental an...

**CHAPTER 1** ANCIENT, ORIENTAL, SUMERIAN, EARLY EGYPTIAN, AND JEWISH EDUCATION Education has always been a social process by means of which a community, society or nation has sought to transmit to the emergent question, those traditional aspects of its culture which were considered fundamental and vital for its own stability and survival. **EDUCATION DURING THE ANCIENT PERIOD** **[EDUCATION FOR CONFORMITY] (Primitive Education)** **Aims of Primitive Education** The main goal was merely *[to survive]* and *[to conform]* to the tribe to each it belonged. Education among people was directed to ensuring the survival of the group, clan, or tribe through training of the young in skills and arts necessary to maintain life. The people thought that the ways they were doing things were the best and they wanted to preserve such and be transmitted to the incoming generation. Thus, another aim of primitive education was *[preservation and transmission of traditions.]* **Some of the characteristics of primitive culture are:** 1\. Relatively simple; 2\. Relatively narrow social and cultural contact; 3\. Extraordinary conservative and prone to superstitions; 4\. The organization of primitive life is tribal not political so that one function of education is to enable one to live with his relatives, and 5\. Absence from primitive cultures of reading and writing. **Types of Education** 1\. *Vocational and Domestic Training.* This includes practical activities necessary to satisfy the immediate needs to stay alive, for example, for food, clothing and shelter. 2\. *Religion (animistic).* Religious education consisted in learning how to participate in ritualistic practices to please or to appease the unseen spirits roaming around. The **contents** are broad, indefinite and unwritten ritualistic and prescriptive. No grades or grading system or levels of instruction given to learners. There was no financing involved since there was no teacher to pay, no learning materials to buy, and no school building to construct because education was strictly informal. **Methods of Instruction** 1\. All instruction was done informally. Enculturation, that is imposing the group characteristics, skills, knowledge and attitudes upon the children. 2\. Observation and imitation. Education was through *show me* or *tell me* methods. 3\. Simple telling and demonstration. This is similar to lecture-demonstration nowadays. The parents told their children what they ought to do and then demonstrated how to do it. 4\. Participation. The children participated in the work of their parents and they learned. Participation was almost obligatory for everyone in the performance of religious rituals and ceremonies. **Agencies of Education** 1\. *Home*. There was no formal agency for education, the family was the center for practical training. The father taught the boys duties of securing life, while the mother instructed the girls of household management. 2\. *Environment.* The environment provided the primitive people a very good place of learning. For example, catching a fishing through a wooden pointed object. Making fire using stones or wood.  **The Effects:** 1\. Culture was passed on and preserved for generation. 2\. Tribes were able to meet their economic needs and were able to survive. 3\. People was able to adjust and adopt to political and social life. Outstanding Contribution to Education The primitive man started the rudiments of education from which evolved the modern educational system. **[Education for Social Stability] (Oriental Education)** **Aims of Education** Education aimed to recapitulate the past in order that the individual may not vary from it or advanced beyond it. - China: To preserve and perpetuate ancestral tradition. - India: To preserve traditions of the caste system and Religious beliefs. - Egypt: To preserve religious traditions. - Persia: To strengthen military traditions. **Types of Education:** **Moral Training/Social Training** of customs, duties and polite behavior and ethical aspect of discipline. **Theoretical/Religious Training** in language and literature and religious beliefs: It involves elementary and higher levels. Formal education is directed toward mastery of the languages that were technically difficult. Mastery of the approved form of conduct was embodied in a sacred literature and the imposition of conduct upon all the people. **Methods of Instructions** Schoolwork is chiefly memorization of text; the method is direct imitation. It consisted of being told what to do, to feel or to think. The methods, however, such trial and error, conscious imitation, indoctrination, emphasized what to think and not how to think. **Agencies of Education** Home is the center for most ethical and social training. Other agencies were pagoda, temple, under the trees or covered sheds. **The Effects** - Has influenced the inclusion of liberal education in all school levels. - Stressed the complimentary development of the human person for the social transformation of the State. - Intertwined the holistic integration of human personality for his cultural improvement. - The concept of education for individuality furnished the first real conception of life. - Stability was achieved but lacking in progressiveness. **[Education for Business Development]** **(Sumerian Education)** Sumeria is situated in the plain of Shinar, adjacent to and containing the lower basin of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers which flow into the Persian Gulf. This place was presently within Iraq. The Sumerians were Indo-Europeans. They settled first at the lower end of the rivers about 5000 B.C. At about 4000 B.C., the Sumerian settlers began the reclamation of the swamp around the mouths of the rivers. Their priests were commercial people. Their king called ***patesi*** was there temporal as well as spiritual leader. **Aims of Sumerian Education** To train the scribes to do ecclesiastical work in the temples that were mostly writing. The Sumerians were commercial people and they needed bookkeepers to record their multifarious business transactions. Since the priests were also the business leaders, the scribes and the bookkeepers were mostly the same persons doing the recording. **Types of Education** (Calderon, 1998) - **Writing Education.