FMLY 2600 Test 1 PDF

Module 1 Study Notes on Child Development Introduction This chapter focuses on the history, theories, and methods of child development. It begins with an icebreaker activity involving a painting from the 17th century, prompting discussions about the portrayal of children compared to adults and how...

Module 1 Study Notes on Child Development Introduction This chapter focuses on the history, theories, and methods of child development. It begins with an icebreaker activity involving a painting from the 17th century, prompting discussions about the portrayal of children compared to adults and how perceptions of childhood have evolved over time. Learning Objectives By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:  Define child development and its significance.  Evaluate various theories of child development.  Discuss controversies in child development.  Explain research methods in child development.  Understand ethical considerations in child development research. What Is Child Development? Child development is defined as the period from infancy to puberty, encompassing various stages:  Infancy: Birth to 2 years  Early Childhood: 2 to 5 years  Middle Childhood: 6 to 12 years  Adolescence: 13 to 20 years Development can be categorized into biological, cognitive, social, emotional, and behavioral dimensions. It involves both qualitative changes (development) and quantitative changes (growth). Why Study Child Development? Researchers study child development to gain insights into:  Human nature and adult behavior origins.  Sex differences and gender roles.  Effects of culture on development.  Developmental problems and their prevention.  Optimizing developmental conditions. Historical Views of Children Historically, children were viewed as "miniature adults," often subjected to harsh discipline. Enlightenment thinkers like John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau shifted perspectives, emphasizing experience and innate goodness, respectively. The Industrial Revolution saw children working long hours, leading to protective laws in the 20th century. Pioneers in Child Development Key figures include:  Charles Darwin: Theory of evolution and baby biographies.  G. Stanley Hall: Established child development as an academic discipline.  Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon: Developed the first standardized intelligence test. Theories of Child Development Various theories help describe, explain, predict, and influence child development:  Psychoanalytic Theory: Focuses on internal conflicts (Freud and Erikson).  Learning Theories: Emphasize observable behaviors (Watson, Skinner).  Cognitive-Developmental Theory: Focuses on mental processes (Piaget).  Biological Views: Emphasize physical development and heredity.  Ecological Systems Theory: Examines interactions within various systems (Bronfenbrenner).  Sociocultural Perspective: Highlights the influence of culture (Vygotsky). Controversies in Child Development Key controversies include:  Nature vs. Nurture: The debate over heredity versus environmental influences.  Continuity vs. Discontinuity: Whether development occurs gradually or in stages.  Active vs. Passive Participation: Whether children are active learners or shaped by experiences. Research Methods in Child Development Researchers utilize various methods to study child development:  Scientific Method: Involves forming questions, hypotheses, testing, and publishing findings.  Naturalistic Observation: Observing behavior in real-life settings.  Case Studies: In-depth analysis of individual behavior.  Surveys: Collecting data through questionnaires or interviews.   Correlational Studies: Examining relationships between variables.  Experiments: Determining cause and effect through controlled studies.  Longitudinal Studies: Observing the same children over time.  Cross-Sectional Studies: Comparing different age groups at one time. Ethical Considerations Research involving children must adhere to ethical guidelines, including:  Minimizing risk of harm.  Obtaining voluntary informed consent.  Ensuring the right to withdraw from studies.  Maintaining confidentiality.  Obtaining prior approval from review committees. Learning Objectives By the end of this chapter, students will be able to:  Explain the influence of heredity on biological, psychological, and social development.  Describe the effects of chromosomal and genetic abnormalities.  Explain the interaction between heredity (nature) and environment (nurture) in development.  Describe the process of conception, including the development of ova and sperm cells.  Discuss infertility issues and how health professionals assist couples wanting children. Truth or Fiction Evaluate common beliefs about heredity:  Your father determines your sex.  Brown eyes are dominant over blue eyes.  Carriers of genetic illnesses may not show symptoms.  Girls are born with all the egg cells they will ever have.  More boys are conceived than girls.  Sperm travel randomly in the reproductive tract.  Extensive athletic activity may lead to male infertility.  “Test-tube” babies are not grown in a lab dish for 9 months.  Sex selection of children is possible. 2.1 The Influence of Heredity on Development Heredity involves the biological transmission of traits from one generation to the next, studied under genetics. Genetic influences include:  Physical traits  Intelligence, emotional, and personality traits  Behavioral traits and psychological issues Chromosomes and Genes Chromosomes are rod-shaped structures found in cells, with 23 pairs in humans. Genes are segments within chromosomes that regulate trait development, with 20,000–25,000 genes in each cell. DNA, composed of base pairs, forms the genetic code that directs organism development. Mitosis and Meiosis Mitosis is the process of cell division for growth and tissue replacement, resulting in identical DNA copies. Meiosis produces sperm and ova, resulting in cells with 23 chromosomes, including sex chromosomes that determine gender. Identical and Fraternal Twins Monozygotic (identical) twins arise from a single zygote, while dizygotic (fraternal) twins come from two separate zygotes. The probability of twins increases with maternal age and fertility treatments. Dominant and Recessive Traits Traits are determined by gene pairs (alleles). Homozygous means both alleles are the same, while heterozygous means they differ. Gregor Mendel established the laws of heredity, including the law of dominance, where dominant alleles prevail in offspring. Chromosomal and Genetic Abnormalities Chromosomal abnormalities occur when individuals have an abnormal number of chromosomes, with risks increasing with parental age. Down syndrome, characterized by an extra chromosome on the 21st pair, leads to distinctive features and developmental deficits. Sex-Linked Chromosomal Abnormalities These abnormalities often result in infertility and include conditions like Klinefelter syndrome (XXY) and Turner syndrome (X). Classroom activities can involve researching these disorders and inviting families to share their experiences. Genetic Abnormalities Examples include:  Phenylketonuria (PKU)  Huntington disease (HD)  Sickle-cell anemia  Tay-Sachs disease  Cystic fibrosis Genetic Counseling and Prenatal Testing Genetic counseling assesses the likelihood of genetic abnormalities and includes prenatal testing methods like blood tests and ultrasounds. Amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling (CVS) can detect abnormalities but carry risks. 