Flashcard Set Exam 2 PDF

Flashcard Set Exam 2 Kayla Caro Memory  What is memory? Definition: the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information Encoding  Definition: the translation of environmental information into a mental (or neural) repr...

Flashcard Set Exam 2 Kayla Caro Memory  What is memory? Definition: the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information Encoding  Definition: the translation of environmental information into a mental (or neural) representation, that can be retained by the memory system Storage Definition: the process whereby the information or representation is retained so that it can be produced at a later time Retrieval  Definition: The process of recreating or extracting the representation or information that was stored The story of Clive Wearing  Story: a professional conductor/musician who got sick from viral encephalitis in 1985. The virus severely damaged his hippocampus in both hemispheres. He gained both retrograde and anterograde amnesia ( the worst case of amnesia on record). Due to this he cannot retrieve anything from his past or make new memories, and it made him forget everything quickly. Amnesia Definition: any loss of memory Retrograde amnesia  Definition: is when a person loses memory for all events prior to whatever trauma caused the memory loss Anterograde amnesia Definition: is when a person loses the ability to store new information Infantile amnesia Definition: is the inability to recall events that happened when we were very young Alzheimer's disease  Definition: a brain disorder that slowly destroys memory and thinking skills, making it hard to do everyday activities. As people lose memories, they change who they are Flashbulb memory Definition: the clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event Encoding emotional memories Explanation: the process where the brain stores strong feelings and experiences, making them easier to remember later Forgetting/blocking emotional memories  Explanation: the brain reduces or erases strong feelings or experiences, making them harder to remember Post-traumatic stress disorder treatments Explanation: through therapy and medications to reduce stress and anxiety Atkinson-Shiffrin Model (1968)  Definition: explains that we store and process information in three stages – sensory, short-term, and long-term memory – with a key distinction that each holds information for different amounts of time Sensory memory  Definition: the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system Size: fairly large Time stored: a few tenths of a second to a few seconds Iconic memory - is a discrete visual sensory store Echoic memory - is a discrete auditory store Span of Apprehension - the number of items that people can immediately recall. Usually around 4 or 5 items Sperling’s Partial Report Technique - participants reported only some of the displayed information without knowing what was meant to be reported, which they were signaled to recall through a tone-varying pitch. and Sperling estimated sensory memory by multiplying the recalled items by the number of rows. e.g, 3 items per row x 3 rows = 9 items Short-term memory (working memory)  Definition: activated memory that holds a few items briefly (focuses more on the processing of briefly stored information) Size: the magical number 7 ± 2 items (Miller, 1956) Time Stored: 30 to 90 seconds Chunking - recording new material into larger, more meaningful units for storage. The larger our chunks the more information we can store Phonological buffer - briefly stores information in an acoustic code Visual-spatial sketchpad - briefly stores information in a visual or spatial code Long-term memory  Definition: the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system Size: unknown Time Stored: unknown Rehearsal - repeated recitation of an item. The effects of such rehearsals are termed practice effects distributed practice- sessions spaced over time massed practice- sessions crammed together Elaboration - connection of the item to other items in a meaningful way Serial Position Effect - our tendency to recall best the last and first items on a list Imagery - is mental pictures, which a powerful aid to effortful processing Mnemonic devices - are specific techniques to help add meaning to otherwise arbitrary lists of items *categorical clustering: memorize items by categories *pegword system: one is a bun, two is a shoe, three is a tree *method of loci: mentally linking items to landmarks *acronym: ROY G. BIV, HOMES Forgetting  Definition: the inability to remember information that was once known Failures at encoding  Explanation: can happen when in a distracting area that limits your focus. It is when information is not properly stored in memory, making it hard to recall later Failures at storage (Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve) Explanation: when your brain decays, receives damage. It is when information is not effectively maintained in memory over time, leading to forgetting or loss of details. Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve is the percentage of list retained when relearning. Found people forget 80% of their lives and only remember about 20%. Failures at retrieval  Explanation: when you can’t access information stored in your memory, even though it’s still there Interference Definition: when new or old information disrupts the ability to remember other information Repression  Definition: a defense mechanism where the mind unconsciously pushes away painful or unwanted thoughts, memories, or feelings to avoid distress Misinformation Effect (Elizabeth Loftus)  Explanation: occurs when people’s memories become altered by misleading information presented after an event *Elizabeth Loftus – in her experiment, she showed participants a video of a car accident, then later introduced misleading questions, such as changing the word “hit” to “smashed”, which influenced their memory of the event’s details like speed and damage “The Memory Wars”  Explanation: was a debate between psychologists about whether people can truly recover forgotten memories of trauma or if these memories might be false and influenced by suggestion -False memory researchers vs. Freudian therapists using hypnosis or like techniques -Holly Ramona vs. Gary Ramona – a legal case where Holly claimed to have recovered repressed memories of being abused, while Gary argued that these memories were false and influenced by therapy Thinking & Language Cognition (Thinking) Conscious thought  Definition: the awareness of your own thoughts and mental processes, and the ability to control them Propositional thought Definition: what we “hear” in our mind as we mentally talk to ourselves Imaginal thought Definition: images, usually visual, that we “see” in our mind Concepts Explanation: is a mental grouping of an entire class of similar, objects, events, ideas, or people/ They form the basis of broad generalization Categorization Definition: is the process by which we assign some object to a concept Generalization  Definition: the tendency to respond similarly to different but similar stimuli Concrete concepts Definition: physical or tangible Ex: banana or shoe Abstract concepts Definition: not physical or tangible Ex: truth or love Why do we have them?  Explanation: to organize and simplify our understanding of the world (speed up our cognition), making it easier to communicate, learn, and navigate our experiences Cognitive economy (speedy cognition)  Explanation: the brain’s way of saving effort by using categories to process information quickly (think and operate fast) Inferences Explanation: if we know something about the members of a category, once we categorize something, we can make predictions about it and start holding expectations about it. It’s the process of reaching a conclusion based on reasoning and evidence Communication Explanation: to the degree that we share concepts with others, we can communicate complex ideas via single words (or short phrases). E.g., cold, geek, or evil Confirmation Bias  Explanation: people have a tendency to remember evidence that supports their beliefs and ignore evidence that refutes their beliefs. All data must be included to avoid bias Self-fulfilling Prophecy  Explanation: When an initially inaccurate expectation leads to actions that cause the expectation to come true Prototypes Definition: properties that describe the single best example of a concept Exemplars Definition: stored memories of a number of examples of a concept Heuristics  Definition: are simple thinking strategies or short-cut procedures that are easy to apply and often yield correct judgments, but not always Representativeness heuristic Definition: judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes. May lead one to ignore other relevant information Availability heuristic  Definition: a mental shortcut – estimating the likelihood of an event by the ease with which instances of that event come to mind Framing Definition: a cognitive bias where an issue is posed/framed in a way that can significantly affect (influence) people’s decisions and judgments Language Linguistic determinism (Whorfian Hypothesis) Definition: language determines the way we think How language influences thinking  Explanation: it shapes how we perceive and understand the world which affects the way we form ideas and express concepts Newspeak (from Orwell’s 1984)  Explanation: George Orwell’s fictional language in his novel Nineteen Eighty-Four. Reduced language by utilizing only one word to express oneself which limited thought/emotion-based experience Doublespeak  Explanation: language deliberately constructed to disguise or distort its actual meaning. Often employed by governmental, military, and corporate institutions Language development  Definition: the process by which individuals learn and acquire language skills from infancy through adulthood Language capacities of children Explanation: refers to their ability to understand, learn, and use language as they grow and develop Month (approximate)/Stage 4 – babbles many speech sounds 10 – babbling reveals household’s language 12 – one-word stage 24 – two-word, telegraphic speech 24+ - language develops rapidly into complete sentences Noam Chomsky’s Inborn Universal Grammar Explanation: is the idea that all humans are born with a natural ability to learn language Personality Personality defined  Definition: an individual’s characteristic and relatively consistent pattern of thinking, feeling, and behaving Personality