** Their system of writing was ***cuneiform***. This consist of wedge-shaped characters. They different forms of wedges conveyed ideas. The children pressed the cuneiform characters into soft clay and which were then baked in the sun to become tablets. Many of these tablets were preserved and handed down to us contained many facts about ancient history. Cuneiform writing was Sumeria's outstanding contribution to education and especially to civilization. This form of writing was later used by the Akkadians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, and Egyptians. - **Mathematical Education.** There was a little arithmetic most likely included counting and operations of low digit numbers. - **Language Education.** There was little grammar but the great bulk of the work was giving names to many things, thus enriching their vocabulary. - **Vocational Education.** This was mainly apprenticeship for the workers, most likely the slaves. - **Professional Education.** The discovery of surgical instruments indicated that the Sumerians studied and practiced medicine and surgery. They also had law, astronomy and architecture. - **Art Education.** They had poetry, epics, essays, fables, music, jewelry designing, sculpture, architecture, etc. **Agencies of Education** [ ] Archeology discovered that the **[school]** existed in Sumeria around 2000 B.C. It consisted of six rooms with walls 8 to 9 feet high. However, **[home]** was the first learning place for manual skills and social standards. Another school agency of education for the Sumerians is the **[temple schools.]** These schools were more elaborate than the lower schools. They had big halls where the scribes and young priests studied. On the other hand, the effectiveness of the **[apprentice schools]** was evidenced by the highly skilled craftsmen in beautiful art works in gold, solver, and copper, sculpture, architecture, and in metal works. **Methods of Instruction** The method of instruction was mainly **[imitation and copying.]** The students just imitated copying what the teacher had written. This was followed by minimal explanation. The main work of the learners was the **[preparation of tablets]** that dealt with their lessons. The pupil who failed to prepare his tablets was flogged by the school teacher called *["School Father" or umnia.]* They had stern discipline. The pupil was called *school son.* The brighter ones acted as assistant teachers or monitors. **The Effects** Through the cuneiform of writing, it conserved the early civilization's origins beside being the medium of instruction and commercial language of the ancient world. **[Education for Public Administration]** **(Early Egyptian Education)** Ancient Egypt was the birthplace of one of the world's first civilizations. This advanced culture aroused about 5,000 years ago in the Nile River Valley in Northeastern Africa. It thrived for over 2,000 years and so became one of the longest lasting civilizations in history. The mighty Nile River was the lifeblood of ancient Egypt. Every year, it overflowed and deposited a strip of rich, black soil along each bank. The fertile soil enabled farmers to raise huge supply of food. The Egyptian called their country *[Kemet]*, meaning [Black Land,] after the dark soil. The Nile also provided water for irrigation and was Egypt's main transportation route. For the reasons, the ancient Greek historian Herodotus called Egypt *"the gift of the Nile".* **Aims of Education** **[To train the scribes]** was the most coveted profession at that time. Scribes were in great demand to record the transactions of ecclesiastical and commercial business. **[Religion]** aimed to inculcate in the minds of the learners proper respect for the god and the pharaoh who was also considered as god. There was also **[utilitarian]**. The father wanted to transfer to his son his skills in his occupation and the mother to her daughter the skills in keeping house. **[Preservation of cultural patterns]** was also another aim of Egyptian education. Those in charge of Egyptian education, the nobles and the priests, wanted to preserve their cultural patterns, the Egyptian civilization. **Types of Education** **[Religious education]** as predominant as the priests wanted to inculcate in the mind of the learners proper respect for the gods, moral conduct, and a preparation for life after death. **[Vocational-professional education]** was also predominant because they wanted perpetuate the artistic skills that embellished their temples and other buildings and their wonderful achievements in engineering and architecture. **[Military Education]**, on the other hand, was only for the sons of the nobles. **[Education for public administration]** was for those who aspired for positions in the government because the pharaoh needed many assistants to implement his desires. **[Priesthood education]** was for those who aspired to become priests. Their **[home arts education]** was largely vocational and offered to women. The Egyptian woman was accorded higher regard than in other Eastern countries at that time. They could even inherit the throne. **[The writing, reading and language education]** was another type of Egyptian education. The Egyptians used the [hieroglyphics] form of writing (from the Greek word *hieros* "sacred" and *glypho,* to carve). These were pictures or signs that represented ideas. The hieroglyphics were great in number but later they were simplified into what was called **hieratic** (sacred) and later still into a form of **demotic**. **Agencies of Education** Education was under the control of religion. This was a part of early Egyptian culture. The home provided for basic education. Home skills and rudiments of right and wrong were taught at home. The [temple schools] were for higher education, especially for the professions such as engineering, architecture, medicine, dentistry, surveying, etc. [Military schools] were only for those sons of the nobles purposely for defense and aggression. Those aspiring for a public office and for those taking up law, it was taught in [court school] by a corps, Pharaoh's corps of public officials, part of function of priesthood. [Vocational schools] were schools of arts and trades. **Methods of instructions** [Apprentice] was the dominant method especially in the lower and vocational schools. [Dictation, memorization, copying, imitation, repetition] were standard practices in the teaching especially in the lower grades. [Observation and participation] were also standard practices of teaching