2.3 Heredity and the Environment Genotypes are inherited traits, while phenotypes are the expressed traits influenced by genetics and environment. Canalization refers to the invariant sequence of development, with varying degrees of influence from environmental factors. Genetic-Environmental Correlation Three types of correlations exist:  Passive correlation: Environment provided by parents.  Evocative correlation: Responses elicited by a child's genotype.  Active correlation: Child chooses their environment. 2.4 Conception Conception occurs when an egg is released and fertilized by sperm. Ova mature at puberty, and sperm must penetrate the ovum's protective layer. After fertilization, the zygote has 46 chromosomes, combining genetic material from both parents. 2.5 Infertility and Assisted Reproductive Technology Infertility causes include low sperm count in men and irregular ovulation in women. Assisted reproductive technologies include:  Artificial insemination  In vitro fertilization (IVF)  Donor IVF  Surrogacy  Adoption Classroom Activities Engage students in discussions about surrogacy and adoption, including legal and emotional implications. Invite guest speakers to provide real-world insights. Self-Assessment Encourage students to reflect on challenging concepts, surprising information, and valuable insights from the chapter, considering how they might apply this knowledge in their lives. Learning Objectives  Describe the germinal stage, including nourishment and implantation.  Explain the embryonic stage, focusing on organ systems, sexual differentiation, the amniotic sac, and the placenta.   Outline the fetal stage of development.  Discuss environmental influences, including maternal nutrition, teratogens, and the effects of drugs and smoking. Truth or Fiction Several statements about prenatal development are presented to challenge common misconceptions:  Newly fertilized egg cells survive for more than a week without nourishment from the mother.  The heart starts beating when the embryo is only a fraction of an ounce.  Male sex hormones are crucial for the development of male external sex organs.  Fetuses can exhibit behaviors like thumb-sucking and hiccuping.  Exposure to teratogens varies in effect depending on the stage of development.  Babies can be born addicted to narcotics.  Moderate alcohol consumption during pregnancy is harmless. 3.1 The Germinal Stage: Wanderings The germinal stage lasts from conception to implantation (approximately 2 weeks). The zygote begins dividing within 36 hours and wanders in the uterus for 3-4 days before implantation, which takes about a week.  Blastocyst formation involves cell differentiation into the embryonic disk (inner layer) and trophoblast (outer layer).  Prior to implantation, cells are nourished by the yolk of the original egg.  Miscarriages often occur due to developmental abnormalities, with one-third of pregnancies resulting in miscarriage, mostly in the first three months. Knowledge Check 1: The Germinal Stage Question: The inner part of the blastocyst is the ________, and the outer part is the ________. Answer: a. embryonic disk; trophoblast 3.2 The Embryonic Stage This stage begins with implantation (around the third week) and continues through week 8, during which major organ systems differentiate.  Developmental trends include cephalocaudal (head to tail) and proximodistal (near to far).  The ectoderm develops into the nervous system and skin, the endoderm into digestive and respiratory systems, and the mesoderm into circulatory and reproductive systems.  By the end of the first month, the neural tube produces 400 million neurons daily. Sexual Differentiation Sex organs begin to differentiate based on genetic code around the 7th week, with the presence of a Y chromosome leading to male development. Amniotic Sac and Placenta The amniotic sac protects the embryo/fetus and maintains temperature. The placenta facilitates nutrient and waste exchange between mother and fetus. Knowledge Check 2: The Embryonic Stage Match the structures with their functions:  Placenta - Enables exchange of nutrients and waste between mother and fetus.  Amniotic sac - Serves as a protective cushion allowing movement without injury.  Neural tube - Develops into the nervous system.  Endoderm - Develops into respiratory and digestive systems.  Mesoderm - Develops into skeletal, muscular, circulatory, reproductive, and excretory systems. 3.3 The Fetal Stage The fetal stage lasts from the third month until birth. By the end of the first trimester, major organ systems are formed, and the sex of the fetus can be visually determined.  By the end of the second trimester, the fetus can open and shut its eyes and respond to light and sound.  Movement begins around the 4th or 5th month, with increased activity as the fetus grows. 3.4 Environmental Influences on Prenatal Development Maternal nutrition significantly impacts prenatal development. Malnutrition can lead to low birth weight and cognitive deficiencies, while obesity increases risks of stillbirth and neural tube defects.  Essential nutrients include proteins, vitamins, iron, calcium, and folic acid.  Weight gain recommendations vary based on pre-pregnancy BMI. Teratogens Teratogens are environmental agents that can harm the embryo/fetus, including drugs, heavy metals, and pathogens. The embryonic period (weeks 3-8) is particularly vulnerable to teratogenic effects. Effects of Drugs and Environmental Hazards Various substances can adversely affect prenatal development:  Accutane and thalidomide are linked to severe birth defects.  Alcohol can cause fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASDs).  Cigarette smoke can lead to low birth weight and developmental issues.  Heavy metals and radiation pose risks to cognitive development. Knowledge Check 3: Teratogens Question: Teratogens are most likely to cause structural abnormalities during: Answer: b. the embryonic stage Learning Objectives By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:  Describe the three stages of childbirth.  Discuss methods of childbirth, focusing on alleviating discomfort and cesarean delivery (C-sections).  Discuss birth problems, including oxygen deprivation, preterm delivery, and low-birth- weight babies.  Discuss postpartum issues, including psychological challenges and parental-infant bonding.  Describe characteristics of neonates.  Discuss sudden unexpected infant death and sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). Truth or Fiction? Evaluate common beliefs about childbirth and newborns:  The fetus signals its mother when ready to be born.  After birth, babies are held upside down and slapped to stimulate breathing.  The way the umbilical cord is cut determines the baby’s belly button type.  Women using the Lamaze method do not experience pain.  In the U.S., nearly 1 in 3 births is by cesarean section.  