psychology  Definition: the study of how people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are unique and influence how they respond to different situations Purpose of: to understand individual differences/develop integrative understanding of humans Basic perspectives of personality psychology  Perspectives - psychoanalytic - behaviorism - humanistic - social cognitive (behaviors & social learning) - biological/evolutionary & behavior genetics - traits Psychoanalytic (Freud)  Explanation: a therapeutic approach that explores the unconscious mind’s influence on thoughts and behaviors, often rooted in early childhood experiences Humanistic perspective  Explanation: an approach that focuses on the whole person, their potential, and their ability to make choices Abraham Maslow  Who: studied self-actualization processes of productive and healthy people Hierarchy of Human Needs Explanation: a five-level pyramid that ranks human needs from basic physiological requirements to self- actualization. Begins at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied, then higher-level safety needs become active, and then psychological needs become active Self-Actualizing person  Explanation: someone who realizes their full potential and seeks personal growth and fulfillment Carl Rogers  Who: was an influential American psychologist and the founder of client-centered therapy, emphasizing empathy and unconditional positive regard in the therapeutic relationship Client-centered therapy/Person- centered theory  Explanation: a therapeutic approach focused on understanding a person’s experience from their own perspective and promoting an environment of unconditional positive regard, empathy, and genuineness to make personal growth and self-discovery easier Unconditional positive regard  Definition: an attitude of total acceptance toward another person Self-Concept Explanation: all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in an answer to the question, “Who am I?” Fully Functioning Person  Explanation: psychologically healthy, flexible/constantly evolving self-concept, realistic, open to new experiences, congruence between emotions (self-concept) and experiences Pros and Cons of Humanistic perspective Pros: -very influential in the fields of education, counseling, childrearing, and management Cons: -difficult to test or validate scientifically -tends to be too optimistic, minimizing some of the more destructive aspects of human nature The Great Rogers-Skinner Debates (1956 & 1962)  Explanation: the purpose was to explore and clarify their differing views on psychology to enhance understanding and effectiveness in therapy Arguments of the debaters: Rogers believed in the importance of emotions and personal experiences, while Skinner focused on behavior and environmental effects Purpose of debates: aimed to compare their ideas to improve how people are helped in therapy Social-Cognitive perspective Explanation: views behavior as influenced by the interaction between persons and their social context Albert Bandura  Who: a psychologist known for his work on social learning theory and the concept of self- efficacy Observational Learning Definition: the process of learning by watching and imitating others’ behaviors “Bobo Doll Study”  Explanation: was an experiment by Albert Bandura that showed how children learn aggression by watching adults; children who saw an adult act aggressively toward the Bobo doll were more likely to imitate the behavior Reciprocal Determinism  Definition: the interacting influences between personality and environmental factors Cognitive Factors Definition: mental processes that shape perceptions and interpretations Ex: liking high-risk activities Environmental Factors Definition: external influences that impact behavior and development Ex: bungee-jumping friends Behavioral Factors Definition: observable actions resulting from cognitive and environmental interactions Ex: learning to bungee-jump Self-esteem Definition: one’s feelings of high or low self-worth Self-efficiency Definition: belief that people have about their ability to meet the demands of a specific situation Julian Rotter  Who: defined personality through his concept of locus on control, which refers to the degree to which individuals believe they have control over the outcomes of their lives Locus of Control (interval vs. external) Internal – the perception that one controls one’s own fate External - the perception that chance or outside forces beyond one’s personal control determine one’s fate Learned helplessness Explanation: the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events Pros and Cons of the Social- Cognitive Perspective Pros: -well grounded in empirical, laboratory research Cons: -laboratory experiences are rather simple and may not reflect the complexity of human interactions -ignores the influences of unconscious, emotions, conflicts Trait perspective Definition: defines personality as a set of stable characteristics that influence consistent patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors in individuals Traits (what are they)  Definition: a characteristic pattern of behavior/a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports Gordon Allport (lexical approach - 18,000 different