in the vocational courses. Although some lay teachers allowed to teach in the lower schools, the teacher in the temple and higher schools were always priests and scribes. **Flogging** was used to penalize failure to learn. **Effects/Contributions** - The Ancient Egyptians made outstanding contributions to the development of civilization. - They created the world's first national government, basic forms of arithmetic and a 365-day calendar. - Development of geometrical measurement and surveying. - Invented a form of picture writing called [hieroglyphics]. - Invented papyrus, a paper-like writing materials made from the stems of papyrus plants. - Developed the first religions to emphasize life after death. - Built great cities in which many skilled architects, doctors, engineers, painters and sculptors worked. - Built pyramid as tombs for their rulers. **The Downfall of Egypt** After centuries of progress, Egypt declined due to refusal of the priestly class to change the accepted rules and practices. The old prevented the young from learning further because of apprenticeship. The incapacity of the Egyptian mind to ascend from the practical and empirical to scientific and universal was the chief cause. Conceptual thinking, reasoning, creative imagination, and intellectual curiosity were foreign to them. They saw in knowledge only as a means of practical advancement and love knowledge for its own sake. **[Education for Discipline] (Jewish Education)** The keynote of Jewish education appears as early as Genesis 18:19 in the revelation made to Abraham: *"For I know him that he will command his children and his household after him, and they shall keep the way of the Lord, to do justice and judgement."* The same note runs throughout the Old Testament in various injunctions: *"Train up a child in a way he should go, and when he is old, he will depart from it."* (Proverb 22:6) and *"Fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom,"* (Proverb 9:10). The **aim of education** was [ethical and religious]. The education of the youth was an obligation of the parents, and was intimately associated with the performance of ritual observances with learning the Mosaic Law, both from which were regarded as essential to the survival of the Jews as a people. The **method of instruction** was [oral and learning by practice], corporal punishment was regarded as an essential element in training, *"He that spareth the rod hateth his son."* (Proverb 13:24). **CHAPTER 2** ANCIENT CHINESE EDUCATION EARLY HINDU EDUCATION EARLY HEBREW EDUCATION **ANCIENT CHINESE EDUCATION** Ancient China followed a policy of isolation; they have no fear for invasion, for they have no intention to conquer. This country did not care to associate with the rest of the world but instead, desired to live unto self. The Great Wall of China was built for protection against invaders. Their education was mainly concerned with memorizing the works of Confucius, a great religious leader, who gave the Chinese people rules for right living. He wanted to prove his teaching by practice. Virtue is learned by careful observance of ceremony and by practice of the golden rule, which Confucius phrased: *"What you do not like when done to yourself, do not do to other."* Gradually, over the centuries, Chinese turned to Confucius, first as wise teacher, then as religious prophet, and finally as god. The teachings of Confucius lived on and increased in influence, especially among educated class of Chinese. When the child is able to feed itself, it is taught to use the right hand. When able to speak, a boy is taught to respond boldly and clearly; a girl, submissively and low. At six years, the child is taught the number\... at eight, when going in and out at the gate or door, and going to their tablemats to eat and drink; they are required to follow their elders; teaching of yielding to others is now begun. At ten, the boy goes to a schoolmaster outside his house where he learns to write the different classes of characters and to calculate. At thirteen, he learns music, repeat the odes, and dance the Ko. When a full-grown lad, he dances the Hsiang and learns archery and chariot driving. At thirty, he takes a wife and begins to attend to the business proper. A girl, at the age of ten, ceases to go out. Her governess teaches her to use pleasing speech and correct manners, to be docile and obedient, to handle the hempen fibers and the cocoons, to weave silks and fashion filets. She learns al women's work, to make garments, to watch the sacrifices, to serve the liquors and saucers, to fill the various stands and dishes with pickles and brines and at twenty, she is married. Ancestors worship was also one important part of their lives. The **method of learning** consisted of [repetition and memorization], or *"backing the book."* The selection for government employment was made by rigorous system of examinations. Through this system, the **civil service examination** was originated. **Aims of Education** One of the aims of early Chinese education is [ideological and ethical or moral learning]. Education was focused on Confucius *five fundamental relationships.* These are relationships between sovereign and subject; between father and child; between husband and wife; between older brother and younger brother, and between older friend and a younger one. His doctrine of submission are subject to sovereign; son to father; wife to husband; younger brother to older brother, and younger friend to an older one. *His five cardinal virtues* are benevolence or universal charity; justice; conformity to establish usage; prudence or rectitude of heart and mind, and fidelity or pure sincerity. Another aim of China education is [cultural development]. This is to maintain their cultural pattern and usages. [Civil service] is one of the China education's aims. This to prepare the students to take the state examinations to qualify for higher status in life and for positions in the government. Civil service examination was considered outstanding contribution of early China. Almost all countries of the world have adopted this today. **Types of Education** 1. **Ideological and moral education.** This where the Confucian relationships, doctrine of submission and the cardinal virtues. 2. **Language education.** The Chinese language has to be mastered and memorized for it has any characters. 3. **Vocational and Domestic education.