Feeling depressed after childbirth is abnormal.  Extended early contact is necessary for adequate bonding.  More children die from SIDS than from various other causes combined. 4.1 Stages of Childbirth Events in the Last Month of Pregnancy Key signs that labor is approaching include:  Dropping or lightening: the fetus's head settles in the pelvis.  Braxton-Hicks contractions (false labor).  Blood in vaginal secretions.  Dislodging of the mucous plug.  Amniotic fluid discharge (water breaking).  Common signs of labor onset: indigestion, diarrhea, backache, abdominal cramps. First Stage of Childbirth This stage is the longest, lasting from hours to over a day. Key events include:  Regular uterine contractions that efface and dilate the cervix.  Preparation procedures (e.g., shaving pubic hair, enema).  Fetal monitoring may be used to track heart rate and contractions.  Transition phase: cervix nearly fully dilated, strong contractions. Second Stage of Childbirth This stage is shorter and culminates in the birth of the baby. Important points include:  Baby's head appears at the birth canal (crowning).  Possible episiotomy to prevent tearing.  Immediate suctioning of mucus from the baby's mouth.  Umbilical cord clamped and severed after the baby breathes independently. Third Stage of Childbirth Also known as the placental stage, it involves:  Separation of the placenta from the uterine wall.  Normal bleeding and uterine shrinking.  Repair of any episiotomy if performed. 4.2 Methods of Childbirth Anesthesia in Childbirth Types of anesthesia include:  General anesthesia: puts the mother to sleep, may affect the infant.   Regional/local anesthetics: alleviate pain without sedation. Hypnosis and Biofeedback Methods to manage pain include:  HypnoBirthing: focuses on relaxation and control.  Biofeedback: provides information to help regulate bodily functions. Prepared Childbirth The Lamaze method emphasizes:  Breathing and relaxation techniques.  Involvement of a coach/partner for support.  Education on childbirth to reduce anxiety and discomfort. Cesarean Sections C-sections are performed for various reasons, including:  Maternal or fetal distress.  To avoid complications from labor.  Some mothers opt for C-sections to schedule delivery. Home Birth Considerations Home births can be safe for healthy women with low-risk pregnancies, especially with a certified nurse midwife present. 4.3 Birth Problems Oxygen Deprivation Effects Oxygen deprivation can lead to:  Anoxia and hypoxia affecting CNS development.  Potential long-term cognitive and motor issues. Preterm and Low Birth Weight Risks Preterm birth (before 37 weeks) and low birth weight (less than 5½ pounds) are associated with:  Higher mortality rates and developmental delays.  Signs of prematurity include lanugo, vernix, and immature muscles. 4.4 The Postpartum Period Psychological Challenges Women may experience:  “Baby blues”: transient mood changes.  Postpartum depression (PPD): major depression occurring after childbirth.  Postpartum psychosis: severe condition requiring immediate attention. Parental Interaction and Bonding Bonding is crucial for child development and is influenced by:  Parental desire and familiarity.  Parental psychological well-being. 4.5 Characteristics of Neonates Health Assessments Health professionals use the Apgar scale and other assessments to evaluate neonates' health. Reflexes Neonates exhibit several reflexes essential for survival, including:  Rooting and sucking reflexes.  Moro reflex (startle response).  Grasping reflex.  Stepping reflex.  Babinski reflex. 4.6 Sudden Unexpected Infant Death and Sudden Infant Death Syndrome Understanding SIDS SIDS is a leading cause of infant death, particularly in:  Babies aged 2-4 months.  Those placed to sleep on their stomachs.  Premature and low-birth-weight infants. Precautions Against SIDS Recommendations include:   Placing babies on their backs to sleep.  Using a firm sleep surface.  Avoiding soft bedding and overheating. Module 2 Learning Objectives By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:  Describe patterns of growth in infancy, focusing on the sequences of physical development.  Describe the nutritional needs of infants, focusing on the pros and cons of breastfeeding.  Describe the development of the brain and nervous system during infancy, focusing on the interaction of nature and nurture.  Describe motor development during infancy.  Describe sensory and perceptual development during infancy. Truth or Fiction? Review the following statements to understand key facts about infant physical development:  The head of a newborn doubles in length by adulthood, while legs increase by about five times.  Infants typically triple their birth weight within the first year.  Breastfeeding can help prevent obesity later in life.  A newborn's brain weighs about 25% of its adult weight, growing to 70% by the first birthday.  The cerebral cortex is only one-eighth of an inch thick.  Hopi infants, despite being strapped to a board, walk at similar times as other cultures.  Infants need to crawl before developing a fear of heights. 5.1 Physical Growth and Development Sequences of Physical Development Infants exhibit two primary patterns of growth:  Cephalocaudal Development: Growth progresses from the head down to the lower body.  Proximodistal Development: Growth occurs from the trunk outward to the periphery. Additionally, differentiation refers to the process where behavior becomes more specific and distinct. Patterns of Growth Key growth milestones include:  Doubling birth weight by approximately 5 months and tripling it by 1 year.  Height increases by about 50% in the first year.  Growth occurs in spurts rather than continuously.  Girls typically reach half their adult height by 18 months, while boys do so by their second year. Changes in Body Proportions Children's heads are proportionately larger than adults', reflecting cephalocaudal development. Other body proportions, such as arms and legs, also change significantly during infancy. Failure to Thrive (FTT) FTT can impair growth and is categorized into:  Organic FTT: Linked to underlying health issues.  Nonorganic FTT (NOFTT): Associated with psychological or social factors, often involving feeding problems. Reactive-attachment disorder and marasmus are conditions related to FTT, affecting emotional and physical health. 5.2 Nutrition: Fueling Development Nutritional Status of U.S. Children While the overall nutritional status of U.S. children is adequate, nearly 41% live below the federal poverty level, with significant representation from African American, Latin American, and Native American communities. Infant Nutritional Needs Infants require:  Breast milk or iron-fortified formula from birth.  Introduction of solid foods around 4-6 months, starting with iron-enriched cereals. Breastfeeding vs. Bottle Feeding Consider the pros and cons of breastfeeding:  Pros: Natural, provides antibodies, reduces maternal cancer risks, promotes bonding.  Cons: Potential transmission of harmful substances, physical demands on the mother. 