Theories of Lying, Polygraph Examination

Module 1 Unit I THEORIES OF LYING Introduction Polygraph Examination is generally used an investigative aid/technical aid in the investigative process. It is used to verify if the statement of...

Module 1 Unit I THEORIES OF LYING Introduction Polygraph Examination is generally used an investigative aid/technical aid in the investigative process. It is used to verify if the statement of the victims/complainant, establish the credibility witnesses, evaluate the truthfulness of the suspects. It is also used for pre-employment screening and loyalty check of personnel, security risk such as leakage of information and counter-intelligence, infraction of criminal law, misconduct and used in medical measurements. In law enforcement, polygraph examination is significant because it is considered as one among the most effective way of establishing the truth. Through it, guilt can be established and is scientifically accepted where the investigator can evaluate the evidence. Theory of Lie Detection It must be recognized that there is no such instrument that could detect lies. The popular name lie detector, given to a polygraph, is somewhat misleading. No collection of inanimate objects including the very finest and complicated modern computers, can detect deception on the part of any human being. This so called lie detector simply certain physiological activities of the body. These physiological activities are constantly in operation as long as the person is alive. You should be aware that the most common lie detection instrument records the breathing pattern of inspiration and expiration, a continuous pattern of relative blood pressure and pulse rate, and a pattern of electro-dermal responses. It is well known that the body adapts itself as efficiently as possible to its environment. If the environment changes, the body will rapidly adjust itself to any changes. This is done by a complicated system of internal checks and balance primarily involving the automatic nervous system. This ability to adjust is necessary if the organism or body is to survive in a constantly changing word. Those organisms that cannot adjust rapidly die out. Theory of the Lying Person The polygraph technique uses the principle that the bodily functions of a person are influenced by his mental state. The physiological changes accompanying deception are capable of being recorded, measured and interpreted with reasonable certainty. Telling a lie is usually an emotional experience. A conscious act of lying causes the mind of a person, which produces an emotion of fear or anxiety, manifested by fluctuations in pulse rate, blood pressure, breathing and perspiration. The physiologic fluctuations that come with the emotion are in nature automatic, self-regulating and beyond conscious control because they affect the functioning of the internal structures that prepare the body for emergency.  The underlying psychology here includes: 1. The lying person fears detection, causing physiological changes to take place in his body. 2. Fear of detection must be experienced by the subject; otherwise no physiological changes will occur. 3. A person tunes in that which indicates trouble or danger by having his sense organs and attention for a particular stimulus, and he tunes out that which is of a lesser threat to his self- preservation or general well-being. 4. In a series of questions during the polygraph test containing relevant and control questions, the lying subjects will tune in on the most intense relevant questions and tune out the control question and may not be materially affected by other weak relevant questions. 5. The truthful subject will direct his attention to the control question wherein he consciously knows he is deceptive and tune out the relevant ones. Automatic Nervous System in the Polygraph Examination In the conduct of polygraph examination, it is based on the idea that a conscious mental effort of a mentally normal person lie causes physiological changes within his body. The physiological changes could be recorded by the Polygraph Instrument and diagnosed or evaluate by the polygraph examiner. The physiological effectors in polygraph examination are the Automatic Nervous System. It is the one responsible for regulating mechanism that corrects the slightest deviation from a particular standard within very fine limits. Sleeps, oxygenation of the blood, levels of potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium and all the essential chemical substances that maintain the activity of all cell membranes are finely adjusted. This is found at the center of the brain and its central controls is in the hypothalamus – a group of nerve cells of the brain that reflexes those that we cannot control consciously such as our heart beat, pulse rate, increase and decrease in blood pressure and the expansion and constriction of arteries are governed by the automatic nervous system. When one of our senses detects a threat to our well-being, it sends a signal to the automatic nervous system, which activates its sympathetic division regardless whether threat is physical or psychological. In polygraph testing, the receptor is the ear of the subject, which receives the threatening question or stimulus from the polygraphist. The stimulus is transmitted from the ears via sensory neurons into the brain where the hypothalamus analyses, evaluates and resolves that particular question. It makes a decision for the subject as to whether it is threatening situation. If affirmative, the hypothalamus immediately activates the sympathetic subdivision of the automatic nervous system. When the sympathetic system is activated, it immediately prepares the body for the fight or flight by the situation by causing the adrenal glands to secret hormones known as epinephrine and norepinephrine, so that the blood where it is most needed to meet the emergency, such as the brain and the larger muscle group. The chemical norepinephrine causes the arterioles in certain parts of the body to constrict. Thereby preventing blood from entering those areas where it is not immediately needed.  