** Trade skills had to be acquired by men while women focused on domestic skills for they have to serve men and bear children. 4. **Civic education.** This type of education was for those who would like to serve in the government. 5. **Military education.** This was for defense and aggression purpose. China at one time was a big empire due to its neighboring territories. **Methods of Instructions** 1. **The Confucian method.** Teaching was not confined in the classroom. Outdoor teaching was prevalent. 2. **Direct and exact imitation.** This was especially true in writing many Chinese characters. 3. **Memorization.** Under some teachers, the whole time was devoted to memorization. In order to hold any official position, the following books had to be mastered: *The Classics:* 1. The Shu King (Book of History) -- an outline of history before the time of Confucius. 2. The Shi King (Book of Odes) -- an outline of poetry. 3. The Yi King (Book of Changes) -- an outline of prophecy and augury. 4. Li Ki King (Book of Rights) -- an outline of social etiquette. 5. The Hsiao King (Book of Filial Piety) *The Four Books:* 1. The Ta Hsio (Great Learning) 2. The Chung Yung (Doctrine of the Mean) 3. The Lun Yu (Saying of Confucius) 4. The Meng-Tze (Sayings of Mencius) **Taoism** (Path of Reason) was the second Chinese philosophy for living. This was attributed to Lao-tse. His only works, the Tao Te-Ching, translated "The Book of the Way and the Virtue that comes therefrom," consists of eighty-one stanzas, or brief aphorisms which scrutinize life and its purposes. **EARLY HINDU EDUCATION** **History** Excavations in the Indus Valley in the 1920s revealed the existence of an ancient civilization which flourished between 3000 and 2000 BC at Mohenjo-Daro and Harrapa, now in Pakistan. The ancient Indus Valley people probably worshipped a Mother Goddess and a male deity, the forerunner of Shiva in later Hinduism. When tribes speaking in Aryan language settled in northwest India in about 1500 BC, the Indus cities were probably in decline. The new settlers probably adopted some religious ideas from the earlier inhabitants and incorporated them into rituals. The Aryan-speakers worshipped spirits of nature. What is known of their religion comes from the hymns of the Rig-Veda, composed in stages from around 1500 BC, which praise the spirits controlling natural forces. The Vedic deities were mostly male, and the Mother Goddess concept may have been taken from the Indus Valley people. Among the Vedic deities, Indra, Mitra and Varuna were important, along with the Adityas, Rudra, and Prajapati. In time the first three gods were forgotten but the others gave rise to the Trimurti of modern Hinduism. Prajapati became Brahma, Rudra became Shiva, and one of the Adityas became Vishnu. These gods came to be represented as a single image. The [*Upanish*ads] are the earliest books of Hindu Philosophy, and were begun over 2,700 years ago. During the next 2,000 years, important compositions like the ancient law books, the epics Ramayana and the Mahabarata, and the Puranas firmly established the Hindu tradition in India. Each of these texts was compiled over hundred of years. **The Six Schools of Philosophy** Many schools of Hindu thought have developed in India. The six most prominent schools are: 1. Nyaya -- deals with logic 2. Vaisheshika -- concerns the nature of the world 3. Samkhya --examines the origin and evolution of the universe 4. Yoga -- is a set of mental and physical exercises designed to free the body so that the soul can unite with Brahman 5. Purva-mimamsa -- interprets the Vedas 6. Vedanta -- interprets the Vedas **Contents To Be Studied** 1. **Literature for the Brahmans.** *[Vedas]* is the oldest Hindu scriptures and the oldest sacred writings of any major religion. Veda means knowledge. The Vedas are as follows: 1.1 Rig Veda -- Veda of Psalms and Verses 1.2 YajurVeda -- Veda of Sacred Formulas 1.3 Sama Veda -- Veda of Chants 1.4 Atharva Veda -- Veda of Charms 1.5 The Angas -- volume of Hindu scientific and philosophical knowledge 1.6 The Code of Manu -- a compilation of ethics, customs, and traditions. 2\. **Dancing** associated with religion. 3\. **Sports** such as wrestling and archery. Yoga was also practiced for it involves exercise in posture and breathing. 4\. **Linguistics, Philosophy and Theology** for candidates for priesthood. 5\. **For Military Training**, the use of the horse, elephant and the chariot in war. 6\. **Astronomy, History, Grammar, Law, Medicine, and Mathematics** are being studied in college or parishads. Contemporary arithmetical notation including the symbol "O" originated in India. As early as 500 BC, the Hindus had developed an algebra even superior to that of the Greeks and later disseminated by the Arabs. This has become the outstanding contribution of the Hindus to education. **Aims of Education** - Dharma (Religious and Social Duties) -- it is the most important aim that provides value system for each individual. - Artha (Livelihood) -- earning livelihood by honest means. - Kama (Good Life) -- enjoying good things in life in moderation. - Moksha -- leading the soul toward God and achieving release from the cycle of rebirths. **Social Division** India has an ancient system of social divisions called varna, which may have existed even before the references to it in the Vedas. The word varna in Hinduism signifies a social category. **Social Categories** - White Varna (Brahmans/Brahmins) -- priests or scholars - Red Varna (Kshatriyas) -- rulers, administrators, soldiers - Yellow Varna (Vaisyas) -- peasants-farmers, merchants - Black Varna (Sudras) -- these were the skilled artisans such as potters, weavers, and basket makers, and servants - Panchamas/Pariahs or "Untouchables" -- ranking below the sudras, these people did the dirtiest jobs. The upper varnas treated them badly and even avoided touching them. They were the most oppressed people in the society. - [Untouchability] was abolished by law in India in 1950. The Indian leader and teacher Mahatma Gandhi named the "[untouchables]" ***Harijans*** (children of God), but they prefer to call themselves ***dalit*** (depressed). The countless castes of India probably began as occupational groups. They were gradually placed within the varna system, and ranked according to the dignity of work done. Originally each caste had specific duties, but today people from the different castes do jobs very different from the traditional occupations. In modern times, the caste system has weakened. Educated Hindus nowadays mix freely with people from different castes. But caste continue to be an influence on Indian life. **Organization of Grades** 1. The child was taught at home till the age of 5. 