5.3 Development of the Brain and Nervous System Neurons and Their Development Neurons are the basic units of the nervous system, consisting of a cell body, dendrites, and an axon. Myelination, the process of coating axons with myelin, enhances message transmission efficiency. Brain Growth The brain of a neonate weighs less than 1 pound and will triple in weight by the first birthday. Key structures include:  Medulla: Controls vital functions like heartbeat and respiration.  Cerebellum: Maintains balance and coordinates movements.  Cerebrum: Involved in learning, thought, and memory. Brain Development in Infancy Brain development is influenced by both nature and nurture, with enriched environments leading to heavier brains with more synapses. Fetal nutrition is crucial for brain nourishment. 5.4 Motor Development Control of the Torso and Head Neonates can raise their heads by 1 month and lift their chests by 2 months. By 3-6 months, they can hold their heads without support. Control of the Hands Motor skills develop through proximodistal growth, with infants progressing from grasp reflexes to more refined grips, such as the pincer grasp by 9-12 months. Locomotion Locomotion develops through a sequence of movements, including rolling, sitting, crawling, and walking. By age 2, children can run, jump, and climb stairs. 5.5 Sensory and Perceptual Development Development of Vision Vision develops significantly in the first year, with neonates being nearsighted. Visual acuity improves rapidly, reaching near-adult levels by age 3-5. Development of Hearing Neonates can orient their heads toward sounds and discriminate between similar speech sounds by 1 month. By 3.5 months, they can recognize their parents' voices. Coordination of the Senses Infants begin to integrate sensory information, recognizing objects through different senses. Over time, their perceptual processes become more active and selective. Self-Assessment Reflect on the concepts that were challenging and how they relate to your observations of physical development in children. Consider how you might apply this knowledge in your personal or professional life. Summary By studying this chapter, you should now be able to:  Describe patterns of growth in infancy.  Understand the nutritional needs of infants.  Explain the development of the brain and nervous system.  Discuss motor development during infancy.  Describe sensory and perceptual development in infants. Learning Objectives By the end of this chapter, students will be able to:  Describe Jean Piaget's cognitive developmental theory, focusing on the six substages of sensorimotor development.  Explain the information-processing theory of cognitive development and its differences from Piaget’s theory.  Discuss social influences on early cognitive development.  Describe individual differences in cognitive functioning among infants and how they are measured.  Outline the sequences of language development in infancy.   Evaluate theories of language development, considering the question: “Can you make a houseplant talk?” Truth or Fiction? Key statements to consider:  For 2-month-old infants, “out of sight” is “out of mind.”  A 1-hour-old infant may imitate an adult who sticks their tongue out.  Psychologists can begin to measure intelligence in infancy.  Infant crying is a primitive form of language.  Correcting children's pronunciation errors can advance their development.  Children are “prewired” to listen to language, aiding their understanding of words and grammar rules. 6.1 Cognitive Development: Jean Piaget Piaget’s Major Concepts Key concepts include:  Assimilation: Integrating new experiences into existing mental frameworks.  Accommodation: Adjusting existing frameworks to incorporate new experiences.  Cognitive development occurs in four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operations. Sensorimotor Stage of Cognitive Development This stage spans the first two years and is characterized by sensory and motor activities. It includes six substages:  Substage 1: Simple reflexes (0-1 month).  Substage 2: Primary circular reactions (1-4 months).  Substage 3: Secondary circular reactions (4-8 months).  Substage 4: Coordination of secondary schemes (8-12 months).  Substage 5: Tertiary circular reactions (12-18 months).  Substage 6: Invention of new means through mental combinations (18-24 months). Object Permanence Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when not visible. Development occurs as follows:  0-6 months: "Out of sight is out of mind."  6 months: Infants begin to look for partially hidden objects.  8-12 months: Infants seek completely hidden objects.   Research suggests rudimentary object permanence may exist as early as 2½-3½ months. Strengths and Limitations of Piaget’s Theory While Piaget's theory provides a comprehensive model of infant cognition, it has limitations:  Developmental changes are more gradual than discrete stages.  Interpersonal influences play a significant role in cognitive development.  Infants' competence may be underestimated, as evidenced by deferred imitation. 6.2 Information Processing Memory Capacity of Infants Infant memory improves significantly between 2-6 months and again by 12 months, indicating better encoding and retrieval abilities. Studies show that priming can enhance memory. Imitation in Infants Deferred imitation occurs as early as 6 months, suggesting an innate imitation reflex that aids in forming caregiver-infant bonds and survival. 6.3 Social Influences on Early Cognitive Development Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory Children's cognitive development is influenced by internalizing strategies from skilled partners through joint problem-solving. Key concepts include:  Zone of Proximal Development: The area where children can learn with assistance.  Scaffolding: Support provided by adults that is gradually withdrawn as the child learns. 6.4 Individual Differences in Cognitive Functioning Among Infants Testing Intellectual Development The Bayley Scales of Infant Development (BSID) assess various skills, including:  Mental scale items (communication, perceptual skills, etc.).  Motor scale items (gross and fine motor skills).  Behavior rating scale (attention span, social development). Visual Recognition Memory Visual recognition memory is the ability to distinguish previously seen objects from new ones, which is linked to later IQ scores. 6.5 Language Development Prelinguistic Vocalizations Language development begins with:  Crying (newborns).  Cooing (2 months).  Babbling (6-9 months).  Echolalia (10-12 months). Vocabulary Development Receptive vocabulary outpaces expressive vocabulary. Key milestones include:  First word typically around 11-13 months.  Rapid vocabulary growth occurs at 18-22 months, increasing from 50 to over 300 words. 6.6 Theories of Language Development Learning Theorists Learning theorists emphasize imitation and reinforcement in language development. Psycho-linguistic Theory This theory posits that language acquisition is a combination of environmental influences and innate tendencies. Emergentist Theory This theory suggests that language emerges from the interaction of biological structures and cognitive/social processes. Learning Objectives By the end of this chapter, students will be able to:  Describe research on attachment formation and the benefits of secure attachment.   