traits)  Explanation: personality traits can be measured like a normal distribution, where most people have average traits and fewer people have very high or very low traits Raymond Cattell  Who: used factor analysis to come up with 16 basic personality traits also called source traits, 16-PF test that was developed to measure these traits, generally considered as too many traits 16-PF measure  Explanation: is a personality assessment tool created by Raymond Cattel that evaluates 16 different personality traits Hans Eysenck Who: a psychologist known for his theory of personality that categorizes traits into dimensions Eysenck’s model (2 factors)  Explanation: a personality model consisting of two main dimensions: extraversion and introversion that aims to categorize and measure personality traits to help understand individual differences in behavior and predict how people may respond in various situations Extraversion  Definition: a personality trait characterized by sociability, assertiveness, and a tendency to seek stimulation in the company of others Neuroticism (emotional stability)  Definition: a trait reflecting emotional instability, anxiety, and moodiness, with lower levels indicating greater emotional stability Later added a 3 factor rd (psychoticism) Definition: represents a tendency toward impulsivity, aggression, and a lack of empathy MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory)  Explanation: the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests, originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), now used for many other screen purposes Empirically driven (keyed) measure Explanation: a test developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups, such as the MMPI Five-Factor Theory of Personality (or the Big 5) -- Costa & Mccrae Explanation: used factor analysis to come up with 5 basic personality traits -Developed “The Big Five Factor Model of Personality” -“O-C-E-A-N” -One of the most widely used (non- clinical) personality tests Openness to Experience  -Imaginative versus practical - Preference for variety versus preference for routine -Independent versus conforming Conscientiousness -Organized versus disorganized -Careful versus careless -Disciplined versus impulsive Extraversion  -Sociable versus retiring -Fun-loving versus sober -Affectionate versus reserved Agreeableness -Soft-hearted versus ruthless -Trusting versus suspicious -Helpful versus uncooperative Neuroticism  -Calm versus anxious -Secure versus insecure -Self-satisfied versus self-pitying Pros and Cons of trait theory Pros: -the Big 5 offers a clean way of measuring people that predicts some meaningful life outcomes Cons: -reduces people too much to their traits (as opposed to something deeper, like their life histories) and are too over-simplistic to be meaningful -criticism that the predictions produced by the Big 5 aren’t very strong, and are thus not worth considering, especially in the face Social Psychology Social Psychology defined Definition: the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another Major social forces  -Nationalities -Ethnicities -Genders -Religions -Political Affiliations -Education levels -Sexual Orientations -Etc. Social Proof (or social validation or social comparison)  Explanation: we determine the correctness of situational behavior by observing what other people are doing in that situation Consistency to a commitment Explanation: people are driven to be consistent in words and deeds Rule of Reciprocation Explanation: people feel the need to repay in kind what another person has provided us  Social Facilitation (Robert Zajonc, 1965)  Explanation: theory where people improve their performance of tasks in the presence of others First experiment in social psychology (Norman Triplett, 1898)  Explanation: University of Indiana, cyclists raced faster when competing against other people, rather than a clock When does it occur? Explanation: occurs with simple or well-learned tasks but not with tasks that are difficult or not yet mastered Home team advantage  Explanation: social facilitation plays an important role in the advantage, for example, a friendly crowd gives a boost to the team Social loafing Explanation: tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts towards attaining a common goal than when individually accountable Deindividuation  Definition: loss of self-awareness and self-restraint in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity Kurt Lewin – interactionist approach  Who: father of modern social psychology Behavior = function of both (person, environment) Attribution theory (Fritz Heider, 1958) Explanation: tendency to give a causal explanation for someone’s behavior, often by crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition Fundamental Attribution Error (Ned Jones, Lee Ross) Explanation: tendency for observers, when analyzing another’s behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition -Based on research by Duke University’s Edward E. “Ned” Jones and Victor Harris (1967) -Term “Fundamental Attribution Error” coined by Sandford's Lee Ross (1977) Attitudes Definition: belief and feeling that predisposes one to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events Formation Internal attitudes -> Behavior