2. At 5, the child attended higher schools. Children of Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Pariahs were not admitted to intellectual education. 3. The women were given only domestic education as their role was only housekeeping, serving their husbands, bearing children. The methods of instructions are more of imitation and memorization. The teachers uttered the words to be learned and the pupils imitated. They repeated the process until the words to be learned were mastered by the pupils. Likewise, the Vedas that were written mostly in verse lent themselves to memorization. Although the learning was slow, memorization was used extensively and intensively. **Early Hebrew Education** The Hebrews appeared about 4000 BC near Sumeria. They were nomadic Semitic tribes who moved with their flocks from oasis to oasis in the Arabian desert. They first dwelt near Shinar (Sumeria). During Abraham's time, they lived in Ur, then Harran in the Crescent in 2000 BC and later entered Canaan near the edge of the Mediterranean Sea. They were forced to live in Egypt because of famine in Canaan. Through the leadership of Moses, they escaped their slavery from Egypt and languished for many years in Sinai Desert, now Negev. Then under Joshua's leadership, they entered Canaan, conquered the people of Jericho and took land along the Jordan River, a land "flowing with milk and honey," for this land is good only for pasturage and honey bees. This in now Palestine where the Hebrews developed a flourishing culture, which reached its peak under King David and his son, Solomon about 1000 BC. Due to dissension, apostasy, and misrule by weak kings the kingdom was divided. - The Assyrians conquered Israel, the section held by the ten northern tribes. Its people was dispersed and banished from history. - The Babylonians took Judea, home of the tribes of Judah and Benjamin. - Sumerians, who drove the Jews to their capital in the Euphrates. - The Hebrews remained "by the waters of Babylon" until the overthrow of Belshazzar by Persian and Medean arms in 539 BC. In Babylon, the prophet David bested the King's Chaldean diviners and the children were thrown into a fiery furnace. But King Cyrus the Great of Persia allowed the remnants of Israel to be repatriated to Jerusalem and to rebuild the temple of Solomon. Hebrew's deliverance or Exodus from Egypt (1250 BC); The Babylonian Exile or Captivity (586 BC), and The Destruction of the Temple of Solomon (70 AD) and the Diaspora (Dispersion of the Jews) are the [three great crises] in the history of Hebrews. They were always invaded by their more powerful neighbors, like Rome which conquered them. Their revolt resulted in severe punishment by Emperor Titus (70 AD). The cultural history of the Jewish people covers about four millennia during which they experienced both prosperity and adversity. They developed ideas, mores, and concepts that made them cling together and endure whatever befell them. These ideas, mores, and concepts are: - An omnipotent and righteous Creator, God, who selected the Hebrews as his chosen people. - A coming of Messiah who would restore the Jewish exceptional position lost through faithfulness. - Holiness and obedience on the part of the Jews as a condition of their restoration. The **methods of instruction** were compulsory, oral, memorization, exposition and temple worship. Education was compulsory. The boys were taught in school and the girls at home. In the elementary, the spoken word was used for lack of writing materials. Writing was done on was with stylus. Pupils were required to memorize passages and sentences learned. They used extensive mnemonic devices for memorizing. They also used audio-visual devices. In higher education, the teachers used exposition followed by questions. A part of the Jewish education was temple worship but it was compulsory for all males to visit the temples at least three times and that was during the festivals of the Passover, the Shabuoth, and the Tabernacles. The school day was long. It started early in the morning and lasted into the evening with a short recess at noon. There was a vacation only when there was a festival. [Humanity] is primarily indebted to the Jews. The following may be considered their **outstanding contributions** to education and humanity. - **Monotheism**, the concept of one and only one God, a principle shared by Jews, Christians and Muslims. - **The Ten Commandments**, the general guide to ethical conduct that has set a standard for social living for several thousand years. - The **Bible**, that fountainhead of so much Western tradition and literature. **CHAPTER 3** **EARLY GREEK EDUCATION** **ROMAN EDUCATION** Ancient Greece was the birthplace of Western civilization about 2,500 years ago. The magnificent achievements of the ancient Greeks in government, science, philosophy, and the arts continue to influence our lives today. Greek civilization developed chiefly in small city-states. A city-state consisted of a city or town and the surrounding villages and farmland. The Greek city-states were fiercely independent and often quarreled among themselves. But their small size and constant rivalry had certain advantages. Citizens of a city-state were strongly patriotic, and many citizens took part in public affairs. The most advanced city-states established the world's first democratic governments. The best-known city-states were **Athens** and **Sparta**. **SPARTAN EDUCATION** Sparta, also called Lacedaemon, the capital of Laconia, was at one time the most powerful city-state of an ancient Greek. It was famous for its military power and its loyal soldiers. The greatest honor that could come to a Spartan was to die in defense of the country. Endurance, a scorn of luxuries, and unyielding firmness are still spoken of as Spartan virtues. The people belonged to [three classes]. The Spartans themselves were descended from the ***Dorians***, a people who invaded the Greek peninsula in the 1100's BC. They were the ruling class of Sparta and were the only ones who had full rights of citizenship. They enslaved the earlier Greek peoples of Laconia, the