Discuss issues in attachment, including social deprivation, child abuse, neglect, and autism spectrum disorder.  Describe the benefits and drawbacks of day care.  Describe emotional and personality development in infants.  Discuss gender differences during infancy and the origins of these differences. Attachment: Bonds That Endure Definitions Attachment is often viewed as love or affection. Mary Ainsworth defines it as an emotional tie between individuals, while John Bowlby emphasizes its importance for infant survival. Infants exhibit innate behaviors (crying, smiling, clinging) to elicit caregiving from parents. Infants show separation anxiety when contact with caregivers is disrupted, leading to distress behaviors. Patterns of Attachment Attachment can be categorized as secure or insecure:  Secure Attachment: Mild protest at departure, seeks interaction upon reunion, easily comforted.  Avoidant Attachment: Least distressed by departure, ignores mother upon reunion.  Ambivalent/Resistant Attachment: Severe distress upon separation, alternates between clinging and pushing away upon reunion.  Disorganized-Disoriented Attachment: Dazed and confused, may approach mother but look away. Effects of Attachment Securely attached infants tend to be happier, more sociable, and better problem solvers. They use their mother as a secure base for exploration and have longer attention spans. Parental Roles in Attachment High-quality caregiving contributes to secure attachment. Attachment patterns can be transmitted across generations, and siblings often develop similar attachment styles. Both infant temperament and caregiver behavior influence attachment stability. Stages of Attachment Ainsworth identified several stages of attachment:  Pre-Attachment Phase: Birth to 3 months, characterized by indiscriminate attachment.  Attachment-in-the-Making Phase: 3-4 months, preference for familiar figures.   Clear-Cut Attachment Phase: Begins at 6-7 months, marked by intensified dependence on primary caregivers. Issues in Attachment Social Deprivation Children raised in institutions with little social stimulation show delays in development. Research indicates that infants can recover from deprivation, as seen in studies with rhesus monkeys. Child Abuse and Neglect Statistics show over 4 million reports of child abuse annually, with neglect being the most common form. Abused children often face personal and social problems, including insecure attachment and aggression. Factors contributing to child abuse include situational stress, parental history of abuse, and substance abuse. Preventive measures include strengthening parenting skills and increasing public awareness. Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) ASD is characterized by communication impairments, social interaction difficulties, and repetitive behaviors. It is more common in boys and can be influenced by parental age. Treatment options include behavior modification and drug therapies. Day Care Most infants in day care are securely attached. Quality day care can enhance social and cognitive development, although some children may exhibit increased aggression. High-quality day care is associated with superior cognitive skills. Emotional Development Understanding Emotions Emotions consist of physiological, situational, and cognitive components. Initial emotional expressions are positive towards pleasant stimuli and negative towards aversive stimuli. Emotional development is linked to attachment patterns, with securely attached children showing less anger and fear over time. Fear of Strangers Stranger anxiety is a normal developmental phase, peaking between 9-12 months. Babies show less fear in familiar settings and when held by caregivers. Personality Development Self-Concept The sense of self emerges gradually, with infants demonstrating self-awareness by 18 months. This self-awareness facilitates sharing and cooperation. Temperament Temperament is a core aspect of personality, with three types identified by Thomas and Chess:  Easy: Regular schedule, adaptable, generally cheerful.  Difficult: Irregular schedule, slow to adapt, responds negatively.  Slow to Warm Up: Somewhat irregular, negative response to new experiences but adapts slowly. Goodness of Fit The concept of goodness of fit refers to how well parenting styles match a child's temperament. A good fit encourages positive behavior, while a poor fit can lead to difficulties. Gender Differences Infant girls tend to develop motor skills earlier than boys and show different toy preferences. Adult responses to children also differ based on gender, influencing development. Learning Objectives By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:  Describe growth patterns during early childhood, focusing on brain development.  Describe motor development, including gross and fine motor skills and handedness.  Discuss nutritional needs and children's compliance with healthful foods.  Discuss common childhood diseases and the anti-vaxxer controversy.  Discuss sleep patterns, including nightmares and sleep terrors.  Discuss elimination disorders and coping strategies for caregivers. Truth or Fiction? Explore common misconceptions regarding childhood development, such as:   Some children are left-brained and others are right-brained.  Sedentary parents lead to sedentary children.  Famous individuals share common traits unrelated to their professions.  Some diseases are considered normal in childhood.  Infections are a leading cause of death among children in the U.S.  Awakening a sleepwalker is dangerous.  Competent parents toilet-train by age two. Growth Patterns (8.1) During early childhood, growth rates slow after the first two years:  Children gain about 2–3 inches in height and 4–6 pounds in weight per year.  Children lose some baby fat while gaining height.  Growth patterns vary significantly among children. Brain Development The brain develops rapidly during early childhood:  At age 2, the brain is 75% of adult weight; by age 5, it reaches 90%.  Myelination of nerve fibers enhances brain size and motor skills.  Improvements in visual processing are critical for learning to read. Motor Development (8.2) Motor skills develop in two categories:  Gross Motor Skills: Involve large muscle groups for locomotion, with significant individual differences.  Fine Motor Skills: Develop through proximodistal growth, with children's drawings reflecting cognitive and motor skill development. Handedness emerges early, with most children being right-handed. Theories suggest genetic and prenatal factors influence handedness. Nutritional Needs (8.3) Children's nutritional requirements include:  Proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals.  Caloric needs increase with age: 1,000–1,300 calories for 1–3-year-olds and 1,400–1,600 for 4–5-year-olds.   Appetite may decrease and become erratic during ages 2 and 3. Health and Illness (8.4) Common minor illnesses include colds and gastrointestinal issues, with children averaging 8–9 minor illnesses per year at ages 1–3. Major illnesses affecting children under 5 include pneumonia, diarrhea, and malaria, with malnutrition contributing to many deaths. Accidents are a leading cause of death, with motor vehicle accidents being the most common. Legislation has helped reduce accidental injuries. Sleep Patterns (8.5) Young children need 10–11 hours of sleep, often including a nap. Common sleep disorders include:  Sleep terrors, which occur during deep sleep.  