Other obvious effect took place when the sympathetic system is activated, the heart pumps blood harder and faster, increasing blood pressure, pulse rate, and strength, thus furnishing more oxygenated blood to those areas of the body where it is vitally needed to meet the emergency, such as the brain when increased mental activity is demanded. The second division of the automatic nervous system is the parasympathetic nervous system. It is functionally antagonistic to the sympathetic nervous system. Its role is to maintain the homeostasis of the body necessary for normal functioning. Therefore, it follows to re-establish the chemical balance of the body. Objective of Conducting Polygraph Examination The objective of polygraph examination is to obtain the subject’s admission or confession to the offense committed. Admission is a statement of fact by the accused, which do not directly involve acknowledgement of guilt in committing or having participated in the commission of an offense while Confession is a declaration made by a person voluntarily, stating or acknowledging that has committed or participated in the commission of a crime. Tripod Foundation of Polygraph Technique 1. The Mechanical Basic Premise – the polygraph machine is mechanically capable of making graphical records containing reliable information regarding physiological changes. 2. The Physiological Basic Premise – among the physiological changes that may be recorded and identified are those that automatically occur only following the stimulation of specific nervous system component and from which stimulation of those specific nervous system component can be reliably diagnosed. 3. The Psychological Basic Premise – under the polygraph leg premise, the specific nervous system component whose stimulation can thus be diagnosed are so stimulated by the involuntary mental and emotional processes of the individual who is consciously attempting concealment of deception specially if that individual has something at stake and the prevailing circumstances lead him to believe that exposure to detection is quite possible though undesirable. Physiological Phenomena as Basis of Detecting Deception as per the Tripod Foundations 1. Blood Pressure and Heart Beat Frequency. Increase of blood pressure and heartbeat frequency following relevant questions and the suppression in breathing are the criteria for detecting deception. Ink curves as shown on the heartbeat recorded on a moving graph paper of a polygraph represent the beat frequency and the two pressures – a. Systolic or high pressure – they exist when the heart is contracted and the values are open with the blood rushing into the arteries, b. Diastolic or low pressure – this exists when the values are closed and the heart relaxed. The heart is an automatic organ that continues to beat even when removed from the body that provided with proper blood. The rate and force of the heart beat as regulated by  two sets of nerves – a. the sympathetic sets – which accelerate the beat and b. the cranial automatic system – which retard the beat. It is also known as adrenaline – a certain hormone that increases the heartbeat frequency. 2. Breathing as a means of detecting deception. Breathing consists of two steps: Inspiration – caused by the contraction of the diaphragm and expansion of the chest cavity that result in the air rushing into the lungs. Expiration – caused by relaxation of the diaphragm and contraction of the chest cavity resulting in the air rushing out of the lungs. The following affects the breathing rates: 1. Muscular exercise 2. Anticipation of muscular exercise 3. Recalling mentally emotional experience 4. Mental activity 5. Anxious expectancy 6. Shock 7. Surprise 3. Electrodermal Response. This is the most current popular name for the human body phenomenon in which the body, mainly the skin, changes resistance electrically upon the application of certain external stimuli. It consists of two categories – normal response and abnormal response. Example of abnormal response 1. Machine Fright Response – interference abnormal response that originates in step 2 of the reaction chain or situational fright. It appears on the first question or so and no longer appears throughout the test. 2. Physical Movement Response – interfering response caused by voluntary physical movement by the subject during the lei test and is found between steps 4 and 5 of the reaction chain. The result of such physical movement causes physiological changes to take place within the body that shows up electro dermal response. 3. Outside Interference Response – interfering response originating in step 1 of the reaction chain in the form of unwanted auditory or stimuli. The slamming of the door or the ringing of telephone, a cough or sneeze by spectators in the room or any unusual noise to which the subject is not accustomed at the location, will usually produce outside interference response. 4. Mental Tie-up Response – interfering response which originates between step 2 and step 3 in the reaction chain. 5. Deception Response – abnormalities as a result of telling a lie.  