Acheans and Ionians. These enslaved Greeks, who were called ***helots***, outnumbered the Spartans. Some of the non-Spartan Greeks escaped enslavement. They were not citizens but they lived in Sparta as free people. This group was known as ***perioeci***. The numbers of the three classes varied widely during the Sparta's long history. Some authorities estimate that at the height of Spartan power there were about 25,000 citizens, an unknown number of perioeci and as many as 250,000 helots. **Aims of Education** The aims of education for the Spartans are [military and discipline]. This is to make every citizen invincible in war, possessing physical perfection and complete obedience to the state and to develop a people unequalled in military skill and absolutely devoted and loyal to the state. Moreover, discipline had been instilled to develop conformity and obedience, courage, strength, cunning, endurance, and patriotic efficiency and to produce an ideal Spartan citizen who was capable of enduring hunger, thirst, torture, even death without flinching. The State was the sole agency of education. Every phase was controlled by the State. All financing was shouldered by the State. **Methods of Instruction** 1. Education was [training], not school instruction. 2. The learned by [participating] in the activities. They learn by doing. There were no books. 3. [Testing] was not for memory but for moral life and endurance. 4. [Discipline] and [training] were severe, food was scanty, theft was encouraged to supplement food but thieves should not get caught; there was corporal punishment for moral delinquency and lack of alertness. 5. [Motivation] was enhanced by rivalry, emulation of great men and great deeds, and most of all fear of public disapproval. **Types of Education** - **Physical education** was rigid to make the Spartan strong, especially in combat. - **Military education** was rigid. Al the skills in combat known at that time were learned to the utmost. It was said that any enemy combatants could not pierce the Spartan military phalanx. - **Moral training** was taken in connection with group living. Stealing was not a crime but if caught, the thief was severely punished. - There was very **little** **intellectual training** just enough to understand the laws of Lycurgus and some Homeric writings. - **Music education** was to arouse patriotism. - **Gymnastic education** was for the girls to make them strong to bear children. - There was **no vocational education** because the slaves called Helot or Perioeci (dwellers around) who numbered almost thirty to one Spartan did all the non-skilled labor of the Spartans. The Helots were not considered citizens. **Outstanding Contribution to Education** The development of patriotism, discipline, and military education were the outstanding contribution to education by the Spartans. **ATHENIAN EDUCATION** Ancient Athens was the leading cultural center of the Greek world. Many of the most gifted writers of Greece lived there. They wrote works of drama, history, lyric poetry, and philosophy that have influenced literature up to the present time. The famous playwrights Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides; the comedy writer Aristophances; the philosophers Socrates and Plato; the historian Thucydides, and the orator Demosthenes - - these are just of the personalities of ancient Athens. Athenian architects, such as Phidias, designed and built masterpieces of classical beauty, and the ruins of many of these structures may still be seen. The government of ancient Athens provided an example of democracy that has inspired lawmakers ever since. The ancient Athenian statesman Pericles called Athens the "school of Greece." In many ways, the city was the birthplace of Western civilization. Likewise, there were three agencies of education considered in Athens. Private schools were the first schools of their mothers and slave nursemaids taught boys while the girls at home. Boys before 7 were also taught at home. Education was supervised by the State although education was not compulsory. It was not clear, however, if the State maintained public schools. **Aims of Education** 1. [Good citizenship] was the foremost aim of Athenian education. 2. There was a stress on [individual excellence] in wisdom, beauty, and strength public usefulness. 3. Athens was the first state where there was freedom to develop all human capacities ([many sided-development]). **Types of Education** - Civic training was dominant aim because of the desire to serve the state. - Moral training was an emphasis on the virtues of Homeric heroes as well as those for service of the states. - Physical education was taken not to develop strength but to develop grace and harmony of the body. - Intellectual education was needed in the participation in the Assembly and in discussions in the market place. - Art, Music, poetry, and dancing were taken not for pleasure and entertainment but for the ennobling influence on the intellect and morals, and good cultural training, and Apollonian ideal. **Outstanding Contributions to Education** The Olympic games and the free development of all human capacities were the outstanding contributions of Athens. **ANCIENT ROMAN EDUCATION** The story of ancient Rome is a tale of how a small community of shepherds in central Italy grew to become one of the greatest empires in history -- and then collapsed. According to Roman legend, the city of Rome was founded in 753 B.C., it controlled most of the Italian Peninsula. At its peak, in the A.D. 100s, the Roman empire covered about half of Europe, much of the middle east, and the north coast of Africa. The empire then begun to crumple partly because it was too big for Rome to govern. In A.D. 476, warlike Germanic tribes overthrew the last Roman emperor. The millions of people who lived in the Roman Empire spoke many languages and followed many different customs and religions. But the Roman Empire bound them together under a common system of law and government. This remarkable achievement has aroused interest and admiration from ancient times right up to the present day. Ancient Rome had enormous influence on the development of Western civilization because the empire was so vast and lasted so long. The language of the ancient Romans, Latin, became the basis of French, Italian, Spanish, and the other Romance languages. Roman law provided foundation for the