Nightmares, which occur during REM sleep.  Sleepwalking, more common in children than adults. Elimination Disorders (8.6) Toilet training is influenced by maturation, with enuresis (bedwetting) and encopresis (soiling) being common issues. Enuresis affects about 10% of children, while encopresis is more common among boys. Both conditions typically resolve by age 8. Self-Assessment Reflect on the chapter by considering:  Challenging subjects that require further review.  New insights gained from the chapter.  Practical applications of the information in daily life. Learning Objectives By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:  Describe Jean Piaget’s preoperational stage of cognitive development.  Explain Vygotsky’s views on early childhood cognitive development.   Discuss the impact of the HOME environment, preschool, and television on cognitive development.  Define the theory of mind and its functioning.  Describe memory development in early childhood.  Chronicle language development and its nuances. Truth or Fiction Statements Evaluate the following statements regarding early childhood cognitive development:  Imaginary playmates indicate loneliness or psychological issues.  Two-year-olds believe parents are aware of everything happening to them.  “Because Mommy wants me to” is a valid explanation for a 3-year-old.  Children’s intelligence is influenced by early learning experiences.  Academic preschool education benefits later school performance.  One- and 2-year-olds cannot remember past events.  Children may use incorrect grammar, such as “Daddy goed away,” due to their understanding of language rules. 9.1 Jean Piaget’s Preoperational Stage Children in the preoperational stage begin to use symbols to represent objects and relationships. Key characteristics include:  Use of symbols in scribbling and drawing.  Engagement in symbolic or pretend play.  Language development, which is significant but not yet logical. Symbolic or Pretend Play Symbolic play begins around 12-13 months, evolving from self-directed activities to including others. By 30 months, children actively involve others in their play, often creating imaginary friends. Understanding Operations Operations refer to mental acts where objects are transformed and returned to their original states. Preoperational children struggle with mental operations, leading to egocentrism and confusion between mental and physical events. Egocentrism Egocentrism means children do not recognize that others have different perspectives. Piaget’s “three-mountains test” illustrates this, as children often cannot represent another's viewpoint. Causality and Precausal Thinking Young children exhibit precausal reasoning, believing that their thoughts directly influence reality. They also struggle with distinguishing between mental and physical events. Conservation and Centration Conservation refers to understanding that properties remain constant despite changes in shape or arrangement. Preoperational children focus on one aspect of a problem (centration) and do not grasp the concept of conservation. Class Inclusion Class inclusion involves understanding that new objects fit into broader categories. Preoperational children often fail to recognize this, leading to misconceptions about quantities in different categories. 9.2 Vygotsky’s Views on Cognitive Development Vygotsky emphasized the importance of social interaction in cognitive development through concepts like scaffolding and the zone of proximal development (ZPD). Scaffolding involves temporary support from knowledgeable individuals, while ZPD is the area where children can learn with guidance. 9.3 Factors Influencing Cognitive Development The HOME Inventory assesses the home environment's impact on cognitive development. A positive home environment is crucial for language, motor, and academic skills.  Types of preschool programs include academic, child-centered, and federally funded programs like Head Start.  Television can be both beneficial and harmful; educational programs like Sesame Street enhance learning, while excessive entertainment TV can lead to negative outcomes. 9.4 Theory of Mind The theory of mind allows children to understand and predict behavior based on mental processes. By ages 4-5, children can grasp false beliefs and the distinction between appearance and reality. 9.5 Development of Memory Memory in early childhood involves recognition and recall, with preschoolers excelling in recognition tasks. Children form scripts for recurring events, and their memory is influenced by interest and parental support. 9.6 Language Development Preschoolers learn approximately nine new words daily through fast-mapping. Their grammar evolves from telegraphic speech to more complex structures, and they often apply grammatical rules incorrectly (overregularization).  Pragmatics develop as children learn to adjust their speech in social contexts.  Vygotsky proposed that language and cognition develop in tandem, with private speech evolving into internal dialogue. Learning Objectives By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:  Describe social influences on the development of 2- to 6-year-olds by parents, siblings, and peers, focusing on parenting styles.  Describe social behavior in early childhood, including play, prosocial behavior, empathy, and media effects.  Describe personality and emotional development in early childhood.  Describe the development of gender identity, gender roles, and gender differences. Truth or Fiction? Several statements are presented for discussion, including:  Restrictive parenting leads to rebellious children.  Reasoning with a 4-year-old is ineffective.  Firstborn children are more motivated than later-born children.  Physical punishment increases aggression in children.  Children watching excessive television see numerous violent acts before school.  Preschoolers commonly fear social disapproval.  Young children may have misconceptions about gender roles. Influences on Development: Parents, Siblings, and Peers Dimensions of Childrearing Childrearing can be characterized by two main dimensions:  Warmth–Coldness: Warm parents are affectionate and supportive, leading to better moral development and emotional well-being.  Restrictiveness–Permissiveness: Authoritative parenting combines control with warmth, while permissive styles lack control. Parenting Styles Different parenting styles influence children's development:  Authoritative: High control and warmth; children are self-reliant and socially competent.  Authoritarian: High control, low warmth; children are less socially and academically competent.  Permissive: Warm but not controlling; children may lack competence but have high self-confidence.  Rejecting-Neglecting: Low control and warmth; children are least competent and responsible. Siblings' Influence Siblings contribute to each other's development through:  Physical care and emotional support.  Role modeling and social interaction.  