Unit II LYING/LIE Introduction Lying has an unquestionable value in human culture, for the ability to deceive one’s peers has evolved into one of the most advanced and powerful of our cerebral functions. It is the power that helps us succeed in love, war and commerce. Lie is any of the following: untruthful statement, falsehood, anything that deceives or creates false impression, untrue statements especially with intent to deceive or to give an erroneous or misleading impression. It is also synonymous to deceit, deception, fabrication, falsehood and untruth. There are many reasons why people lie. But commonly, it is due to fear of detection that one has committed something undesirable or would like to preserve something valuable. For instance, he may feel that detection would result to embarrassment, penalty and punishment, thus, placing his whole life at stake. A person’s fear, anxieties and apprehensions are channeled toward the situation which reminds his instinct of self – preservation to struggle out from the consequences of the wrong he had already done. Types of Liars 1. Panic Liar – a person who lies in order to avoid the consequences, they are afraid of embarrassment to loved ones and it is a serious blow to their ego. They believe that confession will just make the matter worst. 2. Occupational Liar – is someone who has lied for years. These are practical liars and lies when it has a higher payoff than telling the truth. 3. Tournament Liar – a person who loves to lie and is excited by the challenge of not being detected. He views an interview as another contest and wants to win. He lies because it is the only weapon remaining with which to fight. This person realizes that he will probably be convicted but will not give anyone the satisfaction of hearing him confess. He wants people to believe that the law is punishing an innocent person. 4. Ethnological Liar – a person who was trained not to be a squealer. This person loves to be interrogated and has taken a creed either personal or with others, that he will never reveal the truth. 5. Psychopathic Liar – this type of liar has no conscience. He shows no regret for his dishonest actions and no manifestation of guilt. This is the most difficult type of liar because he is a good actor he can fool most investigators. 6. Pathological Liar – a person who cannot distinguish what is right from wrong. These are those people who are mentally sick. 7. Black Liar – a person who always pretends what he is and what he thinks of himself. General Types of Lies 1. Benign or White Lie – these are kind of lies used to protect or maintain the harmony of friendship, harmony of the home or office. 2. Red Lie – this lie is common to communist countries, this involves political interests and motives because this is a part of communist propaganda strategy. 3. Malicious or Judicial Lie – this is very pure and unjustifiable kind of lie that is intended purely to mislead or obstruct justice. Other Types of Lies 1. Direct Denial – this is a direct denial of the act in question that creates an emotional sense of disturbance. This disturbance refers to the conflict between what is true and the attempted deception that creates an internal battle in the mind. 2. Lie of Omission – this is a type of lie by omitting an important fact, deliberately leaving another person with a misconception. Individuals who will make use of this type of lie will tell the truth while omitting details that could create possible troubles. 3. Lie of Fabrication – a lie told when someone submits a statement as truth, without knowing for certain whether or not it actually is true. Rather, it is something made up, or it is a misrepresentation of the truth. 4. Lie of Minimization – in this type of lie individual will accept that something has occurred but downplays the implication. Lie of minimization could be used if a subject wanted to stay close to the truth; however, he covers the truth for his own benefit. 5. Lie of Exaggeration – this is a lie often used to exaggerate things for the hope of obtaining some advantage. This is also often found on resume, where applicant exaggerates his experiences, knowledge, skills, salary and length of service. The exaggerated claims can be verified by looking for inconsistencies of the subject story. 6. Bold-faced Lie – is one which is told when it is obvious to all concerned that it is a lie. 7. Lie to Children – often a platitude which may use euphemism, which is told to make an adult subject acceptable to children. 8. Noble Lie – one which would normally cause discord if it were uncovered, but which offers some benefit to the liar and assists in an orderly society, therefore potentially beneficial to others. It is often told to maintain law, order and safety. 9. Emergency Lie – is a strategic lie when the truth may not be told because it may harm a third party. Alternately, an emergency lie could denote a lie told to a second person because of the presence of the third. 10. Perjury – the act of lying or making verifiably false statements on a material matter under oath or affirmation in a court of law, or in any of various sworn statements in writing. 11. Jocose Lies – are those which are meant in jest, and are usually understood as such by all present parties. 12. Contextual Lies – one can state part of the truth out of context, knowing that without complete information, it gives a false impression. Likewise, one can actually state accurate facts, yet deceive with them. 13. Promotion Lies – advertisements often contain statements, which are incredible, such as we are always happy to give a refund, or exaggerated predictions such as you will love our new product.