legal systems of most of the countries in Western Europe and Latin America. Roman principles of justice and the Roman political system contributed to the building of governments in many countries. Roman roads bridges and aqueducts -- some of which are still used and served as models for engineers in later ages. **Aims of Education** The aim Roman education was [utilitarian], not theory but application, not learning but practice. Early Roman education emphasized a practical training for [military] life and citizenship, acquired through memorization of the laws of the twelve tables and the historical tradition of Rome. It was not until the Romans succumbed to the cultural influence of the Greeks that they began to provide formal schooling. The lowest Roman school was the **"ludus"** or the school of the **"litterator,"** where the elements of reading, writing, and arithmetic were taught. Aims were also [moral, religious, civic, and political], to produce good citizens who knew how to exercise their rights, fulfill their duties and obligations, and acquire virtues such piety, obedience, manliness, courage, bravery, industry, honesty, prudence, earnestness, sobriety, dignity, fortitude, and gravity. Romans were train to be participative and wise in politics. They were also train to have reverence for the gods. **Types of Education** - [Physical and military training] was imperative for the training of good soldiers who would be conquerors in life. - To make men know their rights and obligations to the states [civic training] was also exercise so that they could participate wisely in politics. The good citizen was obedient to authority, pious, frugal, and honest. - [Moral training] was for the development of moral virtues. - [Religious] training was tied up to moral and civic training. Children were trained in religious [ceremonies and usages]. - [Vocational] training for livelihood was very important to the Romans. **Agencies of Education and Contents Studied** The school of "**grammaticus,**" or grammar school taught grammar, literature, and the art of speaking correctly. The most advanced education was given in rhetorical schools, which gave a broad training in language and literature, and in declamation as preparation for management of public and private affairs, which required the art or oratory. The [rhetorical schools] played an important part in disseminating Roman culture. The encouragement of such schools was encouraged by the government subsidies and by the exemption of teachers from taxation and military service. Children of both sexes learned the rudiments of knowledge, morals, and religion at [home]. The girls learned all house chores like cooking, weaving, sewing and the like. The boys, on the other hand, went with their father to [shops and farms] to learn the trades of their fathers. [Military camp] was the place where the boys learned the art of warfare like the use of the battle-ax, lance, and chariot. [Forum] was the place where boys learned the science of politics and government. The Greek set up [private schools]. The pupils had to pay for some learning such as reading, writing, and counting. These schools had little prestige among Romans. Ballads and song glorifying traits esteemed by the Romans, the Laws of the Twelve Tables, Religious ceremonies and usages, physical and military exercises, domestic chores taught by mothers to their daughters and vocations were some of the **contents studied** by the Romans. Two of the most [influential teachers] and thinkers in Roman education were **Cicerio** and **Quintilian**. Cicero's writings provided the ideal for the education of the Middle Ages. His educational ideas were put in his orator not only as well-rounded man of affairs but as a man of integrity in character. Quintilian stressed memory and used memorizing as main basis of motivation. He made use of plays and games for relaxation, and to stimulate interest in consideration with the individual differences. He suggested competition and awards as bases for motivation rather than corporal punishment. The youth memorized the laws of the twelve tables, which defined private and public relationships and human and property rights. Among the right were: the rights of a father over his children; the right of a husband over his wife; the right of a master over his slaves, and the right of a man over his property. With regard to religious ceremonies and usages, all activities were under the auspices of gods who have to be placated always by sacrifices and ceremonies. Among the gods were Jupiter, the Roman guardian; Juno, Jupiter's wife and the symbol of womanhood; Janus, the twin-faced god of beginnings and ends of activities; Saturn, god of agriculture, Minerva, goddess of husbandmen; Mars, god of war; Vulcan, god of forge and industry; Venus, garden deity and goddess of love; Lares, spirit of ancestors; Penates, household spirits, and Genius, spirit of the father of the home. **Methods of Instruction** Direction imitation, memorization, and discipline were the methods of instruction of the early Roman education. The boys imitated their fathers and the girls their mother. Reading, writing, and counting were learned by imitation from parents or teachers. They were also urged to imitate the heroes whose exploits were related to them. When training was carried in the home, in the father's shop or farm, in the forum (an open market place/the center of Roman Government), or in the military camp, the learners did not pay any fee. But when they entered the private schools put up by the Greeks, they had pay. **Some of the Roman Traits** - Romans were not truly interested in the cultural aspects of life, although some of finer aspects of Hellenic culture were taken as a means of shows. - Wealth became the objective of most citizens and vulgar displays became the essence of wealth. Luxury, corruption, extravagance, and vice became commonplace. - The Roman lacked drive for clean competition; they did not see nakedness of performance, and they did not see the value of play as an enjoyable pastime. - They prefer to be spectators rather than participants. They preferred professionalism than amateurism. The rewards of some individuals who engaged in chariot races and gladiatorial combats were enormous. The fall of the Roman Empire in the West about 476 AD resulted in a period of history that is frequently referred to as Dark Ages. This