Conflict and competition, which can enhance social skills. Sibling relationships evolve over time, becoming more egalitarian as children grow older. Peer Influence Interactions with peers help develop:  Social skills such as sharing and conflict resolution.  Emotional support and cognitive skills. Social Behavior in Early Childhood Types of Play Jean Piaget identified four types of play:  Functional Play: Repetitive motor activity.   Symbolic Play: Pretend play with settings and characters.  Constructive Play: Creating something with materials.  Formal Games: Involving rules and social interaction. Prosocial Behavior Prosocial behavior includes actions intended to benefit others, such as helping and sharing. Empathy develops alongside prosocial behavior, with girls generally showing more empathy than boys. Aggression Aggression in preschoolers is often instrumental but can become hostile as they age. Factors contributing to aggression include:  Biological influences, such as genetics and testosterone levels.  Cognitive factors, including misinterpretation of social cues.  Social learning through observation and reinforcement. Personality and Emotional Development Self-Concept Development Children develop a categorical self based on external traits and begin to evaluate their self-worth by age 4. Self-regulation improves during early childhood, influenced by brain maturation and parenting practices. Erikson's Initiative vs. Guilt During early childhood, children strive for independence and may feel guilt when they fear breaking rules. Parents can foster a healthy sense of initiative by encouraging exploration and learning. Development of Gender Identity, Roles, and Differences Gender Identity Development Children typically become aware of their gender by 18 months and develop a firm sense of gender identity by 36 months. Gender roles are influenced by cultural stereotypes and socialization. Psychological Theories of Gender Differences Several theories explain the development of gender differences:  Social Cognitive Theory: Children learn gender-typed behaviors through observation and reinforcement.   Cognitive-Developmental Theory: Children actively construct their understanding of gender identity, stability, and constancy.  Gender Schema Theory: Children organize their perceptions of the world based on gender. Learning Objectives By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:  Describe growth patterns during middle childhood, focusing on gender differences, brain development, and nutrition.  Discuss the prevalence of overweight and obesity in children, its origins, and dietary encouragement.  Examine asthma in children, its origins, and treatment options.  Describe motor development in middle childhood, emphasizing gender similarities and differences.  Discuss ADHD and learning disabilities, including prevalence, origins, and treatment. Growth Patterns During middle childhood, children grow approximately 2 inches per year and gain about 5-7 lbs annually. Individual differences in height and weight become more pronounced, with variations of up to 30-35 lbs and 6 inches by age 10. Children also experience "growing pains" and lose primary teeth as permanent teeth emerge. Brain Development Myelination of axons continues, and brain volume increases, particularly in the frontal lobe, which is crucial for executive functions such as planning, attention, and cognitive flexibility. Significant developments occur between ages 7-9, with maturity reached by age 12. Nutrition and Growth Children's nutritional needs increase with age, requiring more calories due to physical activity. The USDA recommends a balanced diet, but many children consume high- sugar and high-fat foods, contributing to obesity. Portion sizes have increased, especially in fast-food restaurants. Gender Differences in Growth Boys are generally taller and heavier than girls until girls begin their growth spurt around ages 9-10. After this, girls surpass boys in height and weight until around age 13-14, when boys catch up and exceed girls. Both genders increase muscular strength, but boys develop more muscle while girls develop more fatty tissue. Vision and Hearing Development About 25% of U.S. children are myopic (nearsighted), with a decrease in myopia into young adulthood. Children aged 6-12 are less prone to ear infections due to longer, narrower Eustachian tubes, which reduce the movement of bacteria from the throat to the ear. Overweight and Obesity in Children Over one-third of U.S. children and adolescents are overweight or obese, with significant health risks including high blood pressure, diabetes, and emotional issues. Factors contributing to obesity include heredity, unhealthy school foods, lack of physical activity, and environmental influences. Childhood Asthma Asthma is a prevalent respiratory disorder characterized by lung spasms and difficulty breathing. Risk factors include previous respiratory issues, family history, and lower socioeconomic status. Protective factors include breastfeeding and having pets. Treatment often involves medications and environmental adjustments. Motor Development Gross motor skills improve steadily, with children developing balance and coordination for sports by ages 8-10. Fine motor skills, such as tying shoelaces and using utensils, develop by ages 6-7. Gender differences in motor skills emerge, with boys showing greater strength and girls demonstrating better coordination. Physical Fitness in Children Most U.S. children do not meet physical fitness standards, primarily due to increased screen time and a lack of continuous exercise opportunities. Parents can promote fitness through outdoor activities and reducing screen time. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) ADHD is characterized by inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity, with a higher prevalence in boys. Treatment often includes stimulants and cognitive behavioral therapy. Many children may outgrow ADHD, but symptoms can persist into adulthood. Learning Disabilities Learning disabilities affect academic performance without evidence of other impairments. Common types include dyslexia, dysgraphia, and dyscalculia. These disabilities are more prevalent in boys and often co-occur with ADHD. Treatment focuses on remediation and accommodation. Communication Disorders Communication disorders include expressive language disorder, mixed receptive/expressive language disorder, and phonological disorder. Stuttering is also common, affecting more boys than girls, with many children overcoming it without treatment. Mainstreaming vs. Special Education Mainstreaming aims to integrate children with learning disabilities into regular classrooms, but results are mixed. While some students thrive, others may feel overwhelmed. Special education programs exist, but concerns about stigmatization and lowered expectations persist. Learning Objectives By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:  Describe cognitive changes during Piaget’s concrete operational stage.  Contrast Piaget and Kohlberg's moral development theories with social cognitive domain theory.  Explain the development of information processing, including selective attention and metamemory.  Define intelligence and creativity, and discuss their measurement and related controversies.  Discuss language development and the effects of bilingualism. Truth or Fiction? Several statements are presented to challenge common beliefs about cognitive development:  Children's understanding of rules and justice evolves with age.  Memorization techniques vary in effectiveness based on age.  Intelligence is not solely defined by IQ scores.  Creativity is often linked to high intelligence.  Bilingualism does not inherently cause academic difficulties. 12.1 Jean Piaget: The Concrete-Operational Stage The concrete-operational stage lasts until around age 12 and marks the beginning of logical thinking with concrete objects. Key features include:  Reversibility and Flexibility: Children can reverse operations and understand relationships between numbers.  Decentration: Ability to focus on multiple aspects of a problem.  Conservation: Understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or arrangement.  Transitivity: Understanding relationships between different objects (e.g., if A > B and B > C, then A > C).  Class Inclusion: Ability to understand subclasses within a larger class. Application of Piaget’s Theory Piaget's theory has implications for education, emphasizing active discovery and instruction tailored to a child's developmental level. Perspective-taking is crucial for cognitive and moral development. Evaluation of Piaget’s Theory While Piaget's theory has influenced understanding of child development, some psychologists argue he underestimated children's abilities and that cognitive skills may develop more continuously rather than in distinct stages. 12.2 Moral Development: The Child as Judge Moral development involves cognitive and behavioral aspects, with children learning to judge actions as right or wrong. Piaget identified two stages:  Moral Realism: Emerges around age 5, where rules are seen as absolute.  Autonomous Morality: Develops later, allowing for flexibility in rules and greater empathy. Kohlberg expanded on this with a three-level model of moral reasoning, including preconventional, conventional, and postconventional levels. 12.3 Information Processing: Learning, Remembering, Problem Solving Information processing theory compares cognitive processes to computer functions, focusing on:  Selective Attention: Ability to focus on relevant information while ignoring distractions.  Memory Types: Sensory memory, working memory, and long-term memory.   Metacognition: Awareness and control of cognitive processes, including metamemory. 12.4 Intellectual Development, Creativity, and Achievement Intelligence is often distinguished from achievement, with various theories explaining its nature:  Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory: Identifies analytical, creative, and practical intelligence.  Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences: Proposes nine distinct types of intelligence.  Emotional and Social Intelligence: Recognizes the importance of emotional skills in overall intelligence. Standardized tests like the Stanford-Binet and Wechsler scales measure intelligence but may be culturally biased. 12.5 Language Development Children's vocabulary and grammar develop significantly during middle childhood:  By age 6, vocabulary reaches around 10,000 words.  Children begin to understand semantic ambiguity and can form complex sentences. Reading skills are enhanced through various teaching methods, including whole- language and phonetic approaches. Bilingualism is now recognized as beneficial rather than detrimental to cognitive development. Learning Objectives By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:  Recount theories of social and emotional development, including psychoanalytic and social cognitive theories.  Describe the role of family, including parent-child relationships and the effects of divorce.   Discuss the role of peers, including peer acceptance and friendships.  Analyze the effects of school on social and emotional development.  Identify social and emotional problems, including conduct disorders and anxiety.  Discuss the prevalence and prevention of child sexual abuse. Truth or Fiction Several statements are presented to challenge common beliefs about children’s development, including self-esteem trends, parental conflict, and the impact of maternal employment. Theories of Social and Emotional Development Psychoanalytic Theory Freud's latency stage emphasizes the suppression of sexual impulses, allowing children to focus on intellectual and social skills. Erikson's stage of industry versus inferiority highlights the importance of mastering tasks to develop a sense of competence. Social Cognitive Theory This theory emphasizes the role of rewards and modeling, with children internalizing values and expectations from their environment, including parental influences on future success. Cognitive-Developmental Theory According to Piaget, middle childhood is characterized by a decline in egocentrism and an increase in perspective-taking abilities, which are crucial for social interactions. Self-Concept and Self-Esteem During middle childhood, self-concept shifts from concrete traits to more abstract personality traits. Self-esteem is influenced by factors such as gender, parenting styles, and peer acceptance. The Family Parent-Child Relationships As children grow, they experience less parental monitoring and more self-regulation. Coregulation allows children to internalize parental standards. Effects of Divorce Divorce can significantly impact children, leading to emotional and behavioral issues. The quality of parenting post-divorce is crucial for children's adjustment. Parental Employment Research indicates that maternal employment does not negatively affect children’s behavior but can foster independence and achievement orientation. Peer Relationships Peers play a vital role in socialization, helping children develop skills in cooperation and conflict resolution. Friendships evolve from superficial connections to deeper, trust- based relationships. Peer Acceptance and Rejection Popular children tend to be socially skilled, while those with behavioral issues may face rejection. Aggressive children can sometimes achieve popularity through dominance. The School School's Influence on Development Schools set behavioral limits and influence children's social and moral development. A supportive school environment is essential for academic and social success. Characteristics of Good Schools Effective schools have strong leadership, a positive atmosphere, and high expectations for student achievement. Social and Emotional Problems Conduct Disorders Conduct disorders involve persistent rule-breaking and can stem from genetic, familial, and environmental factors. Treatment often includes cognitive-behavioral techniques. Depression and Anxiety Depression in children can manifest through various symptoms and often coexists with anxiety disorders. Treatment may involve therapy and, in some cases, medication. Child Sexual Abuse Child sexual abuse is prevalent but often underreported. Prevention programs are essential in educating children about abuse and encouraging reporting.