period, however, was anything but dark in respect to the physical; rejuvenation brought about by the Teutonic barbarians overrunning the Roman Empire. One of the most outstanding causes for the breakdown of the Roman Empire was the physical and moral decay of the Roman people. **Causes Effects** Divorce, games and Decrease in population suicides Extravagance, doles, Moral depravity and slaves labor, and misuse enormous ruin of public funds Luxurious living, vices Poor health and physical and excesses deterioration **LATER ROMAN EDUCATION** Roman is the capital city of Italy and one of the world's great historic cities. It has been important center of civilization for over 2,000 years. Because of its long history, Rome was called the Eternal City. It is also one of the world's most beautiful cities, its historic center standing on seven hills. Its ancient monuments and magnificent churches and palaces stand as reminders of Rome past glory. Gleaming new buildings are a sign of modern-day importance. **Aims of Education** The chief aim of Roman education is [oratorical]. The *vir bonus* (morally virtuous), gifted in oratory was the ideal educated man. The educated man must have the moral character, broad knowledge, and ability to speak. [Civic] was the ideal aim of the Roman school system to train the student for public service. Cicero, Tacitus, and Quintilian recognize that the ideally educated man was an orator who used his learning for public service. **Types of Education** - [Speech training] was the outstanding type. Public speaking or oratory and debate were given much attention. - [Civic training] was coupled with speech training with the expectation that the good orator would use his talent for public service. - The presence of many inscriptions and epitaphs on tombs, election posters, shop identifications, and public notices indicated that there was a good [literacy education]. - [Vocational education] was for the great mass of the people because there was no universal education. **Agencies of Education and Contents Studied** The school of *litterator* (teacher of the rhetoric) was in the elementary level, an outgrowth and successor to the *ludus [ ]*attended by both boys and girls. **Ludus** mean sports or play where the term *ludi* or private schools were taken. School of *grammaticus* (teacher of grammar) was in the secondary level attended by boys only. Greek grammar school and Latin grammar school were the two types of school *grammaticus*. Grammar and literature were taught in these schools. School of the *rhetor* (teacher of the rhetoric) was in the higher level. *Athenaeum* was in the university level developed as the center of learning around the library established by Emperor Vespasian in 75 AD. At the age of 7-10, boys and girls entered the *litterator*. They learned reading, writing, and calculation. Arithmetic was primitive because of the cumbersome Roman notation. The Twelve Tables later gave way to the Latin translation of Homer. At the age of 10-16 years old, grammar was the chief study with the inclusion of literature, prose, poetry, and language. Greek and Latin authors reflecting the new literary attitudes were studied. Geography, history, mythology and natural sciences were studied superficially, only to enable students to recognize such allusions in literature. At 16, boys entered the school of the *rhetor*. This included debates on point of Roman law and moral principles, especially ethical and cultural content, history of one's country, music, arithmetic, astronomy, geometry, and philosophy. Those who hurdles the school of the *rhetor* went to the Athenaeum for a professional course. In the university, applied science and professions such as law, medicine, architecture, and mechanics were in the curriculum. **Methods of Instruction** [Memorization], [drill and writing exercises] and [public speaking practices] were the method of instruction for the early Romans. [Memorization] was used in the elementary level. The pupils sat on the floor and rested their tables on their knees. Class sessions were from sunrise to sunset. No class was held during summer and holidays. Writing and reading were taught from dictation and writing was on wax with stylus. Discipline was severe and flogging was used. Letters of the alphabet were memorized and pronunciation, enunciation, and self-expression were also taught. [Drill and writing exercises] was in the secondary level. There was intensive drill on grammatical elements such as parts of speech, syntax, pronunciation, and the like. There was so much practice in writing paragraphs, themes, compositions, and poetic expressions. [Public speaking] was strong emphasis in all types of the rhetorics. There was strong emphasis in all types of public speaking such as declamations, eulogies, funeral orations, exhortations, and extemporaneous speeches after lectures on articulation, modulation, emphasis, and the like. The schools established in Rome did the fees of the students support private schools. Thus, only the children of the well-to-do families could attend school. Classes were conducted in the homes of some pupils or in some vacant public building. Later, Quintilian advocated the establishment of a public school system. The first emperor to answer the call was Vespasian who ordered the payment of salaries of the Greek rhetoricians. Emperor Trajan provided for scholarships for poor students. Antonius Pius exempted teachers form paying taxes and military services. Marcus Aurelius ordered the establishment of a salary scale for teachers. Earlier, Hadrian started paying pensions to retired teachers. Starting 425 AD, only the State could establish schools. **Outstanding Contributions to Education and Civilization** One of the contributions of the Roman to education and civilization was their [methods of organization, management, and administration]. They had constructed a carefully organized education ladder which probably became the forerunner of many ladderized educational system of today. Another was the Roman's organized body of [civil law] which became the basis of the legal systems in many countries including the Philippines. The Romans believed that there should be empathy in the teacher-pupil relations, and that teachers should be properly selected, even setting forth the qualities that a teacher should have. The